Part 13

The various species of papyrus plants belong to the natural order "Cyperaceae," or sedges, of botanists; a main characteristic of which is a certain triangularity of stem. The method of constructing a writing surface from these stems was as follows:--The available portion being cut off (it was seldom more than twelve inches in length), and split, or, more properly speaking, unfolded into thin sheets, which were glued together transversely in such a manner that the original length of the papyrus stem became the breadth of the future sheet; the length of which might be increased at the pleasure of the operator. Frequently the manufactured scrolls were more than thirty feet long. As different methods prevail in the manufacture of our ordinary paper, so in like manner there were different processes of fashioning the papyrus into shape. The rudest manufacture appears to have been that of Egypt, and the best papyrus sheets appear to have been made in Rome during the Augustine AEra. The preceding sketch represents a papyrus roll, copied from a specimen in the Egyptian Room of the British Museum.

Considering the numerous pieces entering into the composition of the roll, of which our illustration represents a portion, the lines of juncture are remarkably well concealed, only a sort of grain being visible. The surface, moreover, is smoothed, and its colour very much like that of India paper. The hieroglyphics are coloured as is usual, red is the predominant tint, and the colours are no less well demarcated and separate than they would have been on glazed paper.

Our preceding wood-cuts represent the Sicilian or Syrian papyrus, hitherto termed _cyperus papyrus_, in two states of development--one with flowers, the other without. In order that inflorescence may take place, the plant requires to be well supplied with water.

EXECUTION IN 1733.

_Friday, March 9_--Was executed at Northampton, William Alcock, for the murder of his wife. He never own'd the fact, nor was at all concerned at his approaching death; refusing the prayers and assistance of any persons. In the morning he drank more than was sufficient, yet sent and paid for a pint of wine, which being deny'd him, he would not enter the cart before he had his money return'd. On his way to the gallows he sung part of an old song of "Robin Hood," with the chorus, "Derry, derry, down," &c., and swore, kick'd, and spurn'd at every person that laid hold of the cart; and before he was turn'd off, took off his shoes, to avoid a well known proverb; and being told by a person in the cart with him, it was more proper for him to read, or hear somebody read to him, than so vilely to swear and sing, he struck the book out of the person's hands, and went on damning the spectators and calling for wine. Whilst psalms and prayers were performing at the tree he did little but talk to one or other, desiring some to remember him, others to drink to his good journey, and to the last moment declared the injustice of his case.

DOG FRIENDSHIP.

At Bishops Stortford there were two dogs, which belonged to nobody, and lived upon the quay of the river or canal there. They took the greatest delight in rat hunting, and when the maltsters went about at night to see that all was safe, these dogs invariably followed them. Their mode of proceeding was very ingenious. As soon as the door of the malt-house was unlocked, one rushed in and coursed round the warehouse, not chasing any rat which might start, but pursuing its way among the malt. The other stood at the door and snapped at the rats as they endeavoured to escape. The one standing at the door was known to kill six rats, all of which had rushed to the door at the same time. The next room they came to, they would change posts; the one which hunted before, now standing at the door and seizing the prey. By this means the dogs killed in the malting-houses of one maltster alone, upwards of 2,000 rats in the course of one year. One of them on one occasion killed sixty-seven in less than five minutes. They seemed to pursue the sport simply for their amusement.

ALL HUMBUGS.

Just as a strolling actor at Newcastle had advertised his benefit, a remarkable stranger, no less than the _Prince Annamaboo_, arrived, and placarded the town that he granted audiences at a shilling a-head. The stroller, without delay, waited on the proprietor of the _Prince_, and for a good round sum prevailed on him to command his Serene Highness to exhibit his august person on his benefit night. The bills of the day announced that between the acts of the comedy _Prince Annamaboo_ would give a lively representation of the _scalping operation_, sound the _Indian war-whoop_ in all its melodious tones, practice the tomahawk exercise, and dine _a la cannibal_. An intelligent mob were collected to witness these interesting exploits. At the conclusion of the third act, his _Highness_ marched forward flourishing his tomahawk, and shouting, "_Ha, ha!--ho, ho!_" Next entered a man with his face blacked, and a piece of bladder fastened to his head with gum; the _Prince_, with an enormous carving-knife, began the scalping part of the entertainment, which he performed in a truly _imperial_ style, holding up the piece of bladder as a token of triumph. Next came the war-whoop, an unearthly combination of discordant sounds; and lastly, the banquet, consisting of raw beef-steaks, which he rolled up into rouleaus, and devoured with right royal avidity. Having finished his delicate repast, he wielded his tomahawk in an exulting manner, bellowed "_Ha, ha!--ho, ho!_" and made his exit. The _beneficiaire_ strolling through the market-place the following-day, spied the most puissant _Prince Annamaboo_ selling penknives, scissors, and quills, in the character of a Jew pedlar. "What!" said the astonished _Lord Townley_, "my _Prince_, is it you? Are you not a pretty circumcised little scoundrel to impose upon us in this manner?" Moses turned round, and with an arch look, replied, "_Princh_ be d--d! I _vash_ no Princh; I _vash_ acting like you. Your troop _vash_ Lords and Ladies last night; and to-night dey vil be Kings, _Prinches_, and Emperor! I _vash humpugs_, you _vash humpugs_, all _vash humpugs_!"

REDUCING WEIGHT.

A gentleman, of great respectability in the mercantile world, who weighed thirty-two stone nine pounds, put himself upon a strict diet of _four ounces of animal food_, _six ounces_ of bread, and _two pounds of liquid_, in twenty-four hours. In one week he lost thirty pounds weight, and in six months he was diminished the astonishing quantity of one hundred and thirty-four pounds. His health and spirits were much improved, and considering his remaining size of twenty-three stone, he was very active.

ANECDOTE OF A SERPENT.

Lord Monboddo relates the following singular anecdote of a serpent:--"I am well informed of a tame serpent in the East Indies, which belonged to the late Dr. Vigot, once kept by him in the suburbs of Madras. This serpent was taken by the French, when they invested Madras, and was carried to Pondicherry in a close carriage. But from thence, he found his way back again to his old quarters, though Madras was above one hundred miles distant from Pondicherry."

ENGLAND BEFORE THE ROMANS.

Before the Roman invasion, the dress of its chieftains consisted of a close coat or covering for the body, called by Dio a tunic, and described as checkered with various colours in divisions. It was open before, and had long close sleeves to the wrist. Below were loose pantaloons, called by the Irish _brigis_, and by the Romans _brages_ and _bracae_; whence the modern term "breeches." Over their shoulders was thrown the mantle or cloak, called by the Romans _sagum_, and derived from the Celtic word _saic_, which signified a skin or hide, and which was the original cloak of the country. Diodorus tells us that it was of one uniform colour, generally either blue or black, the predominating tint in the checkered trousers and tunic being red. On their heads they wore a conical cap, which derived its name from the "cab," or hut of the Briton, which was of similar form. On their feet were shoes made of raw cow-hide, that had the hair turned outward, and which reached to the ankles. Shoes so constructed were worn within the last few years in Ireland; and we engrave two from specimens in the Royal Irish Academy. One is of cow-hide, and drawn together by a string over the foot; and the other has a leather thong, which is fastened beneath the heel inside, and, passing over the instep, draws the shoe like a purse over the foot. It is of untanned leather.

ROMANS IN BRITAIN--DRESS OF NATIVE FEMALES AT THAT PERIOD.

The British _gwn_, from whence comes the modern "gown," descended to the middle of the thigh, the sleeves barely reaching to the elbows: it was sometimes confined by a girdle. Beneath this a longer dress reached to the ancles. The hair was trimmed after the Roman fashion; and upon the feet, when covered, were sometimes worn shoes of a costly character, of which we know the Romans themselves to have been fond. An extremely beautiful pair was discovered upon opening a Roman burial-place at Southfleet in Kent, in 1802. They were placed in a stone sarcophagus, between two large glass urns or vases, each containing a considerable quantity of burnt bones. They were of superb and expensive workmanship, being made of fine purple leather, reticulated in the form of hexagons all over, and each hexagonal division worked with gold, in an elaborate and beautiful manner.

Amid the ruins of stately temples, and numerous remains of the "Eternal City," there are no objects which have such great and general interest as the subterranean churches, dwellings, and places of sepulchre of the early Christians, which perforate, by a network of excavations, the neighbourhood of Rome.

The great increase in the extent and magnificence of Rome during the times of the Republic, led to the formation of quarries in the surrounding parts. The peculiar nature of the soil has caused the excavations to be made in a manner similar to that used in the working of coal, iron, stone, lime, &c. The useful material has, in fact, been cleared away, leaving long ranges of dark caves and passages. After the stone had been removed from these underground quarries, it was, for many centuries, customary to work out the sand for the purpose of making cement. Vitruvius has stated that the sand obtained from the Esquiline pits was preferable to any other. Ultimately the quarries and sandpits extended to a distance of upwards of fifteen miles on one side of Rome. Parts of this large range of excavations were from time to time used as burial-grounds by such of the Romans as could not afford the cost of burning the bodies of their dead relations. And, in addition, the Esquiline hills became infested by banditti, and was from these various causes rendered almost impassable.

In these excavations, it is said, that not only persons, but cattle, contrived to support existence; and although it was well known that large numbers were lodged in these dismal dwellings, their intricacy and numberless entrances rendered them a comparatively secure retreat. It is related that attempts were made to cover the galleries with earth, in order to destroy those who were concealed within.

In course of time the catacombs became, with the exception of one or two, neglected and filled up with rubbish, and remained for a period of upwards of one thousand years untouched and almost unknown. In the sixteenth century the whole range of the catacombs were reopened, and numerous inscriptions and other matters connected with the struggles and hardships of the early Christians brought to light. The annexed brief memorial will show the general style of the lettering.

OBSOLETE MODES OF PUNISHMENT.

Ante page 60, we gave representations of some ancient instruments of punishment and torture, all more or less terrible in their character, the use of which, for many a long year, has been happily abandoned. As a companion to this group, we have engraved a few of the instruments of punishment by which criminals of a vulgar character were sought to be reformed. The first of these is the felon's brand, the mark of which rendered a man infamous for life. Figure 1, p. 90 represents the instrument itself. Figure 2, the mark branded in, which latter has been engraved the exact size. The device, which is deeply cut into the metal, is a gallows, such as was used before the invention of the Drop and the Wheel for Execution and torture.

The Stocks and Whipping-post, although long since removed from London Bridge, may be met with in retired country places. We have noticed some characteristic examples in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, where some of the may-poles, day-wheels, and other curious relics, may still be seen.[2] In some instances the Stocks and Whipping-posts were richly carved, and clamped with iron work of an ornamental character. We remember seeing the stocks used within the last thirty years, once at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and once at Gateshead, the adjoining town. The culprit in the one instance was an elector, who, in the excess of zeal and beer, during an old-fashioned contested election, rushed into one of the churches during the Sunday's service, and shouted out, "Bell (one of the candidates) for ever." He was speedily taken hold of, and placed for several hours in the stocks in the churchyard; and, as the stimulating effect of the strong drink passed away, he looked a deplorable object, decked as he was with numerous cockades, the "favours" of the candidate, whose cause he so indiscreetly supported.

[2] A good specimen was demolished at Tottenham not long ago.

The punishment of the barrel we should think to have been adapted for drunkards who could preserve a perpendicular position.

In the histories of London, it is mentioned that bakers and other dealers caught giving false weight, or in any other ways cheating the poor, were exhibited occasionally in this manner; but more frequently they were placed in the parish dung-cart, and slowly drawn through the streets of the district.

The Whirligig, a circular cage which could be moved swiftly round on a pivot, was, in bygone days, in use for offenders in the English army. There was another instrument used for the same purpose called the Horse, which was made in rude resemblance of the animal whose name it bore. The body was composed of planks of wood, which formed a sharp angle along the back. On this the soldier was seated, and his legs fastened below to several heavy muskets. This is said to have been a very severe and dangerous punishment. In addition to the above, and flogging, imprisonment, &c., there were three ancient methods of punishment in the English army--viz., beheading, hanging, and drowning. The latter of these, according to Grose, was in use only in the reign of Richard I. This author observes that, some centuries ago, capital punishment was rare in our army, the men having generally property, which was confiscated in case of ill conduct. He, however, refers to some terrible means which were resorted to for the purpose of preserving discipline. Hanging was chiefly confined to spies; who were taken to a tree in sight of the camp, and yet sufficiently distant, and there hung up. In many instances, when a corps or a considerable body of men were guilty of crime, for which the established punishment was death, to prevent too great a weakening of the army, the delinquents, Grose says, "were decimated, that is, only every tenth man was taken. A number of billets, equal to that of the body to be decimated, were put into a helmet, every tenth billet being marked with the letter D, or some other character signifying death; the helmet was then shaken, in order to mix them, and the soldiers, filing off singly from the right, passed by the commanding officers, before whom, on a table, stood the helmet; as they passed, each drew a billet and presented it to an officer placed to receive them. If the billet had the fatal mark; the soldier was seized and marched into the rear."

This wholesale method of capital punishment must have been a solemn affair. At times, it was customary to punish the man at the right hand of companies; without giving them the chance of the billet--on the principal that these were the most influential persons, and must, from their companionship with the others, have been acquainted with and have possessed the means of checking or giving information, which would prevent dangerous offences.

The regulations of the English army during the time of Henry VIII., and previous reigns, may be met with in "Grose's Military Antiquities."

ORIGIN OF THE TERM "HUMBUG."

This, now, common expression, is a corruption of the word Hamburgh, and originated in the following manner:--During a period when war prevailed on the Continent, so many false reports and lying bulletins were fabricated at Hamburgh, that at length, when any one would signify his disbelief of a statement, he would say, "You had that from Hamburgh;" and thus, "That is Hamburgh," or Humbug, became a common expression of incredulity.

MARRIAGE LOTTERY.

It has often been said figuratively that marriage is a lottery; but we do not recollect to have met with a practical illustration of the truth of the simile, before the following, which is a free translation of an advertisement in the Louisiana Gazette:--"A young man of good figure and disposition, unable, though desirous to procure a wife, without the preliminary trouble of amassing a fortune, proposes the following expedient to attain the object of his wishes. He offers himself as the prize of a lottery to all widows and virgins under 32. The number of tickets to be 600, at 50 dollars each. But one number to be drawn from the wheel, the fortunate proprietor of which is to be entitled to himself and the 30,000 dollars."

CHINESE DAINTIES.

The common people of the country seem to fare hardly and sparingly enough, but one of our envoys praises much of the good cheer he found at the tables of the great men. They had pork, fish, and poultry, prepared in a great variety of ways, and very nice confectionery in abundance. The feasts, moreover, were served up in a very neat and cleanly manner. But there was one dainty which much offended their nostrils, and nearly turned their stomachs when it was named to them. It was not stewed dog or fricaseed pup. No; it consisted of three bowls of _hatched eggs_! When the Englishmen expressed some surprise at the appearance of this portion of the repast, one of the native attendants observed that hatched eggs formed a delicacy beyond the reach of the poor--a delicacy adapted only for persons of distinction! On inquiry, it was found that they cost in the market some thirty per cent. more than fresh eggs. It seems that they always form a distinguished part of every great entertainment, and that it is the practice, when invitations are sent out, to set the hens to hatch. The feast takes place about the tenth or twelfth day from the issuing the invitations,--the eggs being then considered as ripe, and exactly in the state most agreeable and pleasant to the palate of a Chinese epicure.

RECEIPTS FROM ALBERTUS MAGNUS.

"Bubo a shrick owle, is a byrd wel inough knowen, which is called Magis of the Chaldes, and Hysopus of the Greekes. There bee maruaylous vertues of this Fowle, for if the hart and ryght foote of it be put upon a man sleeping, hee shall saye anone to thee whatsoever thou shalt aske of him. And thys hath beene prooued of late tyme of our brethren. And if any man put thys onder his arme hole, no Dog wyll barke at hym, but keepe silence. And yf these thynges aforesayde ioyned together with a wyng of it be hanged up to a tree, byrdes wyl gather together to that tree."

"When thou wylt that thy wyfe or wenche shewe to thee all that shee hath done, take the hart of a Doove, and the heade of a Frog, and drye them both, and braie them vnto poulder, and lay them vpon the brest of her sleeping, and shee shall shew to thee all that shee hath done, but when shee shall wake, wipe it awaye from her brest, that it bee not lifted vp."

"Take an Adders skyn, and Auri pigmentum, and greeke pitch of Reuponticum, and the waxe of newe Bees, and the fat or greace of an Asse, and breake them all, and put them all in a dull seething pot full of water, and make it to seeth at a slowe fire, and after let it waxe cold, and make a taper, and euery man that shall see light of it shall seeme headlesse."--_The Secreetes of Nature, set foorth by Albertus Magnus in Latine, newlye translated into English._ Imprinted at London by me Wyllyam Copland. No date. _Black letter_, very old.

THE MAGPIE STONING A TOAD.

There is a story told of a tame magpie, which was seen busily employed in a garden, gathering pebbles, and with much solemnity, and a studied air, dropping them in a hole, about eighteen inches deep, made to receive a post. After dropping each stone, it cried, Currack! triumphantly, and set off for another. On examining the spot a poor toad was found in the hole, which the magpie was stoning for his amusement.

ADAPTATION OF BONES TO AGE IN THE HUMAN FRAME.

Growth produces in the species a somewhat remarkable change in the mechanical qualities of the bones. This important part of our organism consists of three constituents--fibre, cartilage, and the earthy matter already mentioned called _phosphate of lime_. From the fibre they derive their toughness; from the cartilage their elasticity; and from the lime their hardness and firmness. Nothing can be more admirable in the economy of our body than the manner in which the proportion of these constituents adapts itself to the habitudes of age. The helpless infant, exposed by a thousand incidents to external shocks, has bones, the chief constituents of which being gristly and cartilaginous, are yielding and elastic, and incur little danger of fracture. Those of the youth, whose augmented weight and increased activity demand greater strength, have a larger proportion of the calcareous and fibrous elements, but still enough of the cartilaginous to confer upon the solid framework of his body the greatest firmness, toughness, and elasticity. As age advances, prudence and tranquil habits increasing, as well as the weight which the bones have to sustain, the proportion of the calcareous constituent increases, giving the requisite hardness and strength, but diminishing the toughness and elasticity.

While the bones thus change their mechanical qualities as age advances, they diminish in number, the frame consequently having fewer joints and less flexibility. The bones of a child, whose habits require greater bodily pliability, are more numerous than those of an adult, several of the articulations becoming ossified between infancy and maturity. In like manner, the bones at maturity are more numerous than in advanced age, the same progressive ossification of the joints being continued.

It has been ascertained by anatomists that, on attaining the adult state, the number of bones constituting the framework of the human body is 198; of which 52 belong to the trunk, 22 to the head, 64 to the arms, and 60 to the legs.

TOWER OF THE THUNDERING WINDS.