Chapter 24

The Ten Religions and Christianity.

§ 1. General Results of this Survey. § 2. Christianity a Pleroma, or Fulness of Life. § 3. Christianity, as a Pleroma, compared with Brahmanism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. § 4. Christianity compared with the Avesta and the Eddas. The Duad in all Religions. § 5. Christianity and the Religions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. § 6. Christianity in Relation to Judaism and Mohammedanism. The Monad in all Religions. § 7. The Fulness of Christianity is derived from the life of Jesus. § 8. Christianity as a Religion of Progress and of Universal Unity.

§ 1. General Results of this Survey.

We have now examined, as fully as our limits would allow, ten of the chief religions which have enlisted the faith of mankind. We are prepared to ask, in conclusion, what they teach us in regard to the prospects of Christianity, and the religious future of our race.

First, this survey must have impressed on every mind the fact that man is eminently a religious being. We have found religion to be his supreme and engrossing interest on every continent, in every millennium of historic time, and in every stage of human civilization. In some periods men are found as hunters, as shepherds, as nomads, in others they are living associated in cities, but in all these conditions they have their religion. The tendency to worship some superhuman power is universal.

The opinion of the positivist school, that man passes from a theological stage to one of metaphysics, and from that to one of science, from which later and higher epoch both theology and philosophy are excluded, is not in accordance with the facts we have been observing. Science and art, in Egypt, went hand in hand with theology, during thousands of years. Science in Greece preceded the latest forms of metaphysics, and both Greek science and Greek philosophy were the preparation for Christian faith. In India the Sankhya philosophy was the preparation for the Buddhist religion. Theology and religion to-day, instead of disappearing in science, are as vigorous as ever. Science, philosophy, and theology are all advancing together, a noble sisterhood of thought. And, looking at facts, we may ask, In what age or time was religion more of a living force, acting on human affairs, than it is at present? To believe in things not seen, to worship a power above visible nature, to look forward to an unknown future, this is natural to man.

In the United States there is no established religion, yet in no country in the world is more interest taken in religion than with us. In the Protestant denominations it has dispensed with the gorgeous and imposing ritual, which is so attractive to the common mind, and depends mainly on the interest of the word of truth. Yet the Protestant denominations make converts, build churches, and support their clergy with an ardor seemingly undiminished by the progress of science. There are no symptoms that man is losing his interest in religion in consequence of his increasing knowledge of nature and its laws.

Secondly, we have seen that these religions vary exceedingly from each other in their substance and in their forms. They have a great deal in common, but a great deal that is different. Mr. Wentworth Higginson,[403] in an excellent lecture, much of which has our cordial assent, says, "Every race believes in a Creator and Governor of the world, in whom devout souls recognize a Father also." But Buddhism, the most extensive religion on the surface of the earth, explicitly denies creation, and absolutely ignores any Ruler or Governor of the world. The Buddha neither made the world nor preserves it, and the Buddha is the great object of Buddhist worship. Mr. Higginson says: "Every race believes in immortality." Though the Buddhists, as we have seen, believe in immortality, it is in so obscure a form that many of the best scholars declare that the highest aim and the last result of all progress in Buddhism is annihilation. He continues, "Every race recognizes in its religious precepts the brotherhood of man." The Koran teaches no such doctrine, and it is notorious that the Brahmanical system of caste, which has been despotic in India for twenty-five hundred years, excludes such brotherhood. Mr. Higginson therefore is of opinion that caste has grown up in defiance of the Vedas. The Vedas indeed are ignorant of caste, but they are also ignorant of human brotherhood. The system of caste was not a defiance of the Vedas.

Nothing is gained for humanity by such statements, which are refuted immediately by the most evident facts. The true "sympathy of religions" does not consist in their saying the same thing, any more than a true concord in music consists in many performers striking the same note. Variety is the condition of harmony. These religions may, and we believe will, be all harmonized; but thus far it is only too plain that they have been at war with each other. In order to find the resemblances we must begin by seeing the differences.

Cudworth, in his great work, speaks of "the symphony of all religions," an expression which we prefer to that of Mr. Higginson. It expresses precisely what we conceive to be the fact, that these religions are all capable of being brought into union, though so very different. They may say,

"Are not we formed, as notes of music are, For one another, though dissimilar? Such difference, without discord, as shall make The sweetest sounds."

But this harmony can only be established among the ethnic religions by means of a catholic religion which shall be able to take each of them up into itself, and so finally merge them in a higher union. The Greek, Roman, and Jewish religions could not unite with each other; but they were united by being taken up into Christianity. Christianity has assimilated the essential ideas of the religions of Persia, Judæa, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Scandinavia; and each of these religions, in turn, disappeared as it was absorbed by this powerful solvent. In the case of Greece, Rome, Germany, and Judæa, this fact of their passing into solution in Christianity is a matter of history. Not all the Jews became Christians, nor has Judaism ceased to exist. This is perhaps owing to the doctrines of the Trinity and the Deity of Christ, which offend the simplistic monotheism of the Jewish mind. Yet Christianity at first grew out of Judaism, and took up into itself the best part of the Jews in and out of Palestine.

The question therefore is this, Will Christianity be able to do for the remaining religions of the world what it did for the Greeks, the Romans, and the Teutonic nations? Is it capable of becoming a universal religion?

§ 2. Christianity a Pleroma, or Fulness of Life.

It is evident that Christianity can become the universal human religion only by supplying the religious wants of all the races of men who dwell on all the face of the earth. If it can continue to give them all the truth their own religions contain, and add something more; if it can inspire them with all the moral life which their own religions communicate, and yet more; and, finally, if it can unite the races of men in one family, one kingdom of heaven,--then it is fitted to be and will become the universal religion. It will then not share the fate of those which have preceded it. It will not have its rise, progress, decline, and fall. It will not become, in its turn, antiquated, and be left behind by the advance of humanity. It will not be swallowed up in something deeper and broader than itself. But it will appear as the desire of all nations, and Christ will reign until he has subdued all his enemies--error, war, sin, selfishness, tyranny, cruelty--under his feet.

Now, as we have seen, Christianity differs from all other religions (on the side of truth) in this, that it is a pleroma, or fulness of knowledge. It does not differ, by teaching what has never been said or thought before. Perhaps the substance of most of the statements of Jesus may be found scattered through the ten religions of the world, some here and some there. Jesus claims no monopoly of the truth. He says. "My doctrine is not mine, but his who sent me." But he _does_ call himself "the Light of the World," and says that though he does not come to destroy either the law or the prophets, he comes to fulfil them in something higher. His work is to fulfil all religions with something higher, broader, and deeper than what they have,--accepting their truth, supplying their deficiencies.

If this is a fact, then it will appear that Christianity comes, not as an exclusive, but as an inclusive system. It includes everything, it excludes nothing but limitation and deficiency.

Whether Christianity be really such a pleroma of truth or not, must be ascertained by a careful comparison of its teachings, and the ideas lying back of them, with those of all other religions. We have attempted this, to some extent, in our Introduction, and in our discussion of each separate religion. We have seen that Christianity, in converting the nations, always accepted something and gave something in return. Thus it received from Egypt and Africa their powerful realism, as in the writings of Tertullian, Origen, Augustine, and gave in return a spiritual doctrine. It received God, as seen in nature and its organizations, and returned God as above nature. Christianity took from Greece intellectual activity, and returned moral life. It received from Rome organization, and returned faith in a fatherly Providence. It took law, and gave love. From the German races it accepted the love of individual freedom, and returned union and brotherly love. From Judaism it accepted monotheism as the worship of a Supreme Being, a Righteous Judge, a Holy King, and added to this faith in God as in all nature and all life.

But we will proceed to examine some of these points a little more minutely.

§ 3. Christianity, as a Pleroma, compared with Brahmanism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.

Christianity and Brahmanism. The essential value of Brahmanism is its faith in spirit as distinct from matter, eternity as distinct from time, the infinite as opposed to the finite, substance as opposed to form.

The essential defect of Brahmanism is its spiritual pantheism, which denies all reality to this world, to finite souls, to time, space, matter. In its vast unities all varieties are swallowed up, all differences come to an end. It does not, therefore, explain the world, it denies it. It is incapable of morality, for morality assumes the eternal distinction between right and wrong, good and evil, and Brahmanism knows no such difference. It is incapable of true worship, since its real God is spirit in itself, abstracted from all attributes. Instead of immortality, it can only teach absorption, or the disappearance of the soul in spirit, as rain-drops disappear in the ocean.

Christianity teaches a Supreme Being who is pure spirit, "above all, through all, and in all," "from whom, and through whom, and to whom are all things," "in whom we live, and move, and have our being." It is a more spiritual religion than Brahmanism, for the latter has passed on into polytheism and idolatry, which Christianity has always escaped. Yet while teaching faith in a Supreme Being, the foundation and substance below all existence, it recognizes him as A LIVING GOD. He is not absorbed in himself, nor apart from his world, but a perpetual Providence, a personal Friend and Father. He dwells in eternity, but is manifested in time.

Christianity, therefore, meets the truth in Brahmanism by its doctrine of God as Spirit, and supplies its deficiencies by its doctrine of God as a Father.

Christianity and the system of Confucius. The good side in the teaching of Confucius is his admirable morality, his wisdom of life in its temporal limitations, his reverence for the past, his strenuous conservatism of all useful institutions, and the uninterrupted order of the social system resting on these ideas.

The evil in his teaching is the absence of the supernatural element, which deprives the morality of China of enthusiasm, its social system of vitality, its order of any progress, and its conservatism of any improvement. It is a system without hope, and so has remained frozen in an icy and stiff immobility for fifteen hundred years.

But Christianity has shown itself capable of uniting conservatism with progress, in the civilization of Christendom. It respects order, reveres the past, holds the family sacred, and yet is able also to make continual progress in science, in art, in literature, in the comfort of the whole community. It therefore accepts the good and the truth in the doctrines of Confucius, and adds to these another element of new life.

Christianity and Buddhism. The truth in Buddhism is in its doctrine of the relation of the soul to the laws of nature; its doctrine of consequences; its assurance of a strict retribution for every human action; its promise of an ultimate salvation in consequence of good works; and of a redemption from all the woes of time by obedience to the truth.

The evil in the system is that belonging to all legalism. It does not inspire faith in any living and present God, or any definite immortality. The principle, therefore, of development is wanting, and it leaves the Mongol races standing on a low plane of civilization, restraining them from evil, but not inspiring them by the sight of good.

Christianity, like Buddhism, teaches that whatever a man sows that shall he also reap; that those who by patient continuance in well-doing seek for glory, honor, and immortality shall receive eternal life; that the books shall be opened in the last day, and every man be rewarded according to his works; that he whose pound gains five pounds shall be ruler over five cities. In short, Christianity, in its Scriptures and its practical influence, has always taught salvation by works.

Yet, beside this, Christianity teaches justification by faith, as the root and fountain of all real obedience. It inspires faith in a Heavenly Father who has loved his every child from before the foundation of the world; who welcomes the sinner back when he repents and returns; whose forgiving love creates a new life in the heart. This faith evermore tends to awaken the dormant energies in the soul of man; and so, under its influence, one race after another has commenced a career of progress. Christianity, therefore, can fulfil Buddhism also.

§ 4. Christianity compared with the Avesta and the Eddas. The Duad in all Religions.

The essential truth in the Avesta and the Eddas is the same. They both recognize the evil in the world as real, and teach the duty of fighting against it. They avoid the pantheistic indifference of Brahmanism, and the absence of enthusiasm in the systems of Confucius and the Buddha, by the doctrine of a present conflict between the powers of good and evil, of light and of darkness. This gives dignity and moral earnestness to both systems. By fully admitting the freedom of man, they make the sense of responsibility possible, and so purify and feed morality at its roots.

The difficulty with both is, that they carry this dualistic view of nature too far, leaving it an unreconciled dualism. The supreme Monad is lost sight of in this ever-present Duad. Let us see how this view of evil, or the dual element in life, appears in other systems.

As the Monad in religion is an expression of one infinite supreme presence, pervading all nature and life, so the Duad shows the antagonism and conflict between truth and falsehood, right and wrong, good and evil, the infinite perfection and the finite imperfection. This is a conflict actually existing in the world, and one which religion must accept and account for. Brahmanism does not accept it, but ignores it. This whole conflict is Maya, a deception and illusion. Yet, in this form of illusion, it makes itself so far felt, that it must be met by sacrifices, prayers, penances, and the law of transmigration; until all the apparent antagonism shall be swallowed up in the Infinite One, the only substance in the universe.

Buddhism recognizes the conflict more fully. It frankly accepts the Duad as the true explanation of the actual universe. The ideal universe as Nirvana may be one; but of this we know nothing. The actual world is a twofold world, composed of souls and the natural laws. The battle of life is with these laws. Every soul, by learning to obey them, is able to conquer and use them, as steps in an ascent toward Nirvana.

But the belief of Zoroaster and that of Scandinavia regard the Duad as still more deeply rooted in the essence of existing things. All life is battle,--battle with moral or physical evil. Courage is therefore the chief virtue in both systems. The Devil first appears in theology in these two forms of faith. The Persian devil is Ahriman; the Scandinavian devil is Loki. Judaism, with its absolute and supreme God, could never admit such a rival to his power as the Persian Ahriman; yet as a being permitted, for wise purposes, to tempt and try men, he comes into their system as Satan. Satan, on his first appearance in the Book of Job, is one of the angels of God. He is the heavenly critic; his business is to test human virtue by trial, and see how deep it goes. His object in testing Job was to find whether he loved virtue for its rewards, or for its own sake. "Does Job serve God for naught?" According to this view, the man who is good merely for the sake of reward is not good at all.

In the Egyptian system, as in the later faith of India, the evil principle appears as a power of destruction. Siva and Typhon are the destroying agencies from whom proceed all the mischief done in the world. Nevertheless, they are gods, not devils, and have their worship and worshippers among those whose religious nature is more imbued with fear than with hope. The timid worshipped the deadly and destructive powers, and their prayers were deprecations. The bolder worshipped the good gods. Similarly, in Greece, the Chtonic deities had their shrines and worshippers, as had the powers of Blight, Famine, and Pestilence at Rome.

Yet only in the Avesta is this great principle of evil set forth in full antagonism against the powers of light and love. And probably from Persia, after the captivity, this view of Satan entered into Jewish theology. In the Old Testament, indeed, where Satan or the Devil as a proper name only occurs four times[404], in all which cases he is a subordinate angel, the true Devil does not appear. In the Apocrypha he is said (Wisdom ii. 24) to have brought death into the world. The New Testament does not teach a doctrine of Satan, or the Devil, as something new and revealed then for the first time, but assumes a general though vague belief in such a being. This belief evidently existed among the Jews when Christ came. It as evidently was not taught in the Old Testament. The inevitable inference is that it grew up in the Jewish mind from its communication with the Persian dualism.

But though the doctrine of a Devil is no essential part of Christianity[405], the reality and power of evil is fully recognized in the New Testament and in the teachings of the Church. Indeed, in the doctrine of everlasting punishment and of an eternal hell, it has been carried to a dangerous extreme. The Divine sovereignty is seriously infringed and invaded by such a view. If any outlying part of the universe continues in a state of permanent rebellion, God is not the absolute sovereign. But wickedness is rebellion. If any are to continue eternally in hell, it is because they continue in perpetual wickedness; that is, the rebellion against God will never be effectually suppressed. Only when every knee bows, and every tongue confesses that Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father; only when truth and love have subdued all enemies by converting them into friends, is redemption complete and the universe at peace.

Now, Christianity (in spite of the illogical doctrine of everlasting punishment) has always inspired a faith in the redeeming power of love to conquer all evil. It has taught that evil can be overcome by good. It asserts truth to be more powerful than error, right than wrong. It teaches us in our daily prayer to expect that God's kingdom shall come, and his will shall be done on earth as it is in Heaven. It therefore fulfils the truth in the great dualisms of the past by its untiring hope of a full redemption from all sin and all evil.

§ 5. Christianity and the Religions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome.

The Religion of Egypt. This system unfolded the truth of the Divine in this world, of the sacredness of bodily organization, and the descent of Deity into the ultimate parts of his creation. Its defect was its inability to combine with this an open spiritualism. It had not the courage of its opinions, so far as they related to the divine unity, spirituality, and eternity.

Christianity also accepts the doctrine of God, present in nature, in man, in the laws of matter, in the infinite variety of things. But it adds to this the elevated spiritualism of a monotheistic religion, and so accepts the one and the all, unity and variety, substance and form, eternity and time, spirit and body, as filled with God and manifesting him.

The Religions of Greece and Rome. The beauty of nature, the charm of art, the genius of man, were idealized and deified in the Greek pantheon. The divinity of law, organizing human society according to universal rules of justice, was the truth in the Roman religion. The defect of the Greek theology was the absence of a central unity. Its polytheism carried variety to the extreme of disorder and dissipation. The centrifugal force, not being properly balanced by any centripetal power, inevitably ends in dissolution. The defect of Roman worship was, that its oppressive rules ended in killing out life. Law, in the form of a stiff external organization, produced moral death at last in Rome, as it had produced moral death in Judæa.

Now Christianity, though a monotheism, and a monotheism which has destroyed forever both polytheism and idolatry wherever it has gone, is not that of numerical unity. The God of Christianity differs in this from the God of Judaism and Mohammedanism. He is an infinite will; but he is more. Christianity cognizes God as not only above nature and the soul, but also as in nature and in the soul. Thus nature and the soul are made divine. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity expresses this enlargement of the Jewish monotheism from a numerical to a moral unity. The God of Christ is human in this respect, that he is conceived of in the image of man. Man is essentially a unit through his will, in which lies the secret of personal identity. But besides will he has intellect, by which he comes into communion with the universe; and affection, by which he comes into communion with his race. Christianity conceives of God in the same way. He is an omnipresent will as the Father, Creator, and Ruler of all things. He is the Word, or manifested Truth in the Son, manifested through all nature, manifested through all human life. He is the Spirit, or inspiration of each individual soul. So he is Father, Son, and Spirit, above all, through all, and in us all. By this larger view of Deity Christianity was able to meet the wants of the Aryan races, in whom the polytheistic tendency is so strong. That tendency was satisfied by this view of God immanent in nature and immanent in human life.

Judaism and Mohammedanism, with their more concrete monotheism, have not been able to convert the Aryan races. Mohammedanism has never affected the mind of India, nor disturbed the ascendency of Brahmanism there. And though it nominally possesses Persia, yet it holds it as a subject, not as a convert. Persian Sufism is a proof of the utter discontent of the Aryan intellect with any monotheism of pure will. Sufism is the mystic form of Mohammedanism, recognizing communion with God, and not merely submission, as being the essence of true religion. During the long Mohammedan dominion in Turkey it has not penetrated the minds or won the love of the Greek races. It is evident that Christianity succeeded in converting the Greeks and Romans by means of its larger view of the Deity, of which the doctrine of the Trinity, as it stands in the creeds, is a crude illogical expression.

§ 6. Christianity in Relation to Judaism and Mohammedanism. The Monad in all Religions.

There are three religions which teach the pure upity of God, or true monotheism. These three Unitarian religions are Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. They also all originated in a single race, the Semitic race, that which has occupied the central region of the world, the centre of three continents. It is the race which tends to a religious unity, as that of our Aryan ancestors tended to variety.

But what is pure monotheism? It is the worship of one alone God, separated by the vast abyss of the infinite from all finite beings. It is the worship of God, not as the Supreme Being only, not as the chief among many gods, as Jupiter was the president of the dynasty on Olympus, not merely the Most High, but as the only God. It avoids the two extremes, one of making the Supreme Being head of a council or synod of deities, and the other of making him indeed infinite, but an infinite abstraction, or abyss of darkness. These are the two impure forms of monotheism. The first prevailed in Greece, Rome, Egypt, Scandinavia. In each of these religions there was a supreme being,--Zeus, Jupiter, Ammon, Odin,--but this supreme god was only _primus inter pares_, first among equals. The other impure form of monotheism prevailed in the East,--in Brahmanism, Buddhism, and the religion of Zoroaster. In the one Parabrahm, in the other Zerana-Akerana, in the third Nirvana itself, is the Infinite Being or substance, wholly separate from all that is finite. It is so wholly separate as to cease to be an object of adoration and obedience. Not Parabrahm, but Siva, Vischnu, and Brahma; not Zerana-Akerana, but Ormazd and the Amschaspands; not the infinite world of Nirvana, nor the mighty Adi-Buddha, but the Buddhas of Confession, the finite Sakya-Muni, are the objects of worship in these systems.

Only from the Semitic race have arisen the pure monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. Each of these proclaims one only God, and each makes this only God the object of all worship and service. Judaism says, "Hear! O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord!" (Deut. vi. 4.) Originally among the Jews, God's name as the "Plural of Majesty" indicated a unity formed from variety; but afterward it became in the word Jahveh a unity of substance. "By my name Jehovah I was not known to them" (i.e. to the Patriarchs).[406] That name indicates absolute Being, "I am the I am."[407]

Ancient Gentile monotheism vibrated between a personal God, the object of worship, who was limited and finite, and an infinite absolute Being who was out of sight, "whose veil no one had lifted." The peculiarity of the Mosaic religion was to make God truly the one alone, and at the same time truly the object of worship.

In this respect Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism agree, and in this they differ from all other religions. Individual thinkers, like Socrates, Æschylus, Cicero, have reached the same conviction; but these three are the only popular religions, in which God is at once the infinite and absolute, and the only object of worship.

Now it is a remarkable fact that these three religions, which are the only pure monotheistic religions, are at the same time the only religions which have any claim to catholicity. Buddhism, though the religion of numerous nations, seems to be the religion of only one race, namely, the Turanic race, or Mongols. The people of India who remain Buddhists, the Singalese, or inhabitants of Ceylon, belong to the aboriginal Tamul, or Mongol race. With this exception then (which is no exception, as far as we know the ethnology of Eastern Asia), the only religions which aim at Catholicism are these three, which are also the only monotheistic religions. Judaism aimed at catholicity and hoped for it. It had an instinct of universality, as appeared in its numerous attempts at making proselytes of other nations. It failed of catholicity when it refused to accept as its Christ the man who had risen above its national limitations, and who considered Roman tax-gatherers and Samaritans as already prepared to enter the kingdom of the Messiah. The Jews required all their converts to become Jews, and in doing this left the catholic ground. Christianity in the mouth of Paul, who alone fully seized the true idea of his Master, said, "Circumcision availeth nothing, nor uncircumcision, but a new creature." In other words, he declared that it was _not_ necessary to become a Jew in order to be a Christian.

The Jewish mind, so far forth as it was monotheistic, aimed at catholicity. The unity of God carries with it, logically, the unity of man. From one God as spirit we infer one human family. So Paul taught at Athens. "God that made the world and all things therein, ... hath made of one blood all races of men to dwell on all the face of the earth."

But the Jews, though catholic as monotheists, and as worshipping a spiritual God, were limited by their ritual and their intense national bigotry. Hereditary and ancestral pride separated them, and still separate them, from the rest of mankind. "_We have Abraham to our Father_" is the talisman which has kept them together, but kept them from union with others.

Christianity and Mohammedanism, therefore, remain the only two really catholic religions. Each has overpassed all the boundaries of race. Christianity, beginning among the Jews, a Semitic people, passed into Europe, and has become the religion of Greeks, Romans, Kelts, Germans, and the Slavic races of Russia, and has not found it impossible to convert the Africans, the Mongols, and the American Indians. So too the Mohammedan religion, also beginning among the Semitic race, has become the nominal religion of Persia, Turkey, Northern Africa, and Central Asia. Monotheism, therefore, includes a tendency to catholicity. But Islam has everywhere made subjects rather than converts, and so has failed of entire success. It has not assimilated its conquests.

The monotheism of Christianity, as we have already seen, while accepting the absolute supremacy of the Infinite Being, so as to displace forever all secondary or subordinate gods, yet conceives of him as the present inspiration of all his children. It sees him coming down, to bless them in the sunshine and the shower, as inspiring every good thought, as a providence guiding all human lives. And by this view it fulfils both Judaism and Mohammedanism, and takes a long step beyond them both.

§ 7. The Fulness of Christianity is derived from the Life of Jesus.

Christianity has thus shown itself to be a universal solvent, capable of receiving into itself the existing truths of the ethnic religions, and fulfilling them with something higher. Whenever it has come in contact with natural religion, it has assimilated it and elevated it. This is one evidence that it is intended to become the universal religion of mankind.

This pleroma, or fulness, integrity, all-sidedness, or by whatever name we call it, is something deeper than thought. A system of thought might be devised large enough to include all the truths in all the religions of the world, putting each in its own place in relation to the rest. Such a system might show how they all are related to each other, and all are in harmony. But this would be a philosophy, not a religion. No such philosophy appears in the original records of Christianity. The New Testament does not present Jesus as a philosopher, nor Paul as a metaphysician. There is no systematic teaching in the Gospels, nor in the Epistles. Yet we find there, in incidental utterances, the elements of this many-sided truth, in regard to God, man, duty, and immortality. But we find it as life, not as thought. It is a fulness of life in the soul of Jesus, passing into the souls of his disciples and apostles, and from them in a continuous stream of Christian experience, down to the present time.

The word pleroma (πλήρωμα), in the New Testament, means that which fills up; fulness, fulfilling, filling full. The verb "to fulfil" (πληρόω) carries the same significance. To "fulfil that which was spoken by the prophets," means to fill it full of meaning and truth. Jesus came, not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it; that is, to carry it out further. He fulfilled Moses and the prophets, not by doing exactly what they foretold, in their sense, but by doing it in a higher, deeper, and larger sense. He fulfilled their thought as the flower fulfils the bud, and as the fruit fulfils the flower. The sense of the fulness of life in Jesus and in the Gospel seems to have struck the minds of the early disciples, and powerfully impressed them. Hence the frequency with which they use this verb and noun, signifying fulness. Jesus fulfilled the law, the prophets, all righteousness, the Scriptures. He came in the fulness of time. His joy was fulfilled. Paul prays that the disciples may be filled full of joy, peace, and hope, with the fruits of righteousness, with all knowledge, with the spirit of God, and with all the fulness of God. He teaches that love fulfils the law, that the Church is the fulness of Christ, that Christ fills all things full of himself, and that in him dwells all the fulness of the godhead bodily.

One great distinction between Christianity and all other religions is in this pleroma, or fulness of life which it possesses, and which, to all appearance, came from the life of Jesus. Christianity is often said to be differenced from ethnic religions in other ways. They are natural religions: it is revealed. They are natural: it is supernatural. They are human: it is divine. But _all_ truth is revealed truth; it all comes from God, and, therefore, so far as ethnic religions contain truth, they also are revelations. Moreover, the supernatural element is to be found in all religions; for inspiration, in some form, is universal. All great births of time are supernatural, making no part of the nexus of cause and effect. How can you explain the work of Confucius, of Zoroaster, of the Buddha, of Mohammed, out of the existing state of society, and the educational influences of their time? All such great souls are much more the makers of their age than its result; they are imponderable elements in civilization, not to be accounted for by anything outside of themselves. Nor can we urge the distinction of human and divine; for there is a divine element in all ethnic religions, and a broadly human element in Christianity. Jesus is as much the representative of human nature as he is the manifestation of God. He is the Son of man, no less than the Son of God.

One great fact which makes a broad distinction between other religions and Christianity is that _they_ are ethnic and _it_ is catholic. They are the religions of races and nations, limited by these lines of demarcation, by the bounds which God has beforehand appointed. Christianity is a catholic religion: it is the religion of the human race. It overflows all boundaries, recognizes no limits, belongs to man as man. And this it does, because of the fulness of its life, which it derives from its head and fountain, Jesus Christ, in whom dwells the fulness both of godhead and of manhood.

It is true that the great missionary work of Christianity has long been checked. It does not now convert whole nations. Heathenism, Mohammedanism, Judaism, Brahmanism, Buddhism, stand beside it unmoved. What is the cause of this check?

The catholicity of the Gospel was born out of its fluent and full life. It was able to convert the Greeks and Romans, and afterward Goths, Vandals, Lombards, Franks, Scandinavians, because it came to them, not as a creed, but as a life. But neither Roman Catholics nor Protestants have had these large successes since the Middle Ages. Instead of a life, Christianity became a church and a creed. When this took place, it gradually lost its grand missionary power. It no longer preached truth, but doctrine; no longer communicated life, but organized a body of proselytes into a rigid church. Party spirit took the place of the original missionary spirit. Even the majority of the German tribes was converted by Arian missionaries, and orthodoxy has not the credit of that last grand success of Christianity. The conversion of seventy millions of Chinese in our own day to the religion of the Bible was not the work of Catholic or Protestant missionaries, but of the New Testament. The Church and the creed are probably the cause of this failure. Christianity has been partially arrested in its natural development, first by the Papal Church, and secondly by the too rigid creeds of orthodoxy.

If the swarming myriads of India and Mongolia are to be converted to Christianity, it must be done by returning to the original methods. We must begin by recognizing and accepting the truth they already possess. We must be willing to learn of them, in order to teach them. Comparative Theology will become the science of missions if it help to show to Christians the truth and good in the creeds outside of Christendom. For to the Church and to its sects, quite as much as to the world, applies the saying, "He that exalteth himself shall be abased, but he that humbleth himself shall be exalted."

§ 8. Christianity as a Religion of Progress and of Universal Unity.

As long as a tree or an animal lives it continues to grow. An arrest of growth is the first symptom of the decline of life. Fulness of life, therefore, as the essential character of Christianity, should produce a constant development and progress; and this we find to be the case. Other religions have their rise, progress, decline, and fall, or else are arrested and become stationary. The religions of Persia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Scandinavia, have come to an end. As ethnic religions, they shared the fortunes of the race or nation with which they were associated. The systems of Confucius, of the Buddha, of Brahmanism, of Judæa, of Mohammed, are arrested. They remain stationary. But, thus far, Christianity and Christendom advance together. Christianity has developed; out of its primitive faith, several great theologies, the mediæval Papacy, Protestantism, and is now evidently advancing into new and larger forms of religious, moral, and social activity.

The fact of a fulness of divine and human life in Jesus took form in the doctrines of the incarnation and the Trinity. The fact of the reconciling and uniting power of this life took form in the doctrine of the atonement. Both of these doctrines are illogical and false, in their form, as church doctrines. But both of them represent most essential facts. We have seen the truths in the doctrines of incarnation and the Trinity. The truth in the atonement is, as the word itself signifies, the at-one-making power of the Gospel. The reconciliation of antagonist truths and opposing tendencies, which philosophy has always unsuccessfully endeavored to state in theory, Christianity accomplishes in practice. Christianity continually reproduces from its depths of life a practical faith in God, both as law and as love, in man, both as a free and yet as a providentially guided being. It gives us God as unity and as variety, as the substance and as the form of the world. It states the reality of evil as forcibly as any system of dualism, and yet produces a practical faith in good as being stronger than evil and sure to conquer it. In social life it reconciles the authority of human law with the freedom of individual thought and action. In the best Christian governments, we find all the order which a despotism can guarantee, with all the freedom to which a democracy can aspire. No such social organization is to be found outside of Christendom. How can this be, unless it is somehow connected with Christianity?

The civilization of Christendom consists in a practical reconciliation of antagonist tendencies. It is a "pleroma" in social life, a fulness of concord, a harmony of many parts. The harmony is indeed by no means complete, for the millennium has not arrived. As yet the striking feature of Christendom is quantity, power, variety, fulness; not as yet co-operation, harmony, peace, union. Powers are first developed, which are afterward to be harmonized. The sword is not yet beaten into a ploughshare, nor has universal peace arrived. Yet such is the inevitable tendency of things. As knowledge spreads, as wealth increases, as the moral force of the world is enlarged, law, more and more, takes the place of force. Men no longer wear swords by their sides to defend themselves from attack. If attacked, they call the policeman. Towns are no longer fortified with walls, nor are the residences of noblemen kept in a state of defence. They are all folded in the peaceful arms of national law. So far the atonement has prevailed. Only nations still continue to fight; but the time is at hand when international law, the parliament of the world, the confederation of man, shall take the place of standing armies and iron-clad navies.

So, in society, internal warfare must, sooner or later, come to an end. Pauperism and crime must be treated according to Christian methods. Criminals must be reformed, and punishment must be administered in reference to that end. Co-operation in labor and trade must take the place of competition. The principles by means of which these vast results will be brought about are already known; the remaining difficulties are in their application. Since slavery fell in the United States, one great obstacle to the progress of man is removed. The next social evils in order will be next assailed, and, one by one, will be destroyed. Christianity is becoming more and more practical, and its application to life is constantly growing more vigorous and wise.

The law of human life is, that the development of differences must precede their reconciliation. Variety must precede harmony, analysis must prepare the way for synthesis, opposition must go before union. Christianity, as a powerful stimulus applied to the human mind, first develops all the tendencies of the soul; and afterward, by its atoning influence on the heart, reconciles them. Christ is the Prince of Peace. He came to make peace between man and God, between man and man, between law and love, reason and faith, freedom and order, progress and conservatism. But he first sends the sword, afterward the olive-branch. Nevertheless, universal unity is the object and end of Christianity.

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Index of Subjects Treated in this Work.

A.

Abraham, source of Hebrew monotheism, 403. " his inspiration, 403. " his worship of the Most High God, 404. " his native home at the source of the Tigris, 405. " his historic character and events of his life, 406. " his relation to Melchisedek, 406. " character of his faith, 408. " his monotheism imperfect, 408. Adam of Bremen, his account of Northern Christians, 394. Æschylus, big religious character, 284. Anschar, missionary to the Swedes, 393. Antoninus, M. Aurelius, his religious character, 344. Apollo Belvedere, in the Vatican, 289. Arabs, the, and Arabia, 452. " without a history till the time of Mohammed, 452. Aristotle, his view of God, 296. Artemis, or Diana as represented by the sculptors, 290. Aryana-Vaêjo, a region of delight, 184. " its climate changes to cold, 185. " supposed to be in Central Asia, 186. Aryans, the, in Central Asia, 85. " consist of seven races, 86. " their name mentioned in Manu, in the Avesta, and by Herodotus, 87. " their original home, 87. " their mode of life, 88. " they arrive in India, 89. Atonement, Christian, in its early form, influenced by Egyptian thought, 255. " in its scholastic form, derived from Roman law, 352. Augurs, their duties, 337. Avesta, discovered by Duperron, 179.

B.

Baldur, his character described, 378. " death of, the story, 373. Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean of modern Europe, 359. Bona Dea, the good goddess, 330. Bragi, the Scandinavian Apollo, 380. Brahma, chief deity in the Laws of Manu, 125. " his worship has entirely disappeared, 128. Brahmanism, a difficult study, 81. " no individual founder, 81. " is a one-sided spiritualism, 83. " passes into pantheism, 84. " becomes idolatry, 85. Buddha, his early tendency to devotion, 148. " not a proper name, but an official title, 148. " his birthplace In India, 148. " his different names (note), 148. " his father, a prince of the solar race, 148. " his early tendency to devotion, 148. " he arrives at Nirvana, 149. " devotes himself to teaching, 150. " dies at the age of eighty years, 150. " period of his death, 150. Buddhism, Protestantism of the East, 139. " resemblance of its customs to those of the Romish Church, 139. " its worship of relics very ancient, 140. " its singular and beautiful architecture, 140. " its shrines for relics, 141. " its rock-cut temples and monasteries, 141. " cannot have been copied from Catholicism, 141. " its interior resemblance to Protestantism, 142. " its respect for human freedom and human rights, 143. " its belief in the capacity of the human intellect, 144. " its monastic character, 144. " its expulsion from India, 145. " the religion of the Mongol nations, 146. " its scriptures and their discovery, 147. Buddhists, their general councils, 151. " their missionaries and missionary spirit, 151. " their leading doctrines, 153. " their idea of human development and progress, 154. " their four great truths, 155. " their moral commandments, 156. " their system rational and humane, 156. " their toleration, 157. " their benevolence and hospitality, 158. " their worship and ritual, 159. " their doctrines of Karma and Nirvana, 161. " good and evil of their system, 164. " their doctrine of transmigration, 167. " how far their teaching resembles Christianity, 167. Bundehesch, opinion of Windischmann concerning it, 194. " doctrinal system of, 195. Burlingame, Anson, his mission, 70.

C.

Carthaginians, their language a form of Hebrew, 400. Catholic religious, three, 18. " " teach the unity of God, 18. " " which have failed of universality, 19. Ceres, Liber, Flora, and Pomona, rural deities, 330. Chaldees of Ur, same as modern Curds, 405. Chandragupta, contemporary of Alexander, 86. Cherubim, its derivation from the Sphinx, 252. Chinese civilization, its peculiarities, 32. " " prose of Asia, 32. " " its antiquity, 33. " " its grotesque character, 36. Chinese empire, its size, 33. " history commences, 34. " language, 34. " wall and canals, 34. " artesian wells, 34. " inoculation, bronze money, mariner's compass, gunpowder, 35. " art of printing, and libraries, 35. " people possess freedom (note), 37. " government based on education, 38. " monarchy a family, 38. " government a literary aristocracy, 38. " civil-service examinations, 39. " public boards and their duties, 42. " viceroys, or governors of provinces, 42. " agriculture carried to perfection, 43. " "Kings," or sacred books, 47. " philosophy in its later developments, 52. " doctrine of the grand extreme, 52. " doctrine of Yang and Yin, or the positive and negative essences, 52. " doctrine of holy men, 53. " people, their amiable character, 59. " " described by Lieutenant Forbes, 59. " " described by Du Halde, 60. " " described by Meadows, 60. " " treatment of woman, 61. Christian apologists, their errors, 4. " " have regarded most religions as human inventions, 4. " " have considered them as debasing superstitions, 4. Christianity adapted to the Northern races, 395. " a pleroma, or fulness of life, 492. " an inclusive system, not exclusive, 493. " summary of its relation to other religions, 494. " a religion of progress, 507. " a religion of universal unity, 508. " has the power of continued progress, 29. " in its various developments,29. " meets the positive and negative side: of Brahmanism, 24. of Buddhism, 25. of Confucius, 26. of Zoroaster, 26. of Egypt, 27. of Greece, 28. Cicero, his work "De Natura Deorum," 341. " on the speech of Cæsar, 342. Circumcision, its origin and extent, 251. Cleanthes, the Stoic, his hymn, 285. Comparative Philology, its discoveries, 86. " Theology either analytical or synthetical, 2. " " its relation to Comparative Geography, 2. " " its relation to human progress, 2. " " must do justice to all religions, 3. " " is still in its infancy, 3. " " is a science, 3. " " will furnish new evidence to the truth of Christianity, 13. " " will show Christianity to be a catholic religion, adapted to all races, 15. " " will show Christianity to be all-sided, 21. " " will show Christianity capable of progress, 29. " " in its probable results, 30. Confucius, his birth and ancestors, 44, 45. " his influence, 44, 45. " events of his life, 45, 46. " edits the sacred books, or Kings, 47. " his own writings, 47. " his Table-Talk, extracts from, 48, 49. " had a large organ of veneration, 50. " had great energy and persistency, 51. " his books distributed by tract societies, 51. " one thousand six hundred and sixty temples erected to his memory, 51. " defects in his doctrine, 58. " his system compared with Christianity, 59. " good influence of his teachings, 58. Conversion of the German races to Christianity, 390. Cudworth and the Platonists have defended the Greek philosophers, 5.

D.

David, his life and epoch in human history, 422. " his great military successes, 422. " his prudence and sagacity in affairs, 423. " a man of genius, poet, musician, 425. " Book of Psalms a record of his life, 425. " his Psalms often rise to the level of Christianity, 426. Decay of the Roman religion, 339. Denmark and Norway converted to Christianity, 392. Devil, the, in Old and New Testament, 498. Divination, Cicero speaks concerning, 339-341. Doctrinal influence of the Egyptian religion on Christianity, 258. Downfall of German heathenism, 391. Druids and Scalds, 355. Duad, the, in all religions, 396. Dualism or monotheism the doctrine of the Avesta, 203. " of the Scandinavian system, 384. " in Christianity, 496. Duperron, Anquetil, his zeal for science, 178. " " discovers the Avesta in India, 179

E.

Ecclesiastes, a wonderful description of utter despair, 435. Eddas, the, chief source of our knowledge of the early Scandinavians, 363. " elder, or poetic, described, 364. " its author, Sæmund, 364. " prose, by Snorro Sturteson, 369. " " its contents, 369. " " its account of creation, 370. " " its account of the gods and giants, 371. " " story of Baldur, 372. " " adventures of Thor, 374. " " consummation of all things, 375. Egyptian chronology, its uncertainty, 231. " " opinions of Egyptologists concerning, 231, 232. " " point of contact with that of the Hebrews, 233. Egyptian civilization, its extent, 209. " architecture, its characteristics, 209. " knowledge of arts, 210. " love for making records, 210. " mural paintings in tombs, 210. " sphinxes discovered by Marietta, 210. " mummies, their anatomy, 237. " religion, its influence on Judaism, 250 " " its influence on Christianity, 253. " " its triads, 254. Egyptians, ancient, their great interest in religion, 214. " their gods on the oldest monuments, 215. " lived in order to worship, 215. " number of their festivals, 216. " their priests, 217. " their doctrine of immortality, 218. " their ritual of the dead, 219. " their funeral ceremonies, 220. " their domestic and social virtues, 221. " specimen of their hymns, 222, 223. " mysterious character of their theology, 223. " sources of our knowledge concerning, 224. " modern works upon (note), 225. " their doctrine of transmigration (note), 226. " their animal worship, 227. " their tendency to nature-worship, 229. " their origin, 230-236. Epictetus, his view of religion, 343. Epicureans, believed in God, but not in religion, 297. Essential idea of Brahmanism, 21. " " of Buddhism, 21. " " of Confucius, 22. " " of Zoroaster, 22. " " of Egypt, 23. " " of Greece, 24. Ethnic religions, defined, 15. " " most religions are such, 15. " " related to ethnology, 15. " " limited to races, 17. Euripides, his tragedy anti-religious, 285.

F.

Faunus, an old Italian god, 330. Fenrir, the wolf, how he was fastened, 382. Feudal system, its essential character, 391. Flamens, priests of particular deities, 336. Fontus, god of fountains, 328. Frey, and his daughter Freyja, 379.

G.

Geiger, Swedish history quoted, 357. Genius, a Roman god, 329. German races essentially Protestant, 395. German tribes converted by Arian missionaries, 506. Gods of Egypt, the three orders of, 239. " " " names of the first order, 239. " " " character of the first order, 240. " " " significant of the divine unity, 242. " " " second order of, their human qualities, 243. " " " third order of, the Osiris group, 242. Gods of Greece before Homer, 270. " " " oldest were the Uranids, 270. " " " second race of, the Titans, 271. " " " third race of, the Olympians, 271. " " " the oldest were gods of the elements, 272. " " " worshipped by the Dorians, were Apollo and Artemis, 274. " " " local distribution of, 275. " " " first symbolical, afterward personal, 276. " " " in Hesiod and Homer, 277. " " " poetic character of, 279. " " " in Homer very human beings, 280. " " " as described by the lyric poets, 283. " " " as described by the tragedians, 284. " " " as unfolded by the artists, 286. " " " as seen in the works of Phidias, 287. " " " as described by the philosophers, 291. " " " how related to Christianity, 310. Gods of the Vedas are the evil spirits of the Avesta, 202. Greece, its physical geography, 259. " its mountains, climate, and soil, 260. " its language akin to Sanskrit, 261. " its people an Aryan race, 262. " first inhabited by the Pelasgians, 262. " afterward received the Dorians, 264. " influenced powerfully by Egypt, 265. Greek mysteries, derived from Asia and Egypt, 302. " " gods of belong to the underworld, 302. " " alien to the Greek mind, 303. " " Eleusinian, in honor of Ceres, 305. " " in honor of Bacchus, derived from India, 305. " " Orphic, and their doctrines, 306. " religion, an essentially human religion, 266. " " its gods, men and women, 267. " " has no founder or restorer or priesthood, 267. " " its gods evolved, not emanations, 268. " " its freedom and hilarity, 269. " " as viewed by Paul, 308. " " as regarded by the early Christian fathers, 312. " " and philosophy, a preparation for Christianity, 313. " worship, sacrifices, prayers, and festivals, 297. " " in early times, 298. " " had numerous festivals, 299. " " connected with augurs and oracles, 300. Gylfi, deluding of, in the Edda, 369.

H.

Haruspices, derived from Etruria, 338. Havamal, or proverbs of the Scandinavians, 366. Heathen religions must contain more truth than error, 6. " " cannot have been human inventions, 6. " " must contain some revolution from God, 8. " " how viewed by Christ and his apostles, 9. " " how treated by Paul at Athens, 10. " " how regarded by the early apologists, 12. Heimdall, warder of the gods, 380. Herder, his description of David, 425. Hesiod, his account of the three groups of gods, 270. Hindoo Epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, 128. " " they refer to the time succeeding the Vedic age, 128. " " composed before the time of Buddhism, 129. Hindoos, antagonisms of their character, 82. " acute in speculations, but superstitious, 82. " unite luxury and asceticism, 82. " tend to idealism and religious spiritualism, 83. " their doctrine of Maya, 84. Hindoo year, calendar of, 132. " " begins in April, a sacred month, 132. Holy of Holies, in the Egyptian and Jewish temples, 252. Homer his description of the gods, 280. Horace, his view of religion, 346. Hyksôs, constitute the middle monarchy, 232. " expelled from Egypt after five hundred years, 233. " Hebrews in Egypt during their ascendency, 234, 235. " or Shepherd Kings in Egypt, 213. " a Semitic people from Asia, 232. " conquered Lower Egypt B.C. 2000, 233. Hyndla, song of, extracts from, 366.

I.

Icelanders converted to Christianity, 394. Incarnation, the fundamental doctrine of Christianity, 28. India, always a land of mystery, 81. " overrun by conquerors, 81. Infinite and finite elements in Brahmanism and Christianity, 137. Injustice done to ethnic religions, 4. Inspiration, its origin in the intuitive faculty, 439. Isis and Osiris, their legend, from Plutarch, 244. " " " explanations of their myth, 246. " " " identified with the first and second order, 248.

J.

Janus, one of the oldest of Roman gods, 322. " presided over beginnings and endings, 322. " invoked before other gods, 322. " his temple open in war, closed in peace, 322. " believed by Creuzer to have an Indian origin, 323. " has his chief feast in January, 323. " a Sabine god on Mount Janiculum, 323. Jews, a Semitic race, 399. Job, its grandeur of thought and expression, 438. Jones, Sir William, his life and works, 78. " progress since his time, 80. Judaism, a preparation for Christianity, 444. " monotheistic after the captivity, 444. " influenced by Greek philosophy, 444. " its process of development, 445. " at first childlike and narrow, 446. " the seed of Christianity, 446. Juno, queen of heaven, and female Jupiter, 324. " goddess of womanhood, 324. " her chief feast the Matronalia in March, 324. " her month of June favorable for wedlock, 325. Jupiter, derived his name from the Sanskrit, 324. " had many temples in Rome, 324. " god of the weather, of storm, of lightning, 324.

K.

"Kings," Chinese, names and number, 47. " teach a personal God, 57. " republished by Confucius, 47.

L.

Language of Ancient Egypt, 236. Lao-tse, founder of Tao-ism, 50, 52. " called a dragon by Confucius, 51. " three forms of his doctrine, 54. Lares, gods of home, 328. Loki, the god of cunning, 381. Lower Egypt, gods worshipped in, 248. Lucretius, his view of religion, 343. Luna, the moon, a Sabine deity, 327. Lustrations, or great acts of atonement, 338.

M.

Magna Mater, a foreign worship at Rome, 330. Maine, his work on ancient law quoted, 351. Mann, laws of, when written, 100. " account of Creation, 101. " dignity of the Brahmans, 103. " importance of the Gayatari, 104. " account of the twice-born man, 105. " description of ascetic duties, 106. " the anchorite described, 107. " duties of the ruler described, 109. " crimes and penalties described, 110. " the law of castes described, 110. " penance and expiation described, 110. " respect for cows enjoined, 111. " transmigration and final beatitude, 112. Maritime character of the Scandinavians, 361. Mars, originally an agricultural god, 330. Materialism in Christian doctrines, derived from Egypt, 256. Mater Matuta, Latin goddess of the dawn (note), 325, 327. Melchisedek, king of justice and king of peace, 407. Minerva, her name derived from an Etruscan word, 325. goddess of mental activity, 325. one of the three deities of the capitol, 325. Missionary work of Christianity, why checked, 506. Moabite inscription in the Hebrew dialect, 400. Mohammed, recent works concerning, 448. " lives of, by Muir, Sprenger, Weil, and others, 449. " essays on his life by Babador, 450. " prophecies of, in the Old Testament, 451. " lived a private life for forty years, 454. " his early religious tendencies, 454. " his inspirations, 454. " his biography in the Koran, 455. " his mother's death, 456. " his first converts, 457. " protected by his tribe, 458. " his temporary relapse, 460. " and his followers persecuted, 461. " his first teaching a modified Judaism, 463. " his departure to Medina with his followers, 464. " change in his character after the Hegira, 465. " in his last ten years a political leader, 467. " Goethe's view of his character, 468. " his cruel treatment of the Jews, 469. " his numerous wives, 470. " his death and character, 471. Mohammedanism, its special interest, 448. " its essential doctrine the absolute unity of God, 472. " its teaching concerning the Bible and Koran, 472. " does not recognize human brotherhood, 473. " among the Turks, its character, 473. " promotes religious feeling, 474. " inspires courage and resignation, 474. " in Palestine, described by Miss Rogers, 475. " in Central Arabia, described by Mr. Palgrave, 478. " in Central Asia, described by M. Vambéry, 477. " in Persia, described by Count Gobmeau, 477. " in Egypt, described by Mr. Lane, 477. " in Turkey, described by Mr. MacFarlane, 478, 484. " in Northern Africa, described by Barth and Blerzey, 477, 485. " its character given by M. Renan, 485. " its monotheism lower than that of Judaism and Christianity, 481. " does not convert the Aryan races, 500. " pure from Polytheism, 502. " has a tendency to catholicity, 503. " a relapse to a lower stand point, 483. " summary of its good and evil influence, 484. Monotheism (or Dualism), the doctrine of the Avesta, 203. Montesquieu quoted, 357. Moses, his historic character, 409. " described by Strabo (note), 410. " his natural genius and temperament, 411. " his seventy and tenderness, 412. " his sense of justice embodied in law, 412. " his object to teach the holiness of God, 413. " defects of his character, 413. " character of his monotheism, 414. " his monotheism described by Stanley (note), 414. " his anthropomorphic view of God, 415. " his acquaintance with Egyptian learning, 416. " nature of his inspiration, 417. " political freedom secured to the Jews by his law, 418. " object of his ceremonial law, 420. Mythology of Scandinavia and that of Zoroaster compared, 384.

N.

Names of our week-days Scandinavian, 358. Neptunus, origin of the name, 328. Nestorian inscription in China, 71-78. Njord, ruler of the winds, 378. Northern and Southern Europe compared, 359. Northmen in France, Spain, Italy, and Greece, 389. Number of Christians in the world, 146. " of Buddhists in the world, 146. " of Jews in the world, 146. " of Mohammedans in the world, 146. " of Brahmans, 146. Nyaya, system of philosophy, assumes three principles, 122. " system of philosophy, described by Banerjea, 123.

O.

Odin, or All-father, eldest of the Æsir, 377. " corresponds to Ormazd, 385. " his festival in the spring, 386. Opa, goddess of the harvest, 330.

P.

Pales, a rural god, 330. Palestine, or the land of the Philistines, 397. " resembles Greece and Switzerland, 397. " its mountainous character, 397. " a small country, 398. " its mountains and valleys, 399. Palgrave, note giving an extract from his book, 486. Papacy, mediæval, good done by it, 350. " a reproduction of the Roman state religion, 350. Parsî religion, its influence on Judaism, 205. " " its influence on Christianity, 204. " " teaches a kingdom of heaven, 207. " " still continues in Persia and India, 208. Parthenon, the, temple of Minerva, described, 290. Penates, gods of home, 328. Persepolis, ruins of the palace of Xerxes at, 170. " inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes at, 170. " tombs of the kings of Persia at, 174. Pharisees, Sadducets, and Essenei, 444. Phidias, his statue of Jupiter described, 288. Philistines, probably Pelasgi from Crete, 421. Philosophy, early Greek, 291. " Greek, in Asia Minor, 291. " in Italy, 292. Phœnicians, their language a form of Hebrew, 400. Plato harmonizes realism and idealism, 293. " his philosophy completes that of Socrates, 294. " his method that of transcendentalism, 294. " his idea of God pure and high, 295. " Christian element in, 295. Pliny, the elder, his view of religion, 345. Present work, an essay, or attempt, 1. " " companson of religions its object, 1. Prophecy, a modification of inspiration, 438. Prophets of the Old Testament, men of action, 440. " politicians and constitutional lawyers, 440. " preferred the moral law to ceremonial, 441. " described by Dean Stanley, 441. " their inspiration came through a common human faculty, 442. " their predictions not always realized, 443. " their foresight of Christianity, 443. " developed Judaism to its highest point, 443. Proverbs, Book of, in the Edda, 365. Pontiffs, their authority, 336. Positivism, its law of progress examined, 489. Puranas, the, much read by the common people, 130. " devoted to the worship of Vischnu, 131. " extol the power of penances, 132. " ideas those of the epics, 132. " their philosophy that of the Sunkhya, 132.

R.

Ramses II. a powerful king B.C. 1400, 233. " supposed to be the same as Sesostris, 234. " birth of Moses during his reign, 335. Recognition of God in nature, best element of Egyptian religion, 257. Relation of the religion of the Avesta to the Vedas, 201. Results of the survey of ten religions, 489. " in regard to their resemblance and difference, 490. Resemblance of the Roman Catholic ceremonies to those of Pagan Rome, 350. Roman calendar, described, 332. Roman Catholic Church, teaches an exclusive spiritualism, 143. " " " is eminently a sacrificial system, 143. " " " its monastic system an included Protestantism, 145. Roman deities adopted from Greece, 326. " " manufactured by the pontiffs, 326. " " representing the powers of nature, 327. " " representing human relations, 328. " " presiding over rural occupations, 330. " " derived from the Etruscans, 327. " empire gave to Christianity its outward form (note), 350. " " united the several states of Europe, 350. " law, its influence on Western theology, 351. " legal notions transferred to theology, 352. " mind, wanting in spontaneity, 316. " " serious, practical, hard, 316. " religion, an established church, 317. " " regarded chiefly external conduct, 317. " " tolerant of questions of opinion, 317. " " not a mere copy from Greece, 318. " " described by Hegel, 318. " " described by Cicero, 317-319. " " described by Mommsen, 319. " " a polytheism, with monotheism behind it, 320. " " deified all events, 321. Romans, as a race, whence derived, 319. " " belong to the Aryan family, 319. " " composed of Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, 320. " " related to the Pelasgi and Celts, 320. " their oldest deities, Latin, Sabine, and Etruscan, 320. Roman sepulchral monuments, their tone, 346. Roman thought and Roman religion opposed, 342. Roman worship, very elaborate and minute, 331. " " full of festivals, 331. " " distinguished between things sacred and profane, 331. " " a yoke on the public life of the Romans, 334. " " directed by the College of Pontiffs, 334. " " chief seat in the Via Sacra, 335. " " governed by etiquette, 335. " " originally free from idolatry, 336. " " acted like a charm, 340. Rome, ancient, its legacy to Christianity, 353. Runes, Odin's song of, in the Edda, 368.

S.

Salii, ancient priests of Mars, 336. Sánkhya philosophy, 114. " founded on two principles, 120. " considered atheistic, 120. " the basis of Buddhism, 121. " a very ancient system, 122. Saturnus, Saturn, god of planting, 330. Scandinavia, consisting of what regions, 358. " surrounded by the sea, 358. " its adaptation to the Teutonic race, 359. " formerly inhabited by the Cimbri, 360. " the home of the Northmen, 361. Scandinavian religion, a system of dualism, 362. " " war its essential idea, 362. " " its virtues, truth, justice, courage, 362. Scandinavians, their early history, 355. " described by Cæsar, 355. " described by Tacitus, 356. " a branch of the great German family, 357. " their language, the Norse and its derivatives, 357. " our inheritance from, 358. " their manners and institutious, 387. " their respect for women, 388. " their Scalds, or bards, 388. " their maritime expeditions, 389. Sea-Kings of Norway, their discoveries, 361. Seat of the Scandinavian race, 355. Secrecy, the evil in Egyptian religion, 257. Semitic races, their character and exploits, 399. " " great navigators and discoverers, 399. " " identity of their languages, 400. " " nations of which they consist, 399. " " their religion and gods, 401. " " their tendency to monotheism, 402. Seneca, his view of religion, 343, 344. Serapis, the same as Osiris-Apis, 257. Sibylline books, derived from Greece, 336. Siculi, supposed to be Kelte (note), 320. Silvanus, god of the woods, 330. Siva, does not appear in the Vedas, 125. " worshipped with Brahma and Vischnu at the present time, 127. " worshipped in the Puranas, 132. " girls worship him with flowers, 132. " his wife Doorga, festival of, 134. " men swing on hooks in honor of, 135. Solomon, and the relapse of Judaism, 428. " a less interesting character than David, 429. " his unscrupulous policy, 429. " the splendor and power of his reign, 430. " his alliances with Egypt, Phoenicia, and Arabia, 341. " his temple described, 432. " his Book of Proverbs and its character, 433. " account of his last days, 434. " his scepticism described in Ecclesiastes, 435. Socrates, his character and work, 293. Sol, the sun, a Sabine deity, 327. Soma plant of the Veda, the Haŏma, 202. Sophocles, the most devout of the Greek tragedians, 284. Spiritualism, in Brahmanism and Christianity, 136. Stoics, as described by Zeller, 296.

T.

Tacitus, the spirit of his writings, 346. Tae-Ping (or Ti-Ping) insurrection, its origin, 62. " " its leader the heavenly prince, 62. " " essentially a religious movement, 64. " " based on the Bible, 65. Tae-Pings (or Ti-Pings), their prayers, 65. " their public religious exercises, 66. " their moral reforms, 68. " put down by British intervention, 68. " worshipped one God, and believed in Jesus, 69. Talmud, the, extracts from, 445. Tao-te-king, its doctrines described, 54. " resembles the system of Hegel, 54. " its doctrine of opposites, 55. " its resemblance to Buddhism, 55. " its tendency to magic, 56. Tellus, the earth, a Roman god, 330. Tempestates, the tempests, worshipped at Rome, 327. Terminus, an old Italian god, 330. Three classes of Roman gods, 325. Tiberinus, or father Tiber, a Roman god, 328. Things, or popular assemblies of the Scandinavians, 358. Thor, his character and prowess, 377. " his famous mallet, 378. " his journey to Jotunheim, 374. " his fight with the Midgard serpent, 376. Triad, the Hindoo, its origin, 124. " compared with other Triads, 124. Trinity, Christian, derived from Egypt, 255. Trinity the, its meaning in Christianity, 500. Truths and errors of the different systems, 21. Tyr, the Scandinavian war god, 379. " how he lost his hand, 380, 383.

U.

Ulphilas, the Arian, first Christian teacher of the Germans, 390. " his translation of the Bible into Gothic tongue, 390.

V.

Vedanta philosophy assumes a single principle, 116. " " knows no substance but God, 119. " " described by Chunder Dutt, 118. " " souls absorbed in God, 119. Vedas, the, when written, 89-99. " their chief gods, 89-99. " traces of monotheism in, 90. " some hymns given, 91, 92, 93, 95. Vedic literature, divided into four periods, 95. " " contains Chhandas, Mantras, Brâhmans, Upanishads, Sûtras, and Vedângas, 96. " " at first not committed to writing, 97. Venus, an early Latin or gabine goddess, 325. Vertumnus, god of gardens, 330. Vesta, goddess of the hearth, 328. Vestal Virgins, their duties, 337. Vischnu, mentioned in the Rig-Veda as Sun-God, 125. " his Avatars, 126. " one of the Triad, 126. " incarnate as Juggernaut, 133. " worshipped as Krishna, 134, 135. " worshipped in the Puranas, 132. Völuspa, or wisdom of Vala, extracts from, 364. Vulcanus, an Italian deity, 328.

W.

Wahhabee, revival in Arabia, described by Palgrave, 478. Wedding ring, in Egypt and Christendom, 253. Welcker, his opinion of the substance of Greek religion, 286. Works on Scandinavian religion (note), 362. Worship of the Scandinavians, 385.

Z.

Zend Avesta, a collection of hymns, prayers, and thanksgivings, 187. " " extracts from the Gathas, 188. " " extract from the Khordah Avesta, 189. " " hymn to the star Tistrya, 190. " " hymn to Mithra, 190. " " a confession of sin, 191. Zoroaster, mentioned by Plato, Diodorus, and other classic writers, 175. " account of him by Herodotus, 175. " account of him by Plutarch, 176. " inquiry as to his epoch, 180. " resided in Bactria, 181. " spirit of his religion, 182. " he continually appears in the Avesta, 186. " oppressed with the sight of evil, 184.

The End.

Footnotes

[1] It is one of the sagacious remarks of Goethe, that "the eighteenth century tended to analysis, but the nineteenth will deal with synthesis."

[2] Professor Cocker's work on "Christianity and Creek Philosophy," should also be mentioned.

[3] James Foster has a sermon on "The Advantages of a Revelation," in which he declares that, at the time of Christ's coming, "just notions of God were, in general, erased from the minds of men. His worship was debased and polluted, and scarce any traces could be discerned of the genuine and immutable religion of nature."

[4] John Locke, in his "Reasonableness of Christianity," says that when Christ came "men had given themselves up into the hands of their priests, to fill their heads with false notions of the Deity, and their worship with foolish rites, as they pleased; and what dread or craft once began, devotion soon made sacred, and religion immutable." "In this state of darkness and ignorance of the true God, vice and superstition held the world." Quotations of this sort might be indefinitely multiplied. See an article by the present writer, in the "Christian Examiner," March, 1857.

[5] Mosheim's Church History, Vol. I. Chap. I.

[6] Neander, Church History, Vol. I. p. 540 (Am. ed.).

[7] Essays and Reviews, Article VI.

[8] In this respect the type has changed.

[9] The actual depth reached in the St. Louis well, before the enterprise was abandoned, was 3,843½ feet on August 9, 1869. This well was bored for the use of the St. Louis County Insane Asylum, at the public expense. It was commenced March 31, 1866, under the direction of Mr. Charles H. Atkeson. At the depth of 1,222 feet the water became saltish, then sulphury. The temperature of the water, at the bottom of the well, was 105°F. Toward the end of the work it seemed as if the limit of the strength of wood and iron had been reached. The poles often broke at points two or three thousand feet down. "Annual Report (1870) of the Superintendent of the St. Louis County Insane Asylum."

[10] Andrew Wilson ("The Ever-Victorious Army, Blackwood, 1868") says that "the Chinese people stand unsurpassed, and probably unequalled, in regard to the possession of freedom and self-government." He denies that infanticide is common in China. "Indeed," says he, "there is nothing a Chinaman dreads so much as to die childless. Every Chinaman desires to have as large a family as possible; and the labors of female children are very profitable."

[11] Quoted by Mr. Meadows, who warrants the correctness of the account. "The Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 404.

[12] Dr. Legge thus arranges the Sacred Books of China, or the Chinese Classics:--

A. The Five _King_. [_King_ means a web of cloth, or the warp which keeps the threads in their place.]

(a) _Yih-King_. (Changes.) (b) _Shoo-King_. (History.) (c) _She-King_. (Odes.) (d) _Le-Ke-King_. (Rites.) (e) _Ch'un-Ts'eu_. (Spring and Autumn. Annals from B.C. 721 to 480.)

B. The Four Books.

(a) _Lun-Yu_. (Analects, or Table-Talk of Confucius.) (b) _Ta-Hio_. (Great Learning. Written by _Tsang-Sin_, a disciple of Confucius.) (c) _Chung-Yung_ (or Doctrine of the Mean), ascribed to _Kung-Keih_, the grandson of Confucius. (d) Works of _Mencius_.

After the death of Confucius there was a period in which the Sacred Books were much corrupted, down to the _Han_ dynasty (B.C. 201 to A.D. 24), which collected, edited, and revised them: since which time they have been watched with the greatest care.

"The evidence is complete that the Classical Books of China have come down from at least a century before our era, substantially the same as we have them at present."--_Legge_, Vol. I. Chap. 1. § 2.

The Four Books have been translated into French, German, and English. Dr. Marshman translated the Lun-Yu. Mr. Collie afterward published at Calcutta the Four Books. But within a few years the labors of previous sinologues have been almost superseded by Dr. Legge's splendid work, still in process of publication. We have, as yet, only the volumes containing the Four Books of Confucius and his successors, and a portion of the Kings. Dr. Legge's work is in Chinese and English, with copious notes and extracts from many Chinese commentators. In his notes, and his preliminary dissertations, he endeavors to do justice to Confucius and his doctrines. Perhaps he does not fully succeed in this, but it is evident that he respects the Chinese sage, and is never willingly unfair to him. If to the books above mentioned be added the works, of Pauthier, Stanislas Julien, Mohl, and other French sinologues, and the German works on the same subject we have a sufficient apparatus for the study of Chinese thought.

[13] "On the top of his head was a remarkable formation, in consequence of which he was named Kew."--Legge, Vol. I. Chap. VI. (note).

[14] Meadows, "The Chinese and their Rebellions," p. 332.

[15] Meadows, p. 342.

[16] "Le Tao-te-king, le livre de la voie et de la vertu, composé dans, la vie siècle avant l'ère Chrétienne, par le philosophe Lao-tseu, traduit par Stanislas Julien. Paris, 1842."

[17] "Le livre des Récompenses et des Peines. Julien, 1835."

[18] "Seyn and Nichte ist Dasselbe." Hegel.

[19] "The meek shall inherit the earth."

[20] See "La Magie et l'Astrologie, par Alfred Maury."

[21] Was it some pale reflection of this Oriental philosophy which took form in the ode of Horace, "Integer vitæ" (i. 22), in which he describes the portentous wolf which fled from him?

[22] Meadows, p. 28.

[23] Meadows, p. 18.

[24] Ti-Ping Tien-Kwoh; The History of the Ti-Ping Revolution, by Lin-Le, special agent of the Ti-Ping General-in-Chief, &c. Davy and Son, London, 1866. Vol. 1. p. 806.

Mr. Andrew Wilson, author of "The Ever-Victorious Army" (Blackwood, 1868), speaks with much contempt of Lin-Le's book. In a note (page 389) he brings, certain charges against the author. Mr. Wilson's book is written to glorify Gordon, Wood, and others, who accepted roving commissions against the Ti-Pings; and of course he takes their view of the insurrection. The accusations he brings against Lin-Le, even if correct, do not detract from the apparent accuracy of that writer's story, nor from the weight of his arguments.

[25] Ibid., Vol. I. p. 315. These forms are given, says the writer, partly from memory.

[26] Hong-Kong Gazette, October 12, 1855.

[27] Intervention and Non-Intervention, by A. G. Stapleton.

[28] Official Papers of the Chinese Legation. Berlin: T. Calvary & Co., Oberwasser Square. 1870.

[29] From Hue's "Christianity in China."

[30] Now usually written Sákoontalá or Sákuntalá.

[31] To avoid multiplying footnotes, we refer here to the chief sources on which we rely in this chapter. _C. Lassen_, Indische Altherthumskunde; _Max Müller_, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (and other works); _J. Muir_, Sanskrit Texts; _Pictet_, Les Origines Indo-Européennes; _Sir William Jones_, Works, 13 vols.; _Vivian de Saint-Martin,_ Etude, &c., and articles in the Revue Germanique; _Monier Williams_, Sakoontalá (a new translation), the Rámayána, and the Mahá Bhárata; _Horace Hayman Wilson_, Works (containing the Vischnu Purana, &c.); _Burnouf_, Essai sur la Vêda, Le Bhagavata Purana; _Stephenson_, the Sanhita of the Sama Veda; _Ampère_, La Science en Orient; _Bunsen_, Gott in der Geschichte; _Shea_ and _Troyer_, The Dabistan; _Hardwick_, Christ and other Masters; _J. Talboys Wheeler_, History of India from the Earliest Times; Works published by the Oriental Translation Fund; _Max Duncker_, Die Geschichte der Arier; _Rammohun Roy_, The Veds; _Mullens,_ Hindoo Philosophy.

[32] "The soul knows no persons."--EMERSON.

[33] All Indian dates older than 300 B.C. are uncertain. The reasons for this one are given carefully and in full by Pictet.

[34] Our English word _daughter_, together with the Greek θυγἀτηρ, the Zend _dughdar_, the Persian _docktar_, &c., corresponds with the Sanskrit _duhitar_, which means both daughter and milkmaid.

[35] _Hatchet_, in Sanskrit _takshani_, in Zend _tasha_, in Persian _tosh_, Greek τόχος, Irish _tuagh_, Old German _deksa_, Polish _tasalc_, Russian _tesaku._ And what is remarkable, the root _tak_ appears in the name of the hatchet in the languages of the South Sea Islanders and the North American Indians.

[36] M. Vivien de Saint-Martin has determined more precisely than has been done before the primitive country of the Aryans, and the route followed by them in penetrating into India. They descended through Cabul to the Punjaub, having previously reached Cabul from the region between the Jaxartes and the Oxus.

[37] The Rig-Veda distinguishes the Aryans from the Dasjus. Mr. Muir quotes a multitude of texts in which Indra is called upon to protect the former and slay the latter.

[38] Agni, whence Ignis, in Latin.

[39] See Talboys Wheeler, "History of India."

[40] Müller's Ancient Sanskrit Literature, page 569. He adds the following remarks: "There is nothing to prove that this hymn is of a particularly ancient date. On the contrary, there are expressions in it which seem to belong to a later age. But even if we assign the lowest possible date to this and similar hymns certain it is that they existed during the Mantra period, and before the composition of the Brâhmanas. For, to spite of all the indications of a modern date, I see no possibility how we could account for the allusions to it which occur in the Brâhmanas, or for its presence in the Sanhitâs, unless we admit that this poem formed part of the final collection of the Rig-veda-Sanhitâ, the work of the Mantra period."

[41] Max Müller translates "breathed, breathless by itself; other than it nothing since has been."

[42] Max Müller says, "Love fell upon it."

[43] Müller, Sanskrit Lit., p. 546.

[44] Müller, Sanskrit Lit., p. 552.

[45] Ibid., p. 553.

[46] That heat was "a form of motion" was thus early discovered.

[47] It is the opinion of Maine ("Ancient Law") and other eminent scholars, that this code was never fully accepted or enforced in India, and remained always an ideal of the perfect Brahmanic state.

[48] See Vivien de Saint-Martin, Revue Germanique, July 16, 1862. The Sarasvati is highly praised in the Rig-Veda. Talboys Wheeler, II. 429.

[49] Max Müller, Sanskrit Lit., p. 425.

[50] Institutes of Hindu Law, or the Ordinances of Manu, according to the Gloss of Calluca, Calcutta, 1796, §§ 5, 6, 7, 8.

[51] See translation of the Sanhita of the Sama-Veda, by the Rev. J. Stevenson. London, 1842.

[52] Max Müller, "Chips," Vol. I. p. 107.

[53] Geschichte der Arier, Buch V. § 8.

[54] Lassen, I. 830.

[55] Laws of Manu (XII. 50) speaks of "the two principles of nature in the philosophy of Kapila."

[56] Duncker, as above.

[57] Müller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 102.

[58] Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, I. 349.

[59] Lassen, I. 834.

[60] Colebrooke, I. 350, 352.

[61] Duncker, I. 204 (third edition, 1867).

[62] The Sánkhya-Káriká, translated by Colebrooke. Oxford, 1837.

[63] Essay on the Vedanta, by Chunder Dutt. Calcutta, 1854.

[64] Colebrooke, I. 262.

[65] The Religious Aspects of Hindu Philosophy: A Prize Essay, by Joseph Mullens, p. 43. London, 1860. See also Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy, by Rev. K. M. Banerjea. London, 1861.

[66] Mullens, p. 44.

[67] Duncker, I. 205. He refers to Manu, II. 160.

[68] The Bhagavat-Gita, an episode in the Maha-Bharata, in an authority with the Vedantists.

[69] Burnouf, Introduction à l'Histoire du Buddhisme Indien, I. 511, 520. He says that Sukya-Muni began his career with the ideas of the Sánkhya philosophy, namely, absence of God; multiplicity and eternity of human souls; an eternal plastic nature; transmigration; and Nirvana, or deliverance by knowledge.

[70] Cours de l'Histoire de Philosophie, I. 200 (Paris, 1829); quoted by Hardwick, I. 211.

[71] Karika, 8. "It is owing to the subtilty of Nature ... that it is not apprehended by the senses."

[72] Karika, 19.

[73] Karika, 58, 62, 63, 68.

[74] Quoted from the Lalita Vistara in Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy. By Rev. R. M. Banerjea. London: Williams and Nordgate, 1861.

[75] Muir, Sanskrit Texts, Part IV. p. 253.

[76] Journal Am. Orient. Soc., III. 318.

[77] Even in the grammatical forms of the Sanskrit verb, this threefold tendency of thought is indicated. It has an active, passive, and middle voice (like that of the cognate Greek), and the reflex action of its middle voice corresponds to the Restorer or Preserver.

[78] See Colebrooke, Lassen, &c.

[79] Lassen, I. 838; II. 446.

[80] See Muir, Sanskrit Texts, Part IV. p. 136.

[81] Lassen, Ind. Alterthum, I. 357.

[82] Max Müller, Sanskrit Lit., 37.

[83] Ibid., p. 46.

[84] Ind. Alterthum, I. 483-499. Müller, Sanskrit Lit., 62, _note_.

[85] As of the Atheist in the Ramayana, Javali, who advises Rama to disobey his dead father's commands, on the ground that the dead are nothing.

[86] Preface to the Vischnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson. London, 1864.

[87] Duncker, Geschichte, &c., II. 318.

[88] Preface to his English translation of the Vischnu Purana.

[89] Translated by E. Burnouf into French.

[90] The Ramayana, &c., by Monier Williams Baden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford.

[91] Preface to the translation of the Vischnu Purana, by H. H. Wilson.

[92] Kesson, "The Cross and the Dragon" (London, 1854), quoted by Hardwick.

[93] See Note to Chap. II. on the Nestorian inscription in China.

[94] Illustrated Handbook of Architecture, p. 67.

[95] Hardy, Eastern Monachism, p. 224. Fergusson, p. 9.

[96] Fergusson, p. 10. Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes of India.

[97] Upham, Sacred and Historical Books of Ceylon.

[98] Here are a few of the guesses:--

Cunningham, _Bhilsa Topes_. Christians 270 millions. Buddhist 222 "

Hassel, _Penny Cyclopædia_. Christians 120 millions. Jews 4 " Mohammedans 252 " Brahmans 111 " Buddhists 315 "

Johnston, _Physical Atlas_. Christians 301 millions. Jews 5 " Brahmans 133 " Mohammedans 110 " Buddhists 245 "

Perkins, _Johnson's American Atlas_. Christians 369 millions. Mohammedans 160 " Jews 6 " Buddhists 320 "

_New American Cyclopædia_. Buddhists 290 millions.

And Professor Newmann estimates the number of Buddhists at 369 millions.

[99] Le Bouddha et sa Religion. Par J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire.--Eastern Monachism. By Spence Hardy.--Burnouf, Introduction, etc.--Koeppen, Die Religion des Buddha.

[100] The works from which this chapter has been mostly drawn are these:--Introduction à l'Histoire du Buddhisme indien. Par E. Burnouf. (Paris, 1844) Le Bouddha et sa Religion. Par J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire. (Paris, 1860.) Eastern Monachism. By R. Spence Hardy. (London, 1850.) A Manual of Buddhism in its Modern Development. By R. Spence Hardy. (London, 1853.) Die Religion des Buddha. Von Karl F. Koeppen. (Berlin, 1857.) Indische Alterthumskunde. Von Christian Lassen. (Bonn, 1852.) Der Buddhismus, Seine Dogmen, Geschichte, und Literatur. Von W. Wassiljew. (St. Petersburg, 1860.) Ueber Buddha's Todesjahr. Von N. L. Westergaard. (Breslau, 1862.) Gott in der Geschichte. Von C. C. J. Bunsen. (Leipzig, 1858.) The Bhilsa Topes, or Buddhist Monuments of Central India. By A. Cunningham. (London, 1854.) Buddhism in Thibet. By Emil Schlagintweit. (Leipzig and London, 1863.) Travels in Eastern countries by Hue and Gabet, and others. Eeferences to Buddhism in the writings of Max Müller, Maurice, Baur, Hardwick, Fergusson, Pritchard, Wilson, Colebrooke, etc.

[101] At the end of the fourth century of our era a Chinese Buddhist made a pilgrimage to the birthplace of Buddha, and found the city in ruins. Another Chinese pilgrim visited it A.D. 632, and was able to trace the remains of the ruined palace, and saw a room which had been occupied by Buddha. These travels have been translated from the Chinese by M. Stanislas Julien.

[102] _Buddha_ is not a proper name, but an official title. Just as we ought not to say Jesus Christ, but always Jesus _the_ Christ, so we should say _Siddârtha_ the Buddha, or _Sakya-muni_ the Buddha, or _Gautama_ the Buddha. The first of these names, Siddârtha (contracted from _Sarvârtha-siddha_) was the baptismal name given by his father, and means "The fulfilment of every wish." Sakya-muni means "The hermit of the race of Sakya,"--Sakya being the ancestral name of his father's race. The name _Gautama_ is stated by Koeppen to be "der priesterliche Beiname des Geschlechts der Sakya,"--whatever that may mean.

[103] The Sanskrit root, whence the English "bode" and "forebode," means "to know."

[104] Saint-Hilaire.

[105] Bhilsa Topes.

[106] Goethe, Faust.

[107] Die Persischen Keilinscriften (Leipzig, 1847.) See also the account of the inscription at Behistun, in Lenormant's "Manual of Ancient History."

[108] Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies.--Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums, B. II.--Heeren, The Persians.--Fergusson, Illustrated Hand-Book of Architecture.--Creuzer, Schriften. See also the works of Oppert, Hinks, Menant, and Lassen.

[109] Vendidad, Fargard, XIX.--XLVI. Spiegel, translated into English by Bleek.

[110] Herodotus, I. 131.

[111] Herodotus, in various parts of his history.

[112] "Plutarch's Morals. Translated from the Greek by several hands. London. Printed for W. Taylor, at the Ship in Pater-noster Eow. 1718." This passage concerning Zoroaster is from the "Isis and Osiris" in Vol. IV. of this old translation. We have retained the antique terminology and spelling. (See also the new American edition of this translation. Boston, Little and Brown, 1871.)

[113] This is the Haôma spoken of on page 202.

[114] These, with Ormazd, are the seven Amshaspands enumerated on page 197.

[115] See the account, on page 195, of these four periods of three thousand years each.

[116] Kleuker (Anhang zum Zend Avesta) has given a full _résumé_ of the references to Zoroaster and his religion in the Greek and Roman writers. More recently, Professor Bapp of Tubingen has gone over the same ground in a very instructive essay in the Zeitschrift der Deutsohen Morgenlândisshen Gesellschaft. (Leipzig, 1865.)

[117] Anq. du Perron, Zend Avesta; Disc. Prèlim., p. vi.

[118] At the time Anquetil du Perron was thus laboring in the cause of science in India, two other men were in the same region devoting themselves with equal ardor to very different objects. Clive was laying the foundations of the British dominion in India; Schwartz was giving himself up to a life of toil in preaching the Gospel to the Hindoos. How little would these three men have sympathized with each other, or appreciated each other's work! And yet how important to the progress of humanity was that of each!

[119] And with this conclusion the later scholars agree. Burnouf, Lassen, Spiegel, Westergaard, Haug, Bunsen, Max Müller, Roth, all accept the Zend Avesta as containing in the main, if not the actual words of Zoroaster, yet authentic reminiscences of his teaching. The Gâthâs of the Yaçna are now considered to be the oldest part of the Avesta, as appears from the investigations of Haug and others. (See Dr. Martin Haug's translation and commentary of the Five Gâthâs of Zarathustra. Leipzig, 1860.)

[120] Even good scholars often follow each other in a false direction for want of a little independent thinking. The Greek of Plato was translated by a long succession of writers, "Zoroaster the _son_ of Oromazes," until some one happened to think that this genitive might imply a different relation.

[121] Duncker (Gesch. des Alterthums, B. II.) gives at length the reasons which prove Zoroaster and the Avesta to have originated in Bactria.

[122] Duncker (B. II. s. 483). So Döllinger.

[123] Egypt's Place in Universal History, Vol. III. p. 471.

[124] Eran, das Land zwischen dem Indus und Tigris.

[125] Journal of the Am. Or. Soc., Vol. V. No. 2, p. 353.

[126] The Gentile and Jew, Vol. I. p. 380.

[127] Five Great Monarchies, Vol. III. p. 94.

[128] Essays, &c., by Martin Haug, p. 255.

[129] Die Religion und Sitte der Perser. Von Dr. Adolf Rapp. (1865.)

[130] Bunsen, Egypt, Vol. III. p. 455.

[131] Written in the thirteenth century after Christ. An English translation may be found in Dr. J. Wilson's "Pârsî Religion."

[132] Chips, Vol. I. p. 88.

[133] So Mr. Emerson, in one of those observations which give us a system of philosophy in a sentence, says, "The soul knows no persons." Perhaps he should have said, "The Spirit."

[134] Islam is, in this sense, a moral religion, its root consisting in obedience to Allah and his prophet. Sufism, a Mohammedan mysticism, is a heresy.

[135] Vendidad, Farg. I. 3. "Therefore Angra-Mainyus, the death-dealing, created a mighty serpent and snow." The _serpent_ entering into the Iranic Eden is one of the curious coincidences of the Iranic and Hebrew traditions.

[136] Lyell, Principles of Geology (eighth edition), p. 77.

[137] Idem., p. 83. A similar change from a temperate climate to extreme cold has taken place in Greenland within five or six centuries.

[138] The Daêvas, or evil spirits of the Zend books, are the same as the Dêvas, or Gods of the Sanskrit religion.

[139] The Patets are formularies of confession. They are written in Pârsî, with occasional passages inserted in Zend.

[140] Zoroast. Stud. 1863.

[141] Vendidad, Fargard XIX. 33, 44, 55.

[142] The Albordj of the Zend books is doubtless the modern range of the Elbrooz. This mighty chain comes from the Caucasus into the northern frontier of Persia. See a description of this region in "Histoire des Perses, par le Comte de Gobineau. Paris, 1869."

[143] See Burnouf, Comment, sur le Yaçna, p. 528. Flotard, La Religion primitive des Indo-Européens. 1864.

[144] Vendidad, Fargard X. 17.

[145] See Spiegel's note to the tenth Fargard of the Vendidad.

[146] See Windischmann, "Ueber den Soma-Cultus der Arien."

[147] Perhaps one of the most widely diffused appellations is that of the divine being. We can trace this very word _divine_ back to the ancient root _Div_, meaning to shine. From this is derived the Sanskrit Devas, the Zend Daêva. the Latin Deus, the German Zio, the Greek Zeus, and also Jupiter (from Djaus-piter). See Spiegel, Zend Avesta, Einleitung, Cap. I.

[148] Spiegel, Vend. Farg. XIX. note.

[149] Vendidad, Farg. XVIII. 110. Farvardin-Yasht, XVI.

[150] Article in Revue des Deux Mondes, April, 1865.

[151] Article in Revue des Deux Mondes, April, 1865.

[152] Other Egyptologists would not agree to this antiquity.

[153] Revue des Deux Mondes, September 1, 1887.

[154] Revue des Deux Mondes, p. 195.

[155] Yet this very organic religion, "incorporate in blood and frame," was a preparation for Christianity; and Dr. Brugsch (Aus dem Orient, p. 73) remarks, that "exactly in Egypt did Christianity find most martyrs; and it is no accident, but a part of the Divine plan, that in the very region where the rock-cut temples and tombs are covered with memorials of the ancient gods and kings, there, by their side, other numerous rock-cut inscriptions tell of a yet more profound faith and devotion born of Christianity."

[156] It is yet marked in the almanacs as Candlemas Day, or the Purification of the Virgin Mary.

[157] De Rougé, Revue Archéologique, 1853.

[158] Ampère, Revue Arch. 1849, quoted by Döllinger.

[159] These designations are the Greek form of the official titles.

[160] I do not know if it has been noticed that the principle of Swedenborg's. heaven was anticipated by Milton (Paradise Lost, V. 573),--

"What surmounts the reach Of human sense I shall delineate so By likening spiritual to corporeal forms, As may express them best; _though what if Earth Be but the shadow of Heaven, and things therein. Each to the other like, more than on earth is thought_."

[161] Bunsen, Egypt's Place, Vol. V. p. 129, _note_.

[162] This Museum also contains three large mummies of the sacred bull of Apis, a gold ring of Suphis, a gold necklace with the name of Menes, and many other remarkable antiquities.

[163] Book of Job, Chap. xxix.

[164] Brugsch, as above.

[165] Lenormant, Ancient History of the East, I. 234, in the English translation.

[166] Translated by De Rougé. See Revue Contemporaine, August, 1856.

[167] Egypt 3300 Years ago. By Lanoye.

[168] Beside the monuments and the papyri, we have as sources of information the remains of the Egyptian historians Manetho and Eratosthenes; the Greek accounts of Egypt by Herodotus, Plato, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, Jamblichus; and the modern researches of Heeren, Champollion, Rossalini, Young, Wilkinson. The more recent writers to be consulted are as follows:--

Bunsen's "Ægypten's Stelle in der Weltgeschichte. Hamburg." (First volume printed in 1845.) This great work was translated by C. C. Cottrel in five 8vo volumes, the last published in 1867, after the death of both author and translator. The fifth volume of the translation contains a full translation of the "Book of the Dead," by the learned Samuel Birch of the British Museum.

Essays in the Revue Archéologique and other learned periodicals, by the Vicomte de Rougé, Professor of Egyptian Philology at Paris. Works by M. Chabas, M. Mariette, De Brugsch, "Aus dem Orient," etc., Samuel Sharpe, A. Maury, Lepsius, and others.

[169] The Egyptian doctrine of transmigration differed from that of the Hindoos in this respect, that no idea of retribution seems to be connected with it. According to Herodotus (II. 123), the soul must pass through all animals, fishes, insects, and birds; in short, must complete the whole circuit of animated existence, before it again enters the body of a man; "and this circuit of the soul," he adds, "is performed in three thousand years." According to him, it does not begin "until the body decays." This may give us one explanation of the system of embalming; for if the circuit of transmigration is limited to three thousand years, and the soul cannot leave the body till it decays (the words of Herodotus are, "the body decaying," τοῦ σώματος δὲ καταφθίνοντος), then if embalming delays decay for one thousand years, so much is taken off from the journey through animals. That the soul was believed to be kept with the body as long as it was undecayed is also expressly stated by Servius (Comm. on the Æneid of Virgil): "The learned Egyptians preserve the corpse from decay in tombs in order that its soul shall remain with it, and not quickly pass into other bodies."

Hence, too, the extraordinary pains taken in ornamenting the tombs, as the permanent homes of the dead during a long period. Diodorus says that they ornamented the tombs as the enduring residences of mankind.

Transmigration in India was retribution, but in Egypt it seems to have been a condition of progress. It was going back into the lower organizations, to gather up all their varied life, to add to our own. So Tennyson suggests,--

"If, through lower lives I came, Though all experience past became Consolidate in mind and frame," etc.

Beside the reason for embalming given above, there may have been the motive arising from the respect for bodily organization, so deeply rooted in the Egyptian mind.

[170] Animals and plants, more than anything else, and animals more than plants, are the types of variety; they embody that great law of differentiation, one of the main laws of the universe, the law which is opposed to that of unity, the law of centrifugal force, expressed in our humble proverb, "It takes all sorts of people to make a world."

[171] Maury, "Revue des Deux Mondes, 1867." "Man's Origin and Destiny, J. P. Lesley, 1868." "Recherches sur les Monumens, etc., par M. de Rougé, 1866."

[172] Article "Ægypten," in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon, 1869. Duncker, "Geschichte des Alterthums, Dritte Auflage, 1863."

[173] See Duncker, as above.

[174] Les Pasteurs en Egypt, par F. Chabas. Amsterdam, 1868.

[175] The "hornets," Ex. xxiii. 28, and Josh. xxiv. 11, 12, are not insects, but the Hyksôs, who, driven from Egypt were overrunning Syria. See New York Nation, article on the Hyksôs, May 13, 1869.

[176] Pap. Tallier (Bunsen IV. 671) as translated by De Rougé, Goodwin, &c.: "In the days when the land of Egypt was held by the invaders, King Apapi (at Avaris) set up Sutekh for his lord; he worshipped no other god in the whole land."

[177] I follow here De Rougé, Brugsch, and Duncker, rather than Bunsen.

[178] Athenæum Français, 1856.

[179] Lesley, Man's Origin and Destiny, p. 149. Brugsch, Aus dem Orient, p. 37.

[180] A common title on the monuments for the king is Per-aa, in the dialect of Upper Egypt, Pher-ao in that of Lower Egypt, meaning "The lofty house," equivalent to the modern Turkish title, "The Sublime Porte."

[181] "Ægypten und die Bücher Mosis, von Dr. Georg Ebers. Leipzig, 1868." "Bunsen, Bibel-Werk," Erster Theil, p. 63.

[182] Æschylus calls the Egyptian sailors μελάγχιμος. Lucian calls a young Egyptian "black-skinned," but Ammianus Marcellinus says, "Ægyptii plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati."

[183] "Ægypten und die Bücher Mosis, von Ebers, Vol. I. p. 43."

[184] "Th. Benfey, Ueber das verhältniss der ägyptîschen Sprache zum semitischen Sprachstamme, 1844."

[185] Ægypten, &c.

[186] "The skulls of the mummies agree with history in proving that Egypt was peopled with a variety of tribes; and physiologists, when speaking more exactly, have divided them into three classes. The first is the Egyptian proper, whose skull is shaped like the heads of the ancient Theban statues and the modern Nubians. The second is a race of men more like the Europeans, and these mummies become more common as we approach the Delta. These are perhaps the same as the modern Copts. The third is of an Arab race, and are like the heads of the laborers in the pictures."--Sharpe, Hist. of Egypt, I. 3. He refers to Morton's Crania Ægyptiaca for his authority.

Prichard (Nat. Hist. of Man and Researches, &c.), after a full examination of the question concerning the ethnical relations of the Egyptians, and of Morton's craniological researches, concludes in favor of an Asiatic origin of the Egyptians, connected with an amalgamation with the African autocthones.

[187] "Dieser Völkerschaften gehorten der kaukasischen Race an; ihre Sprachen waren dem Semitischen am nächsten Verwandt." G. des A. I. 11.

[188] Brugsch derives it from Ki-Ptah = worshippers of Ptah.

[189] Plato, Timæus. Herod. II. 59. Gutschmidt and others deny this etymologic relation of Neith to Athênê.

[190] "There is a profound consolation hidden in the old Egyptian inscribed rocks. They show us that the weird figures, half man and half beast, which we find carved and painted there, were not the true gods of Egypt, but politico-religious masks, concealing the true godhead. These rocks teach that the real object of worship was the one undivided Being, existing from the Beginning, Creator of all things, revealing himself to the illuminated soul as the Mosaic "I AM THE I AM." It is true that this pure doctrine was taught only to the initiated, and the stones forbid it to be published. 'This is a hidden mystery; tell it to no one; let it be seen by no eye, heard by no ear: only thou and thy teacher shall possess this knowledge.'" Brugsch, Aus dem Orient, p. 69.

May not one reason for concealing this doctrine of the unity and spirituality of God have been the stress of the African mind to variety and bodily form? The priests feared to encounter this great current of sentiment in the people, and so outwardly conformed to it.

[191] So says Wilkinson.

[192] The finger on the mouth symbolizes, not silence, but childhood.

[193] The name "Mut" was also given to Neith, Pacht, and Isis.

[194] Brugsch, Aus dem Orient, p. 48.

[195] See Merivale, Conversion of the Northern Nations, p. 187, note, where he gives examples of "the inveterate lingering of Pagan usages among the nominally converted." But many of these were sanctioned by the Catholic Church.

[196] Kenrick, I. 372 (American edition).

[197] See for proofs, Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity, by Samuel Sharpe, 1863.

[198] Sharpe, Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity.

[199] Sharpe, as above.

[200] The earliest form of the Christian doctrine of the atonement was that the Devil killed Jesus in ignorance of his divine nature. The Devil was thus deceived into doing what he had no right to do, consequently he was obliged to pay for this by giving up the souls of sinners to which he had a right. The Osiris myth of the death of a god, which deeply colored the mysteries of Adonis and Eleusis, took its last form im this peculiar doctrine of atonement.

[201] Hase, Kirchengeschichte, § 87.

[202] Which continues in Christianity, in spite of Paul's plain statement, "Thou sowest _not_ the body which shall be."

[203] Serapis was not a god of the Pharaonic times, but came into Egypt under the Ptolemies. But lately M. Mariette has shown that Serapis was the dead bull Apis = Osiris-Apis. (Ὀσοραπις.)

[204] Mr. Grote (Vol. II. p. 222, American edition) refers to Strabo's remark on the great superiority of Europe over Asia and Africa in regard to the intersection and interpenetration of the land by the sea. He also quotes Cicero, who says that all Greece is in close contact to the sea, and only two or three tribes separated from it, while the Greek islands swim among the waves with their customs and institutions. He says that the ancients remarked the greater activity, mutability, and variety in the life of maritime nations.

[205] Mr. Buckle is almost the only marked exception. He nowhere recognizes the doctrine of race.

[206] The ox is, in Sanskrit _go_ or _gaûs_, in Latin _bos_, in Greek βοῦς.

The horse is, in Sanskrit _açva_, in Zend _açpa_, in Greek ἵππος, in Latin _equus_.

The sheep is, in Sanskrit _avis_, in Latin _ovis_, in Greek ὄϊs.

The goose is, in Sanskrit _hansa_, in Latin _anser_, in Old German _kans_, in Greek χήν.

House is, in Sanskrit _dama_, in Latin _domus_, in Greek δόμος. Door is, in Sanskrit _dvâr_ or _duâra_, in Greek θύρα, in Irish _doras_.

Boat or ship is, in Sanskrit _naûs_, in Latin _navis_, in Greek ναύς. Oar is, in Sanskrit _aritram_, in Greek ἐρετμός in Latin _remus_.

The Greeks distinguished themselves from the Barbarians as a grain-eating race. Barbarians ate acorns.

[207] Herod., I. 56, 57, 146; II. 51, 171; IV. 145; V. 26; VI. 137; VII. 94; VIII. 44, 73.

[208] Maury, Histoire des Religions de la Grèce Antique, Chap. I. p. 5. He mentions several Pelasgic words which seem to be identical with old Italian or Etruscan names.

[209] Müller, Dorians, Introduction, § 10.

[210] Griechische Gotterlehre, Einleitung, § 6.

[211] See Müller, Dorians.

[212] Symbolik und Mythologie, Th. III., Heft 1, chap. 5, § 1.

[213] Herod. II. 50 _et seq_.

[214] Among the ancients Ονὸμα often had this force. It denoted personality. The meaning, therefore, of Herodotus is that the Egyptians taught the Greeks to give their deities proper names, instead of common names. A proper name is the sign of personality.

[215] Maury, Religions de la Grèce, III. 263.

[216] Diod. Sic., I. 92-96.

[217] Gerhard, Griechische Mythologie, § 50, Vol. 1.

[218] Mr. Grote (History of Greece, Part I. Chap. 1.) maintains that Heaven, Night, Sleep, and Dream "are Persons, just as much as Zeus and Apollo." I confess that I can hardly understand his meaning. The first have neither personal qualities, personal life, personal history, nor personal experience; they appear only as vast abstractions, and so disappear again.

[219] Keats, in his Hyperion, is the only modern poet who has caught the spirit of the mighty Titanic deities and is able to speak

"In the large utterance of the early gods."

[220] Pictet, Les Origines Indo-Européenes.

[221] B.C. 1104. Döllinger.

[222] Die Dorier, X. 9.

[223] Ottfried Müller, Die Dorier.

[224] Varro, quoted by Maury.

[225] Dione was the female Jupiter, her name meaning simply "the goddess," identical with the Italic "Juno," formed from Διος.

[226] But not the same character. At Dodona he was invoked as the Eternal. Pausanias (X. c. 12, § 5) says that the priestesses of that shrine used this formula in their prayer: "Zeus was, Zeus is, Zeus shall be! O great Zeus!" On Olympus he was not conceived as eternal, but only as immortal.

[227] Rev. G. W. Cox (A Manual of Mythology, London, 1867. The Mythology of the Aryan Nations, London, 1870) has shown much ingenuity in his efforts to trace the myths and legends of the Greeks, Germans, etc., back to some original metaphors in the old Vedic speech, most of which relate to the movements of the sun, and the phenomena of the heavens. It seems probable that he carries this too far; for why cannot later ages originate myths as well as the earlier? The analogies by which he seeks to approximate Greek, Scandinavian, and Hindoo stories are often fanciful. And the sun plays so overwhelming a part in this drama, that it reminds one of the picture in "Hermann and Dorothea," of the traveller who looked at the sun till he could see nothing else.

"Schweben sichet ihr Bild, wohin er die Blicke nur wendet."

[228] See Le Sentiment Religieux en Grèce, d'Homère à Eschyle, par Jules Girard, Paris, 1869.

[229] Iliad, Book I. v. 600.

[230] Margaret Fuller used to distinguish Apollo and Bacchus as Genius and Geniality.

[231] Isthmian, VI.

[232] Pythian, II.

[233] Nemean, VI.

[234] God in History, IV. 10.

[235] "Atrocem animam Catonis."--Horace.

[236] Antigonê, 450.

[237] Yet, even in Euripides, we meet a strain like that (Hecuba, line 800), which we may render as follows:--

"For, though perhaps we may be helpless slaves, Yet are the gods most strong, and over them Sits LAW supreme. The gods are under law,-- So do we judge,--and therefore we can live While right and wrong stand separate forever."

[238] See the original in Herder's Greek text, Hellenische Blumenlese, and in Cudworth's Intellectual System.

[239] Welcker, Grieschische Gotterlehre, § 25.

[240] Ottfried Müller, History of Greek Art, §§ 115, 347.

[241] Oxford Prize Poems, Poem for 1812.

[242] Ὁ μέν θεὸς εις· κοὗτος δὲ οὐκ, ὡς τινὲς ὑπονοῦσιν, ἐκτὸς τὰς διακοσμήσεας· ἀλλ ἐν αὐτᾷ, ὅλος ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ κύκλῳ, ἐπίσκοπος πάσας γενέσες και κράσεως τῶν ὅλων.--Clem. Alex. Cohort. ad gentes.

[243] Monotheism among the Greeks, translated in the Contemporary Review, March, 1867. Victor Cousin, Fragments de Philosophie Ancienne.

[244] Quotations from Aristotle, in Rixner, I. § 75.

[245] See Rixner, Zeller, and the poem of Empedocles on the Nature of Things (περὶ φάσεως), especially the commencement of the Third Book.

[246] His famous doctrine, that "man is the measure of all things," meant that there is nothing true but that which appears to man to be so at any moment. He taught, as we should now say, the subjectivity of knowledge.

[247] Zeller, as before cited.

[248] Geschichte der Philosophie.

[249] The sentence which Plato wrote over his door, οὐδεις ἀγεωμέτρητος εἰσίτω, probably means, "Let no one enter who has not _definite_ thoughts." So Goethe declared that _outline_ went deepest into the mysteries of nature.

[250] For Proofs, see Ackermann, Cudworth, Tayler Lewis, and the New-Englander, October, 1869.

[251] Page 28, German edition.

[252] Laws, X. 893.

[253] Timæus, IX.

[254] Laws, IV. 715.

[255] Zeller, as above. Also Zeller, "Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics," translated by Reichel. London: Longmans, 1870.

[256] Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, p. 140.

[257] Mr. Fergusson thinks the peristyle not intended for an ambulatory, but is unable to assign any other satisfactory purpose.

[258] Illustrated Hand-Book of Architecture.

[259] Plutarch, quoted by Döllinger.

[260] Buckley's translation, in Bohn's Classical Library.

[261] Ibid.

[262] Republic, II. 17. See Döllinger's discussion of this subject, in "The Gentile and the Jew," English translation, Vol. I. p. 125.

[263] Advancement of Learning.

[264] Ottfried Müller has shown that some of these writings existed in the time of Euripides.

[265] Cudworth's Intellectual System, I. 403 (Am. ed.). Rixner, Handbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie, Anhang, Vol. I.

[266] Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Vol. IV. p. 71.

[267] Christianity and Greek Philosophy. By B. F. Cocker, D.D. New York: Harper and Brothers. 1870.

[268] See Neander, Church History, Vol I. p. 88, American edition.

[269] Hegel's Philosophic in Wörtlichen Ausüzgen. Berlin, 1843.

[270] Romische Geschichte, von Theodor Mommsen, Kap. XII.

[271] Janus, Picus, Faunus, Romulus, were _indigites_. Funke, Real Lexicon.

[272] See Niebuhr's Lectures on the History of Rome, for facts concerning the Siculi. The sound _el_ appears in Keltic, Gael, Welsch, Welsh, Belgians, Gauls, Galatians, etc. M. Grotefend (as quoted by Guigniaut, in his notes to Creuzer) accepts this Keltic origin of the Siculi, believing that they entered Italy from the northwest, and were gradually driven farther south till they reached Sicily. Those who expelled them were the Pelasgic races, who passed from Asia, south of the Caspian and Black Seas, through Asia Minor and Greece, preceding the Hellenic races. This accounts for the statement of Herodotus that the Pelasgi came from Lydia in Asia Minor, without our being obliged to assume that they came by sea,--a fact highly improbable. They were called Tyrrheanians, not from any city or king of Lydia, but, as M. Lepsius believes, from the Greek τύῤῥις (Latin, _turris_), a tower, because of their Cyclopean masonry. The Roman state, on this supposition, may have owed its origin to the union of the two great Aryan races, the Kelts and Pelasgi.

[273] Mythologie der Griechen und Romer, von Dr. M. W. Heffter. Leipzig, 1854.

[274] And so our word "janitor" comes to us from this very old Italian deity.

[275] Ampère, L'Histoire Romaine.

[276] This seems to us more probable than Buttman's opinion, that the temple of Janus was originally by the gate of the city, which gate was open in war and closed in peace. In practice, it would probably be different.

[277] "Quis ignorat vel dictum vel conditum a Jano Janiculum?" Solinus, II. 3, quoted by Ampère.

[278]

"Arx mea collis erat, quem cultrix nomine nostro Nuncupat hæc ætas, Janiculumque vocat."--Fasti, I. 245.

[279] Mater Matuta ("matutina," matinal) was a Latin goddess of the dawn, who was absorbed into Juno, as often happened to the old Italian deities. Hartung says: "There was no limit to the superficial levity with which the Romans changed their worship."

[280] The Etruscans worshipped a goddess named Menerfa or Menfra.--Heffter.

[281] Heffter, p. 525. _Cloaca_ is derived from _cluere_, which means _to wash away._ Libertina or Libitina is the goddess of funerals.

[282] Republic, II. 19.

[283] Hartung.

[284] "Diis quos superiores et involutes vocant."--Seneca, Quæst. Nat., II. 41.

[285] "De re rustica"; quoted by Merivale in the Preface to The Conversion of the Roman Empire.

[286] From the same root come our words "fate," "fanatic," etc. "Fanaticum dicitur arbor fulmine icta."--Festus, 69.

[287] From "sacrare" or "consecrare." Hence sacrament and sacerdotal.

[288] The word "calendar" is itself derived from the Roman "Kalends," the first day of the month.

[289] See Merivale, The Conversion of the Roman Empire, Lect. IV. p. 74.

[290] Döllinger, Gentile and Jew. Funke, Real Lexicon. Festus.

[291] Book I. 592.

[292] IV. 593.

[293] De Divinatione, II. 12, etc.

[294] A Greek epigram, recently translated, alludes to the same fact:--

"Honey and milk are sacrifice to thee, Kind Hermes, inexpensive deity. But Hercules demands a lamb each day, For keeping, so he says, the wolves away. Imports it much, meek browsers of the sod, Whether a wolf devour you, or a god?"

[295] Gibbon, Decline and Fall, Chap. II.

[296] Conversion of the Roman Empire, Note A.

[297] "Expedit civitates falli in religione," said Varro.

[298] "Philosophia sapientiæ amor est." "Nec philosophia sine virtute, nec sine philosophia virtus." Epist. XCI. 5.

[299] "Physica non faciunt bonos, sed doctos." Epist. CVI. 11.

[300] "Bonum est, quod ad se impetum animi secundum naturam movet." Epist. CXVIII. 9.

[301] "Universa ex materia et Deo constant." Epist. LXV. 24.

[302] "Socii Dei sumus et membra. Prope a te Deus est, tecum est, intus est. Sacer intra nos Spiritus sedet, malorum bonorumque nostrorum observator et custos. Deus ad homines venit; immo, in homines." Epist. XCII. 41, 73.

[303] Arrian's "Discourses of Epictetus," III. 24.

[304] Lectures on the History of Rome, III. 247.

[305] Monolog., X. 14.

[306] Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, p. 150.

[307] Quoted by Neander, Church History, I. 10 (Am. ed.).

[308] Gott in der Geschichte, Zweiter Theil, Seite 387.

[309] Tacitus, History, I. 3.

[310] Ibid., Annals, IV. 20.

[311] Ibid., Annals, VI. 22.

[312] Ibid., Agricola, 46.

[313] The Greek and the Jew, Vol. II. p. 147.

[314] Epistle to the Romans, xv. 13.

[315] "The legislation of Justinian, as far as it was original, in his Code, Pandects, and Institutes, was still almost exclusively Roman. It might seem that Christianity could hardly penetrate into the solid and well-compacted body of Roman law; or rather the immutable principles of justice had been so clearly discerned by the inflexible rectitude of the Roman mind, and so sagaciously applied by the wisdom of her great lawyers, that Christianity was content to acquiesce in these statutes, which she might despair, except in some respects, of rendering more equitable."--Milman, Latin Christianity, Vol. II. p. 11.

[316] See Ranke, History of the Popes, Chap. I., where he says that the Roman Empire gave its outward form to Christianity (meaning _Latin_ Christianity), and that the constitution of the hierarchy was necessarily modelled on that of the Empire.

[317] History of Latin Christianity, Vol. II. p. 100.

[318] Maine, Ancient Law, Chap. IX.

[319] "Non aliud peccare quam Deo non reddere debitum."

[320] Cæsar, Bell. Gall., I. 36, 39, 48, 50; VI. 21, 22, 23.

[321] "Præliis ambiguus, bello non victus."--Annals, II. 88.

[322] Tacitus, Germania, §§ 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9.

[323] "Illud ex libertate vitium, quod non simul, nec ut jussi, conveniunt."--Germania, § 11.

[324] Esprit des Loix.

[325] See, for the history and religion of the Teutonic and Scandinavian race, Cæsar; Tacitus; Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie; Geschichte und System der Altdeutschen Religion, von Wilhelm Muller; Northern Mythology, by Benjamin Thorpe; The Sea-Kings of Norway, by S. Laing; Manual of Scandinavian Mythology, by G. Pigott; Literature and Romance of Northern Europe, by William and Mary Hewitt; Die Edda, von Karl Simrock; Aryan Mythology, by George W. Cox; Norse Tales, by Dasent, etc. But one of the best as well as the most accessible summaries in English of this mythology is Mallet's Northern Antiquities, in Bohn's Antiquarian Library. This edition is edited by Mr. Blackwell with great judgment and learning.

[326] See Die Edda, von Karl Simrock. Stuttgart, 1855. Literature and Romance of Northern Europe, by William and Mary Howitt. London, 1852. Geschichte und System der Altdeutschen Religion, von Withelm Muller. Gottingen, 1844. Mallet's Northern Antiquities, edited by Blackwell, in Bohn's Antiquarian Library.

[327] Hitopadesá; or, Salutary Counsels of Vishnu Sarman. Translated fiom the Sanskrit by Francis Johnson. London and Hertford, 1848.

[328] See Memoir of Snorro Sturleson, in Laing's Sea-Kings of Norway.

[329] It would appear from this legend that the gods are idealizations of human will set over against the powers of nature. The battle of the gods and giants represents the struggles of the soul against the inexorable laws of nature, freedom against fate, the spirit with the flesh, mind with matter, human hope with change, disappointment, loss; "the emergency of the case with the despotism of the rule."

[330] Physical circumstances produced alterations in the mythologies, whose origin was the same. Thus, Loki, the god of fire, belongs to the Æsir, because fire is hostile to frost, but represents the treacherous and evil subterranean fires, which in Iceland destroyed with lava, sand, and boiling water more than was injured by cold.

[331] Northern Mythology, by Benjamin Thorpe.

[332] Gibbon, Chap. LVI.

[333] Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. Neander, Church History, Vol. II. Appendix.

[334] See, for the conversion of the German races, Gibbon; Guizot, History of Civilization; Merivale, Conversion of the German Nations; Milman, Latin Christianity; Neander, History of the Christian Church; Hegel; Lecky, History of European Morals.

[335] Latin Christianity, Book III. Chap. II.

[336] Palaztu, on the Western Sea. Rawlinson's Herodotus, Vol. I., p. 487.

[337] The word has been deciphered "Pulusater." Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, Palestine.

[338] Ibid.

[339] Palestine, and the Sinaitic Peninsula. By Carl Ritter. Translated by William L. Gage. New York. 1866.

[340] Ritter's Palestine, Vol. II. p. 315.

[341] Lynch makes it thirteen hundred feet below the surface of the Mediterranean. See Ritter.

[342] History of Israel, translated by Russell Martineau, Vol. I. p. 231.

[343] New American Cyclopædia, art. Semitic Race.

[344] Quoted by Le Normant, Manual of Ancient History of the East, Vol. I. p. 71.

[345] Remarks on the Phoenician Inscription of Sidon, by Professor William W. Turner, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. VII. No. 1.

[346] Poenulus, Act V. Sc. 1.

[347] See his Essay on the People of Israel, in Studies of Religious History and Criticism, translated by O. B. Frothingham.

[348] Except the proselytes, who are adopted children.

[349] History of the Jewish Church, Lect. I.

[350] See, for these marvellous stories, Weil, Legends of the Mussulmans.

[351] See my sermon on "Melchisedek and his Moral," in "The Hour that Cometh," second edition.

[352] Strabo, who probably wrote in the reign of Tiberius, thus describes Moses:--

"Moses, an Egyptian priest, who possessed a considerable tract of Lower Egypt, unable any longer to bear with what existed there, departed thence to Syria, and with him went out many who honored the Divine Being. For Moses taught that the Egyptians were not right in likening the nature of God to beasts and cattle, nor yet the Africans or even the Greeks, in fashioning their gods in the form of men. He held that this only was God,--that which encompasses all of us, earth and sea, that which we call heaven, the order of the world, and the nature of things. Of this, who that had any sense would venture to invent an image like to anything which exists among ourselves? Far better to abandon all statuary and sculpture, all setting apart of sacred precincts and shrines, and to pay reverence without any image whatever. The course prescribed was that those who have the gift of divination for themselves or others should compose themselves to sleep within the Temple, and those who live temperately and justly mjiy expect to receive lome good gift from God."

[353] "Esteeming the reproach of the Christ" (that is, of the anointed, or, the anointed people) "greater riches than the treasures of Egypt."

[354] See this well explained in The Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation, by James B. Walker.

[355] "'Behold, when I shall come to the children of Israel, and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers hath sent me unto you, and they shall say, What is his name? What shall I say unto them? And God said unto Moses, I AM THE I AM..... Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you!'

"It has been observed that the great epochs of the history of the Chosen People are marked by the several names, by which in each the Divine Nature is indicated. In the patriarchal age we have already seen that the oldest Hebrew form by which the most general idea of Divinity is expressed is 'El-Elohim,' 'The Strong One,' 'The Strong Ones,' 'The Strong,' 'Beth-El,' 'Peni-El,' remained even to the latest times memorials of this primitive mode of address and worship. But now a new name, and with it a new truth, was introduced. I am Jehovah; I appeared unto Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, by the name of El-Shaddai (God Almighty); but by my name Jehovah was I not known unto them. The only certain use of it before the time of Moses is in the name of 'Jochebed,' borne by his own mother. It was the declaration of the simplicity, the unity, the self-existence of the Divine Nature, the exact opposite to all the multiplied forms of idolatry, human, animal, and celestial, that prevailed, as far as we know, everywhere else."--Stanley's Jewish Church.

[356] A man became a prophet only by his powers of insight and foresight; until that was certified to the people, he was no prophet to them. When it was, it was because he _convinced_ them by his manifestation of the truth; consequently any revision of the law by a prophet was a constitutional amendment by the people themselves.

[357] Hitzig, Urgeschichte und Mythologie der Philister. Tacitus probably referred to the Cretan origin of the Philistines, when he says that the Jews were originally natives of the island of Crete. See his account of Moses and his institutions, Historia, V. 1-6.

[358]

"Out from the heart of nature rolled The burdens of the Bible old; The litanies of nations came, Like the volcano's tongue of flame, Up from the burning core below,-- The canticles of love and woe."

Emerson, _The Problem_.

[359] See this point fully discussed in Ritter, Palestine (Am. ed.), Vol. I. pp. 81-151.

[360] See Weil, Biblical Legends, for the Mohammedan traditions concerning Solomon.

[361] For he perceives the idea, but not its application to himself.

[362] Neither of them perceives that he is the object of the injury.

[363] Eccles. i. 2-11.

[364] Ibid. i. 12; ii. 11.

[365] Ibid. ii. 12-20.

[366] Ibid. ii. 24.

[367] Ibid. iii. 1-11.

[368] Ibid. iii. 18-21.

[369] Ibid. iv. 1-3.

[370] Ibid. iv. 9-12.

[371] Ibid. v. 1-7, 18.

[372] Ibid. vi.

[373] Eccles. vii. 2, 10, 15, 16.

[374] Ibid. vii. 26-28.

[375] Ibid. viii. 2, 3, 4, 11, 14(ix. 2, 3), 15, 17.

[376] Ibid. xi. 1, 2, 6.

[377] Ibid. xii. 1-8, 9, 12, 13.

[378] Döllinger, The Gentile and the Jew.

[379] See article on the Talmud, Quarterly Review, 1867.

[380] An anecdote was recently related of a little girl, five years old, who was seen walking along the road, looking up into the trees. Being asked what she was seeking, she replied: "Mamma told me God was everywhere, but I cannot see him in that tree." The faith of the patriarchs was like that of this child,--not false, but unenlightened.

[381] "And the Lord said, Who shall persuade Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-Gilead? And one said on this manner, and another said on that manner. And there came forth a spirit, and stood before the Lord, and said, I will persuade him. And the Lord said unto him, Wherewith? And he said, I will go forth, and I will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. And he said, Thou shalt persuade him, and prevail also: go forth and do so."

[382] See Greg, The Creed of Christendom, Chap. V. Also, The Spirit of the Bible, by Edward Higginson.

[383] Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und seine Lehre. Stuttgart, 1843.

[384] Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes, avant l'Islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi mussulmane. Paris. 3 vols. 8vo. 1847-48.

[385] Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammed, etc. Von A. Sprenger. Berlin, 1861.

[386] Sprenger, Vorrede, p. xii.

[387] The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam. By William Muir, Esq. London, 1858.

[388] A Series of Essays on the Life of Mohammed, and Subjects subsidiary thereto. By Syed Ahmed Khan Bahador. London: Trabner & Co. 1870.

[389]

"Quo fit ut omnis Votiva pateat velut descripta tabella Vita senis."

HORACE.

[390] The same remark will apply to Cromwell.

[391] "Mohammed once asked Hassan if he had made any poetry about Abu Bakr, and the poet repeated these lines; whereupon Mohammed laughed so heartily as to show his back teeth, and said, 'Thou hast spoken truly, O Hassan! It is just as thou hast said.'"--Muir, Vol. II. p. 256.

[392] Muir, Vol. II. p. 128.

[393] Koran, Sura 80.

[394] Mahomet and the Origin of Islam. Studies of Religious History. Translated by O. B. Frothingham.

[395] Lewes, Life of Goethe, Vol. I. p. 207.

[396] Mahomet et le Coran, par J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, Paris, 1865, p. 114.

[397] Les Religions et les Philosophies dans L'Asíe Centrale. Par M. le Comte Gobineau. Paris.

[398] A Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. By William Gifford Palgrave. Third edition. 1866. London.

[399] Article in Revue des Deux Mondes, January 15, 1868.

[400] Studies in Religious History and Criticism. The Future of Religion in Modem Society.

[401] Ibid., "The Part of the Semitic People in the History of Civilization."

[402] Ibid. The Future of Religion in Modern Society, The Origins of Islamism.

[403] The Sympathy of Religions, an Address by Thomas Wentworth Higginson. Boston, 1871.

[404] Job i. 6, 12; ii. 1; Zech. iii. 1; 1 Chron. xxi. 1.

[405] In the passages where Satan or the Devil is mentioned, the truth taught is the same, and the moral result the same, whether we interpret the phrase as meaning a personal being, or the principle of evil. In many of these passages a personal being cannot be meant: for example, John vi. 70; Matt. xvi. 23; Mark viii. 33; 1 Cor. v. 5; 2 Cor. xii. 7; 1 Thess. ii. 18; 1 Tim. i. 20; Heb. ii. 14.

[406] Exodus vi. 2.

[407] Exodus iii. 14.

End of Project Gutenberg's Ten Great Religions, by James Freeman Clarke