Part 3

The sun and the Nile River were the two important factors in the life of all Egyptians, and gods associated with these phenomena tended to transcend Egyptian provincialism and become truly national in scope. The priests at Heliopolis, near ancient Memphis, were devoted to the worship of the sun god under his ancient name Re. Heliopolis ("city of the sun") is the Greek form of a name that appears in the Old Testament in transliteration from the Egyptian as On (cf. Gen. 41:45ff.) and as Hebrew, Beth-Shemesh, "House of the sun" (Jer. 43:13). Joseph was married to an Egyptian girl named Asenath, "she belongs to (the goddess) Neith," the daughter of a priest named Potiphera ("He whom Re has given") who ministered at the shrine to the sun god at On, or Heliopolis (Gen. 41:45, 50; 46:20).

Re as the sun god came to be associated with other deities. As Re-Atum he came to be regarded as a manifestation of Atum, the creator. As god of the horizon, Re took the compound name Re-Harakhti. Such compounds as Sobek-Re and Khnum-Re indicate the tendency to identify local deities with the more universal Re. Beginning with the Fifth Dynasty (_ca._ 2500 B.C.) each Pharaoh bore the title "Son of Re" as part of his name, further enhancing the name and reputation of the sun god. Until the Egyptian New Kingdom (_ca._ 1600-1100 B.C.), when Amon of Thebes became the principal god of Egypt, the priests of Re at Heliopolis shared with the priests of Ptah in nearby Memphis the position of highest influence and wealth in the religious life of the country.

As creator god, Re was symbolized by the falcon and the scarab. The sun's daily journey across the sky reminded the devout Egyptian of Re's first appearance as the originator of life. Re, himself, was self-created according to the Book of the Dead. In Middle Kingdom times (_ca._ 2000-1600 B.C.), Thebes became the Egyptian capital and its patron deity Amon was identified with the sun god and assumed the compound name "Amon-Re, king of the gods." Thus a purely local god, through identification with Re, became the national god. As local gods became identified with one another, or with more universal gods, we may observe a tendency in the direction of monotheism.

Aton Worship

The worship of Aton appears as early as the reign of Thutmose IV (_ca._ 1414-1406 B.C.), who issued a commemorative scarab stating that the Pharaoh fought "with the Aton before him," and that he campaigned abroad, "to make the foreigners to be like the (Egyptian) people, in order to serve the Aton forever."[8]

Aton occupied an important place in the Egyptian pantheon during the reign of Akhenaton's father, Amenhotep III. A stele of the king's architects, Hori and Suti, describes the sun god as the deity who holds sway over all peoples and lands. A hymn speaks of Amon as "Aton of the day, creator of mortals and maker of life." The royal barge of Amenhotep III and his wife Tiy bore the name, "Aton gleams." Other gods were worshiped, and Amon was still in his place of honor, but Aton had come to the fore--perhaps in a context of rivalry between the priests of Heliopolis and Thebes--and the stage was set for the impending battle.

In the earliest period of Akhenaton's reign, Aton was the preferred god, but Amon was still granted homage. There was actually little that was original in the religious life of those earliest years, although there was much that might give concern to the Amon priests. Although there had been an earlier Aton temple in Thebes, it was Akhenaton who slowly moved from a position in which Aton was the favored god to one in which Aton was the only god tolerated. While there had been tendencies toward monotheism before, and Aton worship was not new, it was Akhenaton who finally made the break with the Amon priests at Thebes. With inexorable logic he changed his name from Amenhotep to Akhenaton, closed the Amon temples, and erased the name of Amon from monuments and inscriptions. While Amon was the particular object of his disfavor, Akhenaton declared war on all the "thousand gods of Egypt," and sought to remove the very word "gods" from the monuments.

The Triumph of Aton

Aton became the only object of worship tolerated by the Pharaoh, and his domain was extended beyond the boundaries of Egypt. Not only was the Egyptian capital moved to a city dedicated to Aton, but other cities were dedicated to him in Nubia and in Asia. The _Hymn to the Aton_ expresses the same type of universalism, envisioning Aton (the sun) as the god who blesses all people everywhere. While the Nile might have served as a god to unite all Egyptians, the sun was a deity who might unite all men in a common brotherhood. This, at any rate, seems to have been Akhenaton's dream.

There remained, however, illogical elements in the monotheism of Akhenaton. The Pharaoh himself was still a god, and Akhenaton had no doubt that he was the divine son of Aton. While Akhenaton and the royal family paid homage to Aton, others stood in awe before the Pharaoh. There were elements in the Amarna faith which militated against this, particularly the realism which enabled the citizens of Akhetaton to caricature their king, but the concept of a divine Pharaoh persisted in the Aton cult.

No image represented Aton in human shape, as the "thousand gods" of Egypt had been represented. Instead, worship was directed toward the disk of the sun which exerts a life-giving influence through its rays which produce a brilliance and warmth that no man can fail to experience. The symbol of the god Aton was a solar disk from which rays of light descended, terminating in human hands, some of which hold the Egyptian sign of life (_ankh_). In this symbolism, the sun graciously bestows life upon the worshiper of Aton. Sometimes the royal uraeus, symbol of kingship, hangs from the sun disk, and often it rises from the bottom of the disk toward the center. Aton is thus depicted as ruler as well as deity of all upon whom he shines.

While the Aton temple was not basically different from other shrines of ancient Egypt, it boasted no image and conducted its most solemn rites in the open, under the direct rays of the sun. This formed a distinct contrast to the cult of Amon who was called "the hidden one," and who had his shrine in the innermost and darkest part of the temple. If Amonism stressed the mysterious in religion, Atonism spoke of the deity's nearness and presence in the affairs of daily life. Atonism had no dark courts or mysterious rites. Its ritual was quite simple, with hymns sung by the temple choir and the presentation of gifts of meat and drink by worshipers. The odors of perfume and the presence of flowers added aesthetic qualities to the simple acts of worship. On the occasion of royal visits, which must have been quite frequent, the king personally consecrated the offerings.

Atonism never became the popular faith of Egypt, but it did spread beyond the confines of Akhetaton. Memphis had an Aton temple, and Aton reliefs have been found at Heliopolis. Modern students of religion sometimes charge that the Aton faith was devoid of ethical content, but this is an argument from silence. All of its literary remains consist of devotional literature--hymns extolling the glories of Aton and tomb inscriptions which describe the piety of his faithful worshipers. Whether or not Atonism was self consciously pacifist in orientation may be debated. A universal faith minimizes the differences among men, and Akhenaton's failure to intervene in the affairs of his Asiatic subjects may indicate that he hoped that a peaceful policy would resolve international tensions. Perhaps we should conclude that Akhenaton chose to devote himself to religious matters, and that the chaos in Asia was a result of neglect rather than self-conscious policy.

The Amarna tomb inscriptions give extravagant praise to Aton and his son, the Pharaoh:

How prosperous is he who hears thy doctrine of life and is sated with beholding thee, and unceasingly his eyes look upon Aton every day.

Thou art my great servant who hears my doctrine. My heart is content with every commission thou performest and I give thee the office in order that thou mayest eat the victuals of Pharaoh, the lord in the house of Aton.[9]

Moses and Aton

Since Akhenaton's worship of Aton as "sole god" is earlier than the date commonly ascribed to Moses (_ca._ 1280 B.C.), historians have puzzled over possible relationships between the monotheism of Akhenaton and the Biblical concept of one God. Sigmund Freud in his _Moses and Monotheism_ sought to trace the Hebrew-Christian faith to the Amarna revolt of Akhenaton.

The principal reason for associating Moses with Atonism is the fact of his birth and education in Egypt. The Scriptures assert, however, that the religious impetus of Moses did not come from Egyptian sources, which he completely disavowed (cf. Exod. 18:10-11). It was in the wilderness that Moses had the religious experiences which prepared him to become the leader of the Exodus (Exod. 3:1-6). Jethro, Moses' Midianite father-in-law, worshiped Yahweh (Exod. 18:10-12) and Moses may have learned much from him. Yahwism and the religion of Egypt were completely and self-consciously opposed to one another. Israel firmly believed that Yahweh, their God, had defeated Pharaoh and the gods of Egypt in the experience of the Exodus.

The Death of Aton

Within a generation after the death of Akhenaton, Atonism was dead, and its leading exponent was contemptuously called, "that criminal of Akhetaton." The religion never had a popular base, and that disintegration of the empire might effectively be charged to the displeasure of Amon at his neglect. The government was moved back to Thebes, and Akhenaton's son-in-law, Tutankhaton ("the living image of Aton"), became Tutankhamon ("the living image of Amon"). The cycle was now complete. Thebes and Amon had been restored to their former place of supremacy, the monuments erected by Akhenaton were defaced and the Aton temple was removed stone by stone. By the time of Moses, Akhetaton was abandoned completely, and Atonism had been forgotten.

V THE HYMN TO THE ATON

Our most important source for knowledge of the Aton cult is found in the tombs of the nobles east of Akhetaton. These tombs include reliefs bearing hymns in praise to Aton and to his son, Akhenaton. Either the Pharaoh composed them himself, or they were composed by courtiers who had completely assimilated the religious convictions which were basic to his reforms. The so-called long hymn to Aton not only extols the glories of the god of Akhenaton, but it also contains expressions which have become a part of Egyptian, and even Hebrew devotional literature. The Long Hymn was inscribed on the walls of the tomb prepared for the priest and courtier Eye who had known Akhenaton from his youth.[10] James H. Breasted suggested that it was an excerpt from the ritual of the Aton temple.[11]

The Splendor and Power of Aton

Thou dawnest beautifully on the horizon of heaven, Oh living Aton, the beginner of life. When thou risest on the eastern horizon Thou fillest every land with thy beauty. Thou art beautiful, great, glittering, and high over every land. Thy rays encompass the lands to the limit of all that thou hast made. Thou art Re, and thou reachest to their end.[12] Thou subjectest them to thy beloved son.[13] Though thou art far away, thy rays are on the earth; Though thou art before men, no one sees thy movements.

Nighttime

When thou settest in the western horizon The earth is in darkness, like death.[14] The night is passed in a bed-chamber with heads covered. One eye sees not the other. All their belongings which are under their heads might be stolen, And they would not know it. Every lion comes forth from his den,[15] and all snakes bite. Darkness broods, the earth is still, While he who made them rests in his horizon.

Daytime

At daybreak, when thou arisest on the horizon, Shining as Aton by day, Thou drivest away the darkness, and givest thy rays. The Two Lands[16] are in festivity every day. Men awaken and stand on their feet, For thou hast lifted them up. When they wash their bodies they put on their clothing, And their arms are raised in praise at thy glorious appearing. The entire land does its work.[17] All cattle are content in their pastures; The trees and plants flourish; The birds fly from their nests, Their wings are stretched out in praise to thy spirit.[18] All beasts spring to their feet, Whatever flies and alights; They live when thou arisest for them.[19] The ships are sailing upstream and downstream For every road is open at thy appearing. The fish in the river leap up before thee, Thy rays are in the midst of the great green sea.[20]

The Creation: Man

Who causest semen to grow in women, Who makest water into mankind; Who bringest to life the son in the womb of his mother; Soothing him that he may not weep. Thou nurse, even in the womb; Who givest breath to sustain all that thou hast made. And he comes forth from the womb on the day of his birth. Thou openest his mouth completely; Thou suppliest his necessities.

The Creation: Animal Life

The chick in the egg chirps in the shell. Thou givest him breath within it to make him live. When thou hast made his time in the egg, to break it, He comes forth from the egg to speak of his completion. He walks upon his legs when he comes forth from it.

Aton's Glory in Creation

How manifold are thy works, They are hidden from the face of man, O sole god, like whom there is no other. Thou didst create the world according to thy desire. Whilst thou wast alone.[21] Even all men, herds and flocks; Whatever is on earth; creatures that walk upon their feet, And that soar aloft, flying with their wings. The countries of Syria and Cush, the land of Egypt; Thou settest every man in his place; Thou suppliest their necessities. Everyone has his food and his days are reckoned.[22] Their tongues are diverse in speech, And their characters likewise. Their complexions are distinguished, For thou distinguishest country from country.

Aton Waters the Earth

Thou makest a Nile in the netherworld; Thou bringest it forth at thy pleasure, To give life to the people of Egypt.[23] For thou madest them for thyself, Thou lord of all who travailest with them; Thou lord of every land who shinest for them; The Aton of the day, great in majesty. All distant lands; thou givest them life also, For thou hast set a Nile in the sky.[24] That it may descend for them and make waves upon the mountains,[25] Like the great green sea, To water their fields in their villages.

Aton: Lord of the Seasons

How efficacious are thy plans, O lord of eternity. There is a Nile in the sky for the foreign peoples, But the (true) Nile comes from the nether-world for the land of Egypt. And for the animals of every country, that walk upon their feet; Thy rays nourish every garden; When thou shinest forth they live and they grow for thee. Thou makest the seasons in order to prosper all thou hast made: The winter to cool them, and the summer heat that they may taste thee. Thou hast made the distant sky to shine in it, And to see all that thou hast made. Whilst thou wert alone, Shining in thy form as the living Aton, Appearing gloriously, and gleaming, being both distant and near. Thou makest millions of forms through thyself alone, Towns, villages, fields, roads, and rivers. All eyes behold thee before them, For thou art the Aton of the day over the earth. Thou art in my heart, And there is no other that knows thee, Save thy son Nefer-Kheperu Re, Wa-en-Re.[26] For thou hast made him wise in thy ways and in thy power.[27]

Aton's Providence

The earth came into being by thy hand, even as thou hast made them. When thou dost shine, they live, When thou settest, they die. Thou, thyself, art length of life; For men live only by thee. Eyes are fixed on beauty until thou settest; All work is laid aside when thou settest in the west, But when thou risest again, everything is made to flourish for the king.... Every leg is in motion, since thou didst establish the earth. Thou raisest them up for thy son, who came forth from thy body.

The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Nefer-kheperu-Re, Wa-en-Re, son of Re, living in truth, lord of Diadems, Akhenaton, whose life is long; and for the Chief Royal Wife, Nefer-neferu-Aton, Nofertiti whom he loves, may she live and flourish for ever and ever.

Although the Hymn to the Aton clearly grants a favored position to Egypt, Aton is pictured as holding sway over all peoples, for the sun brings light and heat to men of every nation. This universalism finds a modern counterpart in the hymn of Joseph Addison (1712):

The spacious firmament on high, With all the blue ethereal sky, And spangled heavens, a shining frame, Their great Original proclaim: Th' unwearied sun, from day to day, Does his creator's power display, And publishes to every land The work of an almighty hand.

Parallels between the Hymn to the Aton and Psalm 104 suggest that the poetic expressions of the hymn became a part of the literary heritage of the Near East. Although Atonism as a religion died a short time after the death of its chief apostle, Akhenaton, poetic utterances used in praise to Aton could readily be incorporated into other Egyptian devotional literature and, eventually, find an echo in the literature of other lands. While many of the similarities between Psalm 104 and Akhenaton's Hymn could arise from independent contemplation of the movements of the sun on the part of people with no contact whatever, the numerous contacts between Israel and Egypt at least suggest that devotional language as well as proverbs (cf. I Kings 4:30) were common knowledge among the two peoples.

The two compositions are basically different, however, in that the Biblical psalmist acknowledges Yahweh, the God of creation and providence, as a spiritual being associated with natural phenomena only as their creator, whereas Aton, Akhenaton's "sole god" is identified with the disk of the sun. While Akhenaton seems to have spiritualized the Egyptian sun worship, he never divorced himself completely from it. Biblical monotheism asserts that the One God made "lights in the firmament of heaven to give light upon the earth" (Gen. 1:15). The Hymn of the Aton reaches a high point in the devotional literature of Egypt, but its monotheism was radically different from that presented on the pages of Scripture.

VI THE AFFAIRS OF EMPIRE

The Amarna tablets enable us to see evidences of the decline of Egyptian power and prestige during the latter years of the reign of Amenhotep III and throughout the reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). About forty of them record correspondence between the rulers of Egypt and the rulers of the major powers of the Amarna Age. We find letters from the Kassite kings Kadashman-Enlil I and Bumaburiash II of Babylon, from Ashuruballit I of Assyria, from Tushratta of Mitanni, from the Hittite king Suppiluliumas, and from an unnamed king of Alashia (Cyprus).

The Kings of Mitanni

In upper Mesopotamia, Egypt had an ally in Mitanni, a kingdom comprised largely of Hurrians (Biblical Horites), with an Indo-Aryan ruling class. The Mitannian kingdom was established about 1500 B.C. and at the height of its power reached from Nuzi and Arrapkha in Assyria to Alalakh in Syria. Its capital, Wassukkanni, was on the upper Habur River. A major threat both to Mitanni and, ultimately, to Egypt, came from the rising Hittite Empire with its capital at Hatusa (modern Bogazkoy) on the great bend of the Halys River in Asia Minor. Babylon had suffered an eclipse since the empire of Hammurabi and during the Amarna age it was ruled by a mountain people known as Kassites. Assyria, north of Babylon, had been subject to Mitanni until the Hittite conquest of Mitanni gave the Assyrians an opportunity to free themselves and develop an independent state.

The kings of Mitanni sent daughters to grace the harems of the Pharaohs of Egypt, and desired gold in exchange. The Amarna tablets include seven letters from Tushratta of Mitanni to Amenhotep III, one to his widow Queen Tiy, and three to Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton). In a typical communication he writes to Amenhotep III:

Let my brother send gold in very great quantity, without measure--that is what my brother should send me--and let my brother send more gold than (he sent) to my father, for in my brother's land gold is as plentiful as dust. May the gods so direct that, although now gold is so plentiful in my brother's land, he may have gold ten times more plentiful than now. Let not the gold which I desire trouble the heart of my brother, and let not my brother grieve my heart. So let my brother send me gold, without measure, in very great quantity.[28]

Although Tushratta's lust for gold may not have been appreciated in Thebes, Egypt valued her Mitannian allies who served as a check on the ambitious Hittites, thereby helping Egypt maintain control over Syria and Palestine. Not only were princesses from Mitanni welcome in Egypt, but the Mitannian gods might be of help to the Egyptians. During the illness of Amenhotep III, Tushratta sent a statue of the goddess Ishtar from Nineveh to bless the ailing Pharaoh:

Thus saith Ishtar, mistress of all the lands, "To Egypt, to the land which I love I will go; I will return." Verily I have now sent her, and she is gone. Indeed in the time of my father the mistress (Ishtar) went to that land, and inasmuch as she was revered when she formerly resided there, so now may my brother tenfold more than formerly honor her. May my brother honor her and joyfully send her back, and may she return. May Ishtar, mistress of heaven, protect my brother and me one hundred thousand years, and may our lady give to us both great joy.[29]

Tushratta looked to Egypt for help against Suppiluliumas and the emerging Hittite Empire, but neither gold nor troops came. Akhenaton was singing the praises of Aton in Akhetaton when the Hittites succeeded in entering and sacking the Mitannian capital (_ca._ 1370 B.C.) and Tushratta was slain by one of his own sons. The former king's exiled brother and rival, Artatama, seems to have seized control in the confusion that followed. Tushratta's son Mattiwaza (who may have been his father's murderer) fled to the Hittites, and Shutarna, son of Artatama, sought the friendship of the Assyrians in his bid for the throne.

Emerging Assyria