CHAPTER XI.

COMBAT--ATTACK AND DEFENSE.

_General observations._ Decisive results are obtained only by the offense. The attack leads, the defense must conform.

Do not contemplate a purely passive defense unless your mission requires it.

Raw, untrained troops are not suitable for active offensive operations; they are best utilized in defense, on the line of communications, or in a pivotal position supporting the maneuver of the first line troops.

A purely passive defense may be adopted in the following cases:

(a) With inferior troops.

(b) To contain a larger force of the enemy.

(c) When expecting reinforcements.

(d) In delaying actions.

It is by no means to be understood, however, that a purely passive defense should always be adopted in the above cases. This will depend on circumstances. At times a vigorous offensive may offer the only chance of success.

Fire superiority is the keynote of success.

Avoid too great dispersion of the front or separation of the troops in a decisive action. A regiment united has greater fighting strength than 3 separated battalions. All movements should be simple. Complicated maneuvers should never be attempted in battle. Make a conservative solution--never attempt anything grotesque.

Avoid half-hearted measures. If the decision is to attack, all available force should be thrown into the fight. This does not mean, however, that no reserves should be kept in hand at the opening of the attack.

Do not uncover the line of retreat unless the force is small and the country friendly. If, however, circumstances permit this to be done it will often force the enemy to also uncover _his_ line of retreat, and may thus increase the fruits of victory. An advance guard should usually not uncover the main body, though in a pursuit it may be justifiable to do so in order to prevent the delay of the main body.

Put into the main fight all available force, calling in all detachments within reach. The only detachments which are justifiable are (a) one which contains a _relatively_ stronger force of the enemy and keeps it out of the main combat, or (b) one which protects the flanks of the main force, secures it against surprise, or covers its communications, etc.

A detachment operating as a containing force separated by some distance from the main body, should if practicable be relatively strong in cavalry and artillery.

Night attacks are usually dangerous, and ordinarily practicable only for small forces. Night movements, however, may be advisable under certain conditions:

1. To seize a position prior to the enemy.

2. To gain ground over a fire swept zone.

3. To concentrate reserves for an assault, without detection by the enemy.

4. To effect a withdrawal in safety.

5. In pursuit of a defeated force.

(See post for night attacks)

An attack order will be much more intelligently made when issued as a result of an examination of the ground rather than from the map alone. For small commands, some examination of the terrain by the commander in person, will usually be possible, but for commands the size of a division or larger, the examination may not be possible. Dependence must then be placed upon the map supplemented by such reports as are obtainable.

Attacks which offer no chance of tactical success should generally be avoided. Combats which have no bearing on the general plan should also be avoided, as a rule, even though they offer the chance of easy victory.

Never neglect reconnaissance at any time.

Avoid splitting or mixing tactical units as far as possible.

Aggressiveness wins battles. If in doubt it is generally better to attack. But _make sure_ that the advantage derived from victory will be well worth the cost.

_Form of attack._ A turning movement should seldom be undertaken by a force smaller than a division (except by cavalry, or in the attack of a river line, etc.)

The usual forms of attack for a small force are but two in number:

(a) A frontal attack.

(b) A frontal attack with envelopment of a flank of the enemy.

A frontal attack with envelopment of both flanks, (rare--).

The advantages of a frontal attack are simplicity, speed and directness. Its disadvantages are that it is usually very costly (due to difficulty of obtaining fire superiority) and generally less effective if successful than an enveloping attack. It is most commonly employed in advance guard actions (see post).

The object of an enveloping attack is fire superiority. It usually implies a considerable superiority of numbers and should ordinarily be preferred to a frontal attack when practicable.

In deciding as to whether to attack, the commander must consider what his mission requires, the nature and extent of the enemy’s defensive line, the relative numbers of his own command and that of the enemy, the strength and positions of the supporting troops of each and the enemy’s probable intentions.

An attack usually implies superior force either in numbers or quality of troops, hence if the enemy is equal or superior it would generally be disastrous to attack him in position unless expecting reinforcements. In such case an attack may be made in order to develop the enemy’s strength, location and intentions, and hold him in position until the arrival of reinforcements. The attack need not be pushed home until the reinforcements arrive. Such an attack would generally be frontal as this would be the safest procedure, usually least exposed to counter attack, and would allow the reinforcements to envelop either flank upon their arrival. In deciding on the method of attack, the position of the enemy’s reserves should also be considered. Moreover the enemy’s line might be too long to be enveloped after covering its front.

If the enemy occupies a line too long to be enveloped, but which is known to be lightly held, a frontal attack may be made with the object of piercing the attenuated line. Such an attack would, of course, be less costly than in the ordinary case, especially as the enemy almost certainly would not fight to a decision. If the enemy is known to be fighting a delaying action only, a frontal attack will as a general rule most promptly drive him from his position, although this of course depends to some extent on the nature of the terrain.

Finally if the enemy’s flanks rest on impassable obstacles, or if the attack is a local operation on an extended and continuous line of battle, a frontal attack is the only course open.

When practicable an enveloping attack is to be preferred and it becomes a question of which flank to envelop. The following considerations will be a guide to a decision on this point:

(a) Which flank allows the nearest approach under cover?

(b) Against which flank can an attack be more quickly launched consistent with due preparation and without undesirable separation of the attacking columns?

(c) Which flank has the better field of fire? (For the enemy).

(d) What bearing if any have the available artillery positions?

(e) Where is the enemy’s line of retreat and from whence will his reinforcements (if any are expected) probably arrive? (The enemy will withdraw more readily from an attack which threatens to separate him from his line of retreat or reinforcements, unless he has a small force and is in friendly country, in which case separation from his preferred line of retreat is not so serious a matter.)

(f) In view of the direction from which our own reinforcements may arrive, which flank is preferable?

(g) In view of the direction from which the enemy’s reinforcements may arrive, and the position of our own line of retreat, which flank may be more safely attacked? The possibility of a reverse must not be overlooked.

_The best disposition for the attacking infantry is the primary consideration in determining which flank to attack._

A consideration of these tactical questions will usually result in a preponderance in favor of one flank. Always envelop that flank which gives more promise of a tactical victory. If both flanks are promising, then consider which attack would give the greater strategical results if successful.

A simultaneous envelopment of _both_ hostile flanks would be rare, and would ordinarily imply great superiority of forces. It will almost invariably be better to concentrate on the enemy’s weaker flank.

The usual attack will then have two parts, the secondary or holding (frontal) attack and the main or enveloping attack. They are, however, never so called in orders as the expression, “secondary attack” is objectionable, tending to diminish the ardor of the troops engaged therein. Moreover, it is not always possible to foresee which attack will actually be pushed home. The “secondary” may become the decisive attack. There must be nothing either in the appearance or conduct of the frontal attack to indicate that it is not being made in earnest, for if the enemy perceives that this attack is not to be pushed, he will contain it with a _relatively_ smaller proportion of his force and concentrate against the main attack.

Generally the main attack is made stronger than the holding attack. The strength lies in its depth of deployment, it may or may not be stronger in total numbers according to circumstances. The difference of density per yard is not manifested in the firing lines, however. The enemy must not be permitted to judge the holding attack by any weakness in its firing line. The difference lies chiefly in the supports. The main attack must hold out stronger supports because usually it will have more gaps from casualties, fatigued men, skulkers, etc. The main attack is to be driven home at all costs. To do so the density of its firing line must be maintained to the last. It must be expected that an attack having a firing line density of 1 man per yard may need _supports_ of equal or greater numerical strength before it will be able to throw the enemy out of his trenches. The _firing line_ density of each attack should therefore be essentially the same, say about 1 man per yard of front. The main attack may hold out from each battalion say two companies in support where the holding attack retains one. (See also Chap. XVII).

Envelopment should generally be provided for in the first deployment, not afterward. The enveloping attack may be extended during the action by putting in the reserves. The defender also will probably extend his line during the fight to meet the enveloping attack.

The main attack should generally be made as strong as possible. The minimum number of troops should be assigned to the holding attack in order to have all possible strength in the main attack (and reserves). A usual disposition for a division would be: 1 brigade in the holding attack, 1 in the main attack, 1 in the reserve.

The advance guard regiment in a brigade action, would generally be assigned to the holding attack, covering the maneuver of the main body.

An enveloping movement must not expect to _enfilade_ the enemy’s line. He will echelon his line to the rear and throw in his reserves to meet it, so that it usually becomes merely a frontal attack in a different direction. The advantage of envelopment is the convergence of fire as against the divergence of the enemy’s fire. An enveloping attack should be separated sufficiently from the holding attack and directed well to the rear of the enemy, as it has strong tendency to join up with frontal attack and become merely an extension of the latter on the same line, thus sacrificing the advantage of converging fire. On the other hand the separation should not be so great as to sacrifice co-operation and mutual support. (For discussion of turning movements see Chap. XVII.)

_Advancing to the attack._ An attack should generally not be launched until the strength of the enemy and the position of his flanks are well established.

The attacking troops keep to the roads and remain in column as long as practicable, in advancing to their deploying positions. If subjected to artillery or long range rifle fire the advance should be made in some less vulnerable formation. (See Chap. XVI.)

The attack should advance under such cover as is available as close as possible to the enemy’s line before opening fire. It is desirable to obtain a first position within 800 yards and seldom beyond 1,000 yards. Fire superiority must be established in the first position. Otherwise an advance is not practicable.

The main and secondary attacks (in an enveloping action) should generally advance in conjunction with each other. Both should advance from cover _when practicable_ and (particularly for the main attack) have the element of surprise.

Cover for the advancing troops both before and after deployment is the most important consideration, but must not be allowed to outweigh _all other_ considerations. The best cover is fire superiority, as it encourages the attacker while natural cover tends to enervate him.

Adjacent organizations endeavor to maintain contact during the advance, but nobody waits for a laggard.

The various echelons of the attack generally move forward together--the supports and local reserves keeping their distances from the firing line as well as circumstances--especially cover for the advance--permit.

_Assignment of fronts._

_Every portion_ of the defender’s line must be covered by fire throughout the attack. This is accomplished by assigning a portion of his front to each organization in the attack. The front so assigned should be about equal to the deployed width of the attacking organization and opposite to it.

The brigade commander assigns fronts to the regiments, the regimental commanders to their battalions, the battalion commanders to their companies, etc.

These fronts should be assigned as accurately as the landmarks of the terrain allow. Often the enemy’s line is so poorly defined or so indefinitely located, that it is impossible to give an organization anything more definite than a guiding point or general direction for one flank. (See Chap. XVI.)

Great care should be exercised in the assignment of fronts. If the adjacent flanks of two organizations advancing from slightly different directions guide on the same point _in the enemy’s line_ during their advance, they will arrive in a continuous line upon his front. If the point is in advance of the line there will be crowding or overlapping, which is objectionable as it causes confusion and may subject a portion of one line to the fire of the other. Casualties during the advance may tend to reduce this difficulty. If the guiding point is in rear of the enemy’s line there will be a gap between the two organizations, which however, may be filled if that is desirable. If the two organizations are advancing in the same direction, contiguous to each other (as in a frontal attack) no difficulty is encountered and the arrangement is excellent.

The interior flank of the enveloping attack will usually be directed on the supposed position of the flank of the enemy, or on a point a little inside of it. Consequently, at the start, there may be no troops opposite the enveloping attack, but the enemy may be expected to extend his line promptly to meet it when he becomes aware of the envelopment. (See Fig. IX.)

Each column assigned to the first line in attack should be instructed (in orders) as to:

(a) The route to its deploying position, when necessary.

(b) Certain landmarks to guide it during the advance.

(c) The portion of the enemy’s line it is to cover--defined as accurately as circumstances permit.

_Reserves._ Troops once committed to an attack can be withdrawn only with the greatest difficulty. When once in action they are usually beyond the control of the commander. It is by the judicious use of his reserves alone that the commander can influence the course of an action once he has launched his attack. Hence too many troops should not be committed to the action at the outset. Especially if the enemy’s strength and position are not yet fully developed should large reserves be kept in hand. The defense, as it must meet the attacker’s moves, usually employs larger _reserves_ than the attack.

The aim of all tactics, either in attack or defense, is the concentration of overwhelming force at the critical point. Numerical strength that furnished overwhelming force at the proper time may be inferior at a later time. Rapidity of maneuver is equivalent to increased numerical strength. Hence the value of motor cars in effecting tactical or strategic concentration of troops.

A company ordinarily deploys on one line. A battalion holds out one or two companies as local supports. These are used to replace losses in the firing line during the advance over the fire swept zone.

Each regiment holds out one or two battalions as regimental reserves. Their purpose is to carry the firing line into the assault.

Each brigade in attack ordinarily holds out a regiment as brigade reserve. It is employed to reinforce the decisive attack, to secure possession of the captured position, to meet the defender’s counter attack, or to take up the pursuit of the defeated force.

The defense is characterized by small local supports and reserves, and large general reserves, except in delaying actions. The reserves are almost always employed to protect the flanks, although not necessarily to furnish combat patrols. They should therefore generally be posted near the exposed flank or the one that will need reinforcement. If there be doubt as to which flank may need reinforcement the reserve is held in a central position from which it can conveniently reach either flank, or else divided.

If there is cover available the local supports may be within 50 yards of the firing line. If no cover is available they should be farther back. The general reserve seeks a convenient covered locality, behind a flank or opposite the center.

_Protection of the flanks._ On account of the difficulty of changing front during the action and the annihilating effect of enfilading fire, the flanks of a line are its most vulnerable parts, and the most _elaborate_ measures are habitually taken for their protection, both in offense and defense, as they are the cynosure of attack.

The best protection for the flanks of the defender is afforded by impassable obstacles, which render them absolutely secure from envelopment. Next in order come a good field of fire and fortifications.

The cavalry or mounted men provide a measure of security for the flanks by observation and if possible, resistance. It is also their duty to maintain communication with any friendly troops in the vicinity--and their orders should contain instructions to that effect. The supreme commander (both in attack and defense) usually retains in his own hand a few mounted men to act as messengers during the engagement. Artillery favorably posted may also protect the flanks with fire.

Irrespective of the protection afforded by the other arms, infantry patrols are placed to guard the flanks of a line. These are known as “combat patrols” and should never be omitted either in attack or defense during any stage of an action. Combat patrols are in the nature of covering detachments whose principal function is to give warning. Where resistance is needed in addition to warning, the patrol is strengthened accordingly, and, if of some size, may be called a covering detachment. Such a body accomplishes its purpose by taking station at some convenient point on the exposed flank and covering it. Here it halts in a defensive position or attitude, (it may intrench) sending a few men to nearby points of observation. The bulk however is held in hand ready to open fire on hostile reconnoitering patrols and fight them off or to give prompt warning of the approach of any large body toward the flank it is covering. It will open fire on the superior force and fight until forced back, thus securing all possible delay in order to permit of measures being taken to oppose the flank attack.

It is the duty of each organization on a flank to provide for the security thereof without special orders to that effect. But a small unit will not ordinarily detach any considerable portion of its strength to a great distance for this purpose. Thus a battalion in the first line may send out one or two squads or a platoon from its supports, a few hundred yards to the flank, as a combat patrol. If larger measures are necessary for security they should be taken by the regimental or brigade reserve. The flanks of a line are usually its most vulnerable parts and hence they demand special attention. The protection of the flanks (either in attack or defense) is of such vital importance that it should not devolve as a matter of course upon the commanders of the flank organizations. The supreme commander should make positive provision for flank protection in his attack (or defense) order. In the absence of such orders the regimental (or battalion) commanders on the flanks will take the ordinary precautions in the way of combat patrols.

During the early stages of an action and before the regular attack is launched, patrols should also be sent to the front (directly toward the enemy) to feel his position by drawing his fire, and to examine the ground over which the attack must be made. Such patrols may vary in strength from a few individuals to a firing line making a frontal attack. A reconnaissance in force therefore, may become a small attack. It is generally not intended to push home unless the situation developed as the reconnaissance in force proceeds, warrants a regular attack. Small patrols in front of the line, must generally seek cover before fire is opened. If necessary they withdraw to the rear or flanks. While a defensive position is being prepared or occupied, provisions should always be made for security to the front. Usually some regiment will be directed to provide for this. If no special instructions are given each organization watches its own front, and flank (if exposed).

A flank combat patrol, except when sent out for the special purpose of concerted participation in the defense (or attack) provides security primarily by observation. Nevertheless it should have _some_ power of resistance, at least enough to push back reconnoitering patrols of the enemy. Hence 3 to 4 men would usually be insufficient; 2 squads to a platoon is better unless the force is a very small one. From this the flank groups may vary in size up to a battalion, placed for the special purpose of active participation in the engagement during the later stages.

Troops withdrawing from battle to camp should not uncover the front they have been guarding until the outpost troops are in position.

_Ammunition._ The extra ammunition in the battalion combat trains is habitually issued before an attack or in the occupation of a defensive position, unless the orders expressly state that this will not be done. The issue of ammunition is ordered by the battalion commander when it becomes necessary for the battalion to separate from its combat train upon entering an engagement.

The regimental commanders will give orders as to whether or not packs are to be carried into action, and if not where they will be left. It takes about 10 minutes to issue ammunition after the arrival of the wagons. When the issue of ammunition is completed the wagons are assembled at some convenient point by order of the supreme commander. They may be sent to the rear to refill usually from the ammunition train, or retained temporarily to transport wounded.

During an action the ammunition _trains_, if likely to be required, should be brought well to front, and their positions marked by red flags or lanterns. The pack train may be ordered up to facilitate the distribution of ammunition. In our service pack outfits are carried in each wagon of the infantry combat trains, thus allowing the lead mules to be converted into pack animals.

The ammunition carried in the men’s belts is 100 rounds, and the extra ammunition in the combat trains, 120 rounds. Hence the engagement may open with 220 rounds on the men, if all the extra ammunition in the combat trains has been issued. The amount of ammunition expended at each firing position will be that sufficient to establish (or maintain) fire superiority. In first establishing fire superiority 25 to 100 rounds or even more may be expended. Usually at the succeeding halts a lesser expenditure will be required. If, however, the advance be checked by a loss of fire superiority the expenditure of ammunition before advancing must be sufficient to reëstablish that superiority without which a further advance is impracticable. Following are some examples of actual expenditures:

Russians at Plevna (attack) 160 in 4 hrs. Turks at Plevna (defense) 120 to 360 per day. English in Boer War, 150 to 200 per day. 9th U. S. Infantry at Tientsin, 150. Cuba, Spanish American War, July 1. Cavalry less than 100, Infantry 20 to 85. Russo-Jap. War. Japanese, 120 to 160 in heavy engagements.

With improved modern weapons having far greater efficiency than those of former times, and modern facilities for the supply of ammunition it is certain that the figures given above will often be greatly exceeded. It is quite possible for an individual soldier to expend 1,000 rounds or more during a single period of daylight, and the average consumption of a body of troops in a protracted conflict may run to 500 rounds per day or even more. Under these conditions very heavy demands will be made on the ammunition supply service.

The defense, having better facilities for supplying ammunition, may expend more than the attacker. Its better facilities for resupply give the defense an advantage in this respect. Long range fire (beyond 1,200 yards), seldom advisable in attack, may be frequently employed in defense when the conditions are favorable. If the attacker can be brought under effective fire and forced to deploy beyond 1,200 yards, he will have great difficulty in pushing home the attack.

The ammunition of the dead and wounded should be removed from their persons, and advantage should be taken of cover, lulls in the action, and all other favorable conditions to distribute ammunition. All officers and non-commissioned officers are charged with the duty of preventing the waste of ammunition.

_Intrenchments, obstacles, etc._ Intrenchments are habitually employed by the defense, and when practicable may be utilized also by the attack. Ground once gained by the assailant should be held tenaciously, thus only can success be assured. Moreover a retreat under fire would ordinarily result in greater losses than if the position were held. If necessary to hold their position the attackers should dig themselves into the ground. With the portable tools trenches may be dug in a prone position, part of the line intrenching while the rest maintains the fire. The attacker may also intrench under cover of darkness. Shelter trenches providing considerable security against rifle fire may be dug in 30 mins, or even less in favorable ground, with the portable intrenching tool. These trenches afford only slight protection against shrapnel fire and if they are to be occupied for any considerable time, they should be enlarged to the kneeling or standing type. Greater protection from shrapnel fire can be gained by the use of head or overhead cover. Such cover requires several hours to construct and would seldom be employed by the attack. (See table Chapter XII.)

The _invariable_ use of intrenchments in the attack, however, is not advisable. The best means of gaining fire superiority and the best protection against hostile fire is the attacker’s own fire. The habit of intrenching tends to diminish the ardor of attacking troops. Therefore the decision in this matter should not habitually be left to the soldiers or the company officers. The order for intrenching should generally emanate from the battalion or other superior commanders.

The object of intrenchments in defense is to economize men on the firing line in order to hold a longer line, or permit the retention of large general reserves for the decisive stages of the action. (See “The organization of a defensive position,” post.)

Trenches should preferably be located and constructed by the troops who are to occupy them. If there be time, communicating trenches and shelters for supports and reserves may be constructed. The Engineers perform the more difficult work, such as obstacles, heavy clearing, communications, etc., works of general interest not properly part of the task assigned to any line unit, and any works for which infantry are not equipped or specially trained.

Obstacles along the front of a position may favor either the attacker or defender. If they afford shelter from view while allowing easy passage (like an open wood), they of course favor the attack and can hardly be called obstacles, but must be classed as cover for the advance. If, on the other hand, they hinder progress without affording concealment (like a marsh or bog) they naturally favor the defense. All artificial obstacles are of this latter kind.

Between these two extremes are many obstacles which according to conditions may favor one side or the other. In general anything which affords concealment, to that extent favors the attacker, and anything that delays progress, to that extent favors the defender.

Obstacles tend to confuse and break up the attacker’s formations, especially if they run obliquely to his line of advance.

An absolutely impenetrable obstacle along a portion of the defender’s front, even if it conceals the attacker, is generally an advantage if not too close (within about 300 yards) as it limits the attacker’s advance to the open spaces. It is to be remarked, however, that few obstacles are absolutely impenetrable. If such there be, however, as for instance an unfordable stream, they give rise to special forms of attack. (See “Attack of a River Line.”) If the defender contemplates assuming the offensive a continuous obstacle in his front may be a positive disadvantage. It may also entirely discourage the attacker and cause him to turn the position instead of assaulting it. This may or may not be an advantage to the defense, depending on its mission.

Artificial obstacles, usually constructed by the Engineers, may be placed in front of a defensive position at effective ranges. The most practicable forms are abatis, slashing and wire entanglements, or a combination of these. Ordinary fences are obstacles serious to cavalry, but less so to infantry. Barbed wire entanglements are the most effective form of obstacles.

It is to be noted that obstacles _not covered by the fire of the defender_ fall short of the full measure of usefulness, as the enemy can remove then with comparatively little difficulty or loss.

The greatest obstacle to the attacker’s advance is a clear field of fire. The defense, therefore, will usually take steps to clear the front of the position, measure and mark ranges beyond 600 yds. (battle sight range), etc. The infantry is provided with tools for light clearing. The heavier work should be done by the engineers if any are available. (See “The organization of a defensive position.”)

_Frontage in attack and defense._ A company (unless acting alone) goes complete into the firing line. All larger units hold out a part of their strength (usually from one-fourth to one-half) as supports and reserves. Avoid splitting or mixing units.

The density of the _firing line_ in attack and defense is about 1 man per yard. A 16 squad company can place 128 rifles (8 x 16) in the firing line. Hence the frontage of any line will be equal to about 128 yards multiplied by number of companies in the firing line, plus or minus about 20 per cent. Thus the front of a battalion with 3 companies in the firing line would be from 300 to 450 yards. (But see also Chap. XII.)

The expressions “1 man per yard” and “at one yard intervals,” are usually intended to mean that each yard of the front is to be occupied by one man. Actually, the interval or open space between the shoulders of adjacent men in this case is about ½ pace (15 inches).

In defense or in the holding or secondary attack a battalion may place 3 companies in the firing line. In the main (enveloping) attack it would more commonly place 2 companies in the line. The companies (of the leading battalions) not in the firing line are called local or battalion supports. Each regiment may hold out 1 battalion as regimental reserve, each brigade 1 regiment as brigade reserve, and each division 1 brigade (and auxiliary troops) as general reserve. Circumstances might cause the strength of these reserves to be greater at the beginning of an action, but they seldom should be less. The defense usually has weaker supports and local reserves, but stronger _general reserves_ than the attack. As the defense must play to the attacker’s move ample reserves must be held for the purpose. The density of a defensive line is not subject to arbitrary rule, so greatly does it depend on the mission and other conditions. In a delaying action a greater extension is permissible than in a fight to a decision. (See also Chaps. XII and XVII.)

PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE ATTACK OF A POSITION BY A SMALL INFANTRY FORCE

(Regiment or battalion.)

(See also “The Rifle in War,” Chap. XVI.)

The first stage of the action, which will be given in the problem, opens generally with a report from the cavalry or by the advance guard being fired upon, or some such occurrence to the front. If it is certain that there will be an attack the commander will usually order extra ammunition to be issued. The field trains are halted off the road or sent to a safe place. The commander then rides forward to the most advanced position possible where he can obtain a view of the terrain and the enemy’s dispositions and receive reports from cavalry or mounted patrols. The adjutant is usually with him and he sends word for the column to continue its march or to halt at a certain point and await orders. He directs his subordinate commanders to accompany him or to follow him to the advanced position. If these subordinates are not mounted make due allowance for that fact, considering the time it will take them to get up. The circumstances may be such that it is not advisable to separate all of his subordinates from their commands, but generally he will direct them to proceed to the advance lookout point. These subordinates will include the company (or battalion) commanders, the adjutant, and the commander of the machine gun company (or platoon). The quartermaster and surgeon are usually not called to the front. Having reached the advance point, he directs his efforts particularly toward ascertaining the location of the hostile flanks and examines the ground from which he may launch his attack. Having estimated the situation and his subordinates being assembled he issues his orders. He must be very sure that every subordinate who has a task to perform receives his orders. If any of these are not present the orders must be sent to them, and the commander will usually direct his adjutant to see that his orders are transmitted to any subordinates who are not present. His actual orders will invariably be verbal. Sometimes the problem will ask for his combined order. This means the order for all parts of the force as it would be dictated to his adjutant subsequent to the action. The actual orders may be issued piece-meal, but generally try to issue the combined order and then direct the adjutant to see that those not present are advised.

The order must cover the following points:

1. Information of the enemy, particularly his strength and the position of his flanks. Information of our own and the enemy’s supporting troops.

2. This command (or We) will attack the enemy at once, making a frontal attack (or enveloping his right flank). Former march conditions now cease.

3. Cos. A and B will constitute the firing line, and will move via ---- under cover to ______ (edge of woods, ravine, crest, or other cover), and will deploy, perpendicular to (or parallel to) ______ at one yard intervals, Co. A on the left with its left flank ______ yds. from ______. Co. A will attack that section of the enemy’s line from ______ to ______ (inclusive or exclusive); Co. B, that section from ______ to ______ (inclusive or exclusive.) (Indicate clearly visible landmarks, or give definite distances. Be sure that every part of the enemy’s line is covered.) I will give the order for the advance (or to open fire).

The foregoing paragraph is for frontal attack. In case the attack is enveloping, the order would be:

Cos. A and B will constitute the firing line. Co. A will move via ______ under cover to ______, and will deploy perpendicular to ______, at 1 yard intervals with its left flank at ______ (or -- yards from ______) and when ordered to do so will advance and attack the enemy’s line from ______ to ______ (inclusive or exclusive) directing its right on ______, and moving to attack in conjunction with Co. B.

Co. B will move via ______ under cover to ______, deploying when necessary perpendicular to ______, at 1 yard intervals with its left flank on ______, (or -- yards from ______) and when ordered to do so will advance and attack the enemy’s line north of ______ directing its left on ______ (or will advance and attack the enemy’s left, etc.)

(No definite limits are assigned to the outside flank. The enemy may not be opposite the enveloping attack when it is launched, but will likely extend his line to meet it. If the two companies are separated at the start and converge on the enemy’s line the orders would be similar to those for an enveloping attack. Sometimes the enveloping attack will be directed on an interior part of the enemy’s original line in which case it will cover part of his front and also envelop him. Instead of being ordered to deploy at 1 yard intervals, a company may be ordered to deploy on a front of ______ yds.)

I will give the order to advance.

Lieut. Y, with your machine gun platoon and one platoon of Co. C, which will report to you as escort, move via ______ to ______ (usually some hill or crest). As soon as the attack is well developed open fire on the enemy and assist the advance. You will provide protection for our left flank (if he is on a flank).

The mounted orderlies under Lt. G (the adjutant or some officer especially detailed) will patrol to ______ and ______, covering our flanks and observing, etc.

Co. C will send one platoon (or such force) to report to Lieut. Y, commander of the machine gun platoon, as escort. It will also send a sergeant and ______ men (or such force) well to the right (or via ______ to ______) as right flank patrol (or to cover our right flank).

Note. It would generally be inadvisable to assign any considerable portion of a _small_ force as an escort to the machine guns unless it was necessary for effective fire, to place them in a very exposed position (on a flank). It may be better to place the machine guns where they will need no escort. In the actions of larger forces, however, machine guns may often be employed with decisive effect against the flanks of the enemy. In such cases they should be used in larger masses, not by platoon. They are very effective in repelling surprise attacks and are often employed in exposed positions without an escort.

The remainder of Co. C and Co. D, under my command (or under command of ______) will constitute the support (or reserve) and will move via ______ under cover to ______ and there await my orders (or follow Co. ______ at ______ yards distance, or ______ yards in rear of the right flank, or center, etc.)

4. When issue of ammunition is completed the empty ammunition wagons will proceed to ______ and park off the road (return to ______ and refill, or join field train.)

(Empty ammunition wagons may be used to transport wounded.)

A regt. aid station will be established at ______ (or location of regt. aid station will be announced later.) The band will report to the regimental surgeon (in a regimental action).

The company wagons (or field train) will halt off the road where they now are (or proceed to ______, or take station on such road with head at such crossroad, etc.)

(If no dressing station is to be established at first the order may direct the sanitary troops to join the field trains or halt at some other locality “in readiness.”)

5. Messages may be sent to ______ (generally name a definite point) (or I shall be at ______, or with ______).

Explain how and to whom this order is delivered.

Make report to superior commander, by telegraph or telephone, mounted messengers, or other available means. Sometimes it may not be possible to report until after the action, but a report should always be sent as soon as practicable.

The foregoing order applies to any force up to a regiment. A regiment is assigned by battalions, each battalion being given its section of the attack. Each battalion holds out its own support. The orders, while covering all necessary points, must be so drawn as not to hamper subordinates by invading their province, nor to destroy their initiative by usurping their prerogatives. In the actual case the commander will regulate his orders to suit the experience, capacity and personal characteristics of the subordinate. In tactical problems the assumption will be made that all subordinates are fully instructed and competent, each within his own sphere and according to his rank.

Give the route to position for individual companies or battalions especially when trouble might ensue from interference of organizations. Thus to a battalion or lower commander say--“Move under cover via ______ to ______.” Be sure that available cover is utilized to the utmost extent practicable in the special case. In a regimental action the Colonel may direct that the packs be left in a convenient place on going into action. The Majors always give the orders about issue of ammunition, and see to the sending of combat patrols either as result of the colonel’s orders or without special orders. But if no extra ammunition is to be issued, or a portion of it only, the orders of the superior commander should so state. In some cases it may be inadvisable to issue _all_ the extra ammunition. In any case extra ammunition is issued when the troops are compelled to separate from their combat trains on going into action.

_Be sure_ that localities and dispositions are so described as to be perfectly plain not only to your imaginary subordinates but also to the _instructor_ who is to review your problem. Great care should be taken to designate localities beyond the possibility of misunderstanding. Use landmarks, not map-marks, in fixing a locality. In describing a point by its reference number make sure there is no other point having the same reference, or else say “Hill 622, 600 yds. NW. of SMITH F. H.,” etc., etc.

Be very sure that none of the troops come under hostile artillery fire in moving to their deploying position if it can be avoided.

_Before deciding on an attack_ the commander should satisfy himself as to whether any reinforcements are on their way to the enemy, and throughout the action he must be constantly on the lookout for such. This is the special duty of the cavalry, or other mounted men.

_The enemy’s line_ and the portion assigned to each unit should be designated as clearly as possible, preferably by landmarks, if there are such. If there are no landmarks an organization may be directed to attack the enemy’s front or his right wing, or for enveloping attack, his right flank, etc., distances and other means of orientation being given.

The attack orders for larger bodies, so far as the infantry is concerned, are similar to the foregoing, but in much less detail.

The engineers in attack may remove obstacles, improve communications, repair bridges or construct additional crossings. On the completion of their tasks they usually join reserves. They may be used also as an escort to the artillery.

Signal troops usually connect the position of the supreme commander with the commanders of the main and secondary attacks, artillery commander and reserves (if he is not with the reserve). Do not exceed the limit of their capacity in wire and telephones. (See “Organization of the U. S. Army,” ante.)

The sanitary troops establish the usual collecting, aid and dressing stations, and take charge of the evacuation of the wounded.

There is ordinarily a dressing station established for each brigade, and in addition a slightly wounded station for each division. The dressing station should be near fuel and water, preferably in a village or at least near some houses. It should be near the main attack but not too close to an artillery position. It should be on the main road to the rear and in a conspicuous place easily discovered. The slightly wounded station should fulfill as far as possible the same requirements, usually somewhat farther to the rear. For a force less than a brigade a single dressing station serving also as a slightly wounded station, would be established.

The supreme commander gives the orders to the sanitary troops, usually after consultation with and upon the recommendation of the senior medical officer. The location of the dressing station and, in a division action, of the slightly wounded station, should be announced to the command in orders. But in case of attack where developments cannot be foreseen the order may say “location of dressing station will be announced later.” In this case the sanitary troops halt off the road at a designated place in rear, or remain with the trains. Usually they will be at a place somewhat forward of the trains. (See also “Sanitary tactics,” Chap. XV.)

The employment of small units in combat (except as part of a larger force) will be exceptional in systematic warfare. For combat tactics of small units see I. D. R., Part II, and F. S. R.

_Remarks concerning an attack by a reinforced brigade._ If an attack is imminent the supreme commander should march with the advance guard.

When the enemy is reported the supreme commander, accompanied by the colonel of the advance guard regiment, rides rapidly ahead to some point from which the enemy’s line can be seen. If the messages received indicate that an attack is probable the brigade commander sends an aide to the rear with such of the following orders as the situation may seem to justify:

1. Infantry in main body to continue the march, closing up on the advance guard, and halting when head of column reaches a point beyond which it would be exposed to artillery fire.

2. Colonels of the infantry regiments in the main body, and the artillery, engineer and signal commanders to join the supreme commander or assemble at the head of the main body to await his return from the front.

3. Disposition of the emptied ammunition wagons.

4. Artillery firing batteries to move promptly to the fore, passing the infantry in front of them and taking post off the main road in the vicinity of their combat position.

5. Field trains and sanitary troops to halt off the road at designated localities in rear.

6. Any detachments within reach to rejoin as promptly as possible.

It may not always be practicable to carry out all of the above measures until the supreme commander has estimated the situation and fully decided to attack. As many as possible should be attended to in advance, in order to save time.

Having reached the lookout point to the front the commander endeavors to locate or verify reports concerning the location of the enemy’s flanks, what intrenching he is doing, etc.

He then considers:

1. Does the mission of the command require an attack, or will an attack best accomplish the mission?

2. Is there a reasonable prospect of success?

3. Shall the attack be frontal? Is the enemy’s line so attenuated that it can probably be pierced by a frontal attack, or is such an attack safer or for other reasons desirable? (Such as undue extension necessitated by an enveloping attack.)

4. Shall the attack be enveloping; if so against which flank? (For consideration of choice of flank see ante.)

5. From what locality can the friendly artillery best support the attack? Between the main and secondary attacks or behind the secondary is a good place, as here the artillery will be well protected, will need no escort, can support both attacks and, in the latter case (from behind secondary attack), can support the main attack with its oblique fire up to the last possible instant. Probable positions of the hostile artillery should be considered in connection with the selection.

6. Are there any strong positions, such as knolls or ridges which should be occupied by infantry (and possibly machine guns) for the protection of a flank (or both flanks)?

7. Where should the main and secondary attacks deploy? Can they reach their deploying positions in concealment, or with very little exposure?

8. Where should the reserve be held? Generally in rear of the inner flank of the main attack is a good place at first.

Having estimated the situation and made his decision the commander waits for his subordinates to join him, or returns to the head of the column, halting it when necessary (if not already halted) and issues his orders verbally, using the map to orient and direct his subordinates. It is necessary to note the positions of all elements of the command before issuing orders.

The advance guard regiment will usually be assigned to the secondary or holding attack, and the next regiment in rear to the main or enveloping attack, the rear regiment constituting the reserve.

A front for each regiment in the fighting line is defined as accurately as conditions permit, and the approximate deploying position of each regiment is indicated. Ordinarily the regimental commanders are permitted to conduct their regiments to the deploying positions and deploy when necessary. But if there is any danger of confusion, interference or unnecessary exposure the supreme commander may designate routes to the deploying positions, which should be approached as promptly as possible under cover.

The secondary attack may be ordered to “attack in conjunction” with the main attack, or the commander may say, “I will give the order (or signal) to attack.” In some cases however, the secondary attack may be launched before the main attack, to divert the enemy’s attention from the latter, etc. The main attack may be launched at once, or may await a subsequent command or signal, pending completion of preparations.

Any _special_ provisions necessary for the protection of the flanks (such as posting infantry and machine guns in commanding positions on the flanks) should be ordered by the brigade commander. If not ordered the regimental commanders will make such provisions as they deem necessary for the protection of their flanks. If no arrangements appear to have been made for this matter, the duty devolves upon the commanders of the flank battalions in the firing line.

The cavalry, prior to the attack, feels for the enemy’s line and drives in his cavalry. During the attack it operates on and covers the flanks, while threatening those of the enemy. The bulk of the cavalry should be placed on the flank where the enemy’s cavalry is known to be, or on that flank which is more exposed. A smaller body of cavalry, or a detachment of mounted men under an officer, covers the other flank. The duties of the cavalry during an action are to force back the enemy’s cavalry, to guard the flanks and threaten those of the enemy, and to watch for and give timely notice of the approach of reinforcements for the enemy, delaying their advance when practicable.

The artillery of the attack should be placed in one or more positions from which it can support the infantry throughout the action. Ordinarily it is best to hold the artillery in large masses, but a division is permissible if the tactical situation demands. The artillery of the attack usually directs its fire on that element of the defense which is at the time the most threatening to the attacking infantry. In the assault it supports the infantry to the last practicable moment and then switches its fire to search the ground occupied by the defender’s reserves, or that over which they must pass in delivering a counter-stroke, etc. The artillery combat trains are at the disposal of the artillery commander unless otherwise specially ordered.

The reserve follows the main attack at a certain distance, or proceeds to a convenient locality designated and awaits orders. Usually the reserve will follow or be posted conveniently near the main attack, as it is on this flank that it will ordinarily be used. Exceptionally it may be posted in a more central position.

The engineers may be used to remove obstacles, improve communications, etc. They then join the reserve.

The signal troops connect the commander with the main and secondary attacks, the reserve and the artillery, to the limit of their capacity.

The field trains and sanitary troops are halted well to the rear. A dressing station may be established by the first order, or announced later.

After the issue of the extra ammunition the battalion ammunition wagons are collected at some convenient point in rear.

The supreme commander should take station at some good lookout point from which he can watch the progress of the action, and should generally remain there. If possible this point should be near the general reserve so that the commander can readily direct its employment. The station must not be too exposed nor too near the artillery.

Every fraction of the command must be accounted for in orders. Every subordinate who has a special mission to perform must receive definite orders concerning same.

_Remarks concerning advance guard action._ An advance guard action does not, in its detail differ particularly from any other combat of all arms, except that an advance guard has less independence of action than a separate detachment.

It may result from:

a. Guarding main body against surprise.

b. Reconnoitering.

c. Pushing back reconnoitering forces of the enemy.

d. Pressing upon delaying forces of the enemy.

e. Pursuit of a defeated or retiring enemy.

f. Checking the enemy’s advance to give the main body time to prepare for action.

g. Seizing and holding a position to cover the passage of the main body through a defile or across a bridge. (In this case the enemy must be kept well beyond artillery range of the outlet of the defile.)

h. When the enemy is encountered in force on the defensive, holding him in position and reconnoitering his lines (in force, if necessary) while awaiting the arrival of the main body.

In deciding what action to take on meeting the enemy the advance guard must consider (a) Its mission, and also that of the main body, whether aggressive or not. (b) The comparative strength of the enemy and his apparent intentions. (c) The relative positions of the enemy, the advance guard and the main body, as well as other hostile or friendly troops. (d) Provisions for the security of the main body. This in general means that its front must not be uncovered, except in pursuit of a badly demoralized enemy.

In selecting flank to attack consider tactical success first and strategical advantages second.

An advance guard, while usually acting aggressively, must not engage in very doubtful enterprises, jeopardizing the safety of main body or committing it to action against its will. The mission of the whole command must be considered.

The advance guard by deploying for a frontal attack along the line of advance keeps the main body covered, leaves the supreme commander free to decide on which flank he will extend, and holds the enemy until he can come up. Frontal attacks are therefore of frequent occurrence in advance guard actions.

In pursuing a defeated enemy even if advance guard encounters him in force a prompt attack, usually frontal, is advisable. It is not necessary to drive it home if this does not seem advisable; and there is usually little risk of a counter attack. But if enemy is still in good morale and there is reason for caution, an advance guard may take a position in readiness. If in doubt an attack is usually best, but the advance guard must not risk the defeat of the entire force in detail by a too impetuous attack on a greatly superior enemy. Good judgment is required in handling an advance guard in such situations, and for this reason it is advisable that the supreme commander be with the advance guard on the march. It is the proper duty of the cavalry to clear up the situation in advance. (See “Advance guards,” Chap. IV and “Rencontre engagement,” Chap. XIII.)

_The occupation of a defensive position._ In selecting a defensive position the following should be considered:

1. Is it necessary to take a defensive position, and has the time arrived to do so? (See “Position in Readiness.”)

2. Must the enemy attack the position or can he march around it?

3. Are there good positions with clear field of fire for infantry and artillery? (For delaying actions a good field of fire at long and mid ranges is a prime requisite.)

4. Natural protection for both?

5. Line or lines of retreat secure and accessible to all parts of the force? If there is but one line of retreat it should be central. Several lines of retreat are often an advantage to the retiring force if it is a large one, but on the other hand they may also favor the enemy by allowing parallel pursuit. Good rallying points in rear?

6. Flanks secure?

7. Communications good to front, rear and flanks?

8. Ground favorable for cavalry action?

9. Good locations for attacker’s artillery within effective range, if so are they registered?

10. Line enfiladed anywhere?

11. Obstacles to enemy’s advance, front and flanks? How do they bear upon possible assumption of offensive if such is contemplated?

12. Any rallying points or dead spaces for enemy within effective range?

13. Has position been improved as much as possible? Are ranges to important points known?

14. Where is the main attack most likely to fall?

15. Are there good stations for the supports and reserves at proper distance? Can reserves be held in safe place favorable for counter attack?

16. Should the line be divided into sections? If so can the sections support each other, and if there are any intervals are they well covered?

17. Is the extent of the front suitable to the size of the command? Is it approximately perpendicular to the line of retreat? To the line of enemy’s advance?

18. Is the view good to the front and in the position itself?

19. Is the position well concealed from enemy’s view?

20. Are there any weak salients in the line?

21. Are there any advanced posts which should be occupied to prevent the enemy from doing so, or to cause his early deployment, etc? Can the troops be withdrawn from them in safety without masking fire of main position? (Advanced posts should, as a rule, be avoided.)

A single position giving a favorable answer to _all_ these questions will never be found. They indicate, however, the desiderata.

A defensive position should be occupied only when general direction of enemy’s advance is known, and it is evident about where his attack will fall. Otherwise take a position in readiness, from which a defensive position may later be evolved.

Consider whether the mission is best accomplished by taking a position farther to the front or one to the rear. Frequently there will be time only to make the best of what is near at hand. It is to be remembered in this connection, that a rencontre engagement usually favors the stronger and more aggressive combatant. A weaker force should generally therefore allow itself ample time to occupy and prepare a defensive position, rather than risk a rencontre or at least a premature engagement by pushing too far to the front. The time that a smaller force can delay a larger one depends on the terrain, the time available for preparation, and the absolute and relative strengths of the combatants. To give a rough idea of the times that smaller bodies can maintain themselves against larger ones it may be said that a reinforced brigade in a hastily prepared position should ordinarily be able to hold a division for some 2 to 3 hours; and that in similar circumstances, a division should hope to maintain itself against a corps for some 6 to 9 hours. Where the situation specially favors the defender, he may, of course, be able to hold very much longer. Each case is special and can hardly be said to have precedents.

The recent improvements in weapons have conferred greatly increased powers of resistance upon the defense. Except small forces, which cannot adequately secure their flanks nor block turning movements, troops on the defensive in a prepared position can be driven therefrom only with the greatest difficulty and, usually, a considerable expenditure of ammunition.

Must the enemy attack the position selected, or can he turn it? If delay only is the object this may be accomplished if enemy has to turn the position. But if it is desired to bar his advance and court an attack he should be both forced and enticed to attack. In such case do not take a position which _appears_ impregnable or enemy may be discouraged from attacking.

The artillery should not be posted so close to the infantry line that it will draw fire upon it--five hundred yards or so behind the line is best.

Obstacles in front of the entire position are seldom of advantage to the defense. Obstacles which delay the enemy without concealing him, such as marshy ground, are a strong element of defense. There must be passages for the counter attack if such is contemplated, and in general the bearing of obstacles upon the conduct of an active defense must be carefully considered.

Consider which flank the enemy will probably attack and post the main reserves behind that flank. If there is some doubt seek a central position for the reserve from which it can reach either flank, or consider the advisability of dividing the reserve.

If the force be a regiment assign sections of the line to battalions; if a brigade, to regiments. Machine guns are not usually assigned to a battalion section. Their proper function is for surprise of the enemy at effective ranges, reinforcing weak portions of the line, etc. They are usually left under the orders of the regimental commanders, but may be assigned by orders of the supreme commander for flank defense or for fire of position if the enemy has no artillery. (See “Machine guns,” Chap. XIII.)

Openings in the line are sometimes permissible, provided they are covered by the fire of adjacent organizations, or protected by reserves. In fact slight openings all along the line will be the rule, as it will seldom be practicable to occupy the entire front continuously, unless the force be a very small one. In the order of the supreme commander however, the assigned sectors will generally be contiguous, the detailed organization of each being left to the sector commander.

The density of the firing line in defense is seldom uniform. Some parts of the line may be lightly held to allow more men where a greater volume of fire is required. Obstacles in the front may also have an influence on the density of the firing line. Hence the fronts assigned to two regiments need not always be equal in extent.

In the early stages of a combat the defense, by reasons of its intrenchments, concealment, superior fire discipline, and smaller losses, may economize on men in the firing line and local supports _in order to have larger general reserves_ to throw in at the decisive point in the later stages of the action, or for a counter attack.

If ammunition is plentiful, long range fire, to force the attacker to an early deployment, is permissible and often advantageous on the defense. The limiting range of such fire, under good conditions, is about 1,800 yards.

If a delaying action only is contemplated, the intention being merely to force the attacker to deploy, the line may be very lightly held and greatly extended with few local supports, or none at all, and small reserves. Such tactics of course, may be risky. The position should be promptly evacuated as soon as the attacker has completed his dispositions for the attack, since it is very difficult to withdraw infantry from a position after it is committed to action. Cavalry, by reason of its superior mobility is better than infantry for delaying actions. If there is a good line of retreat and cover for the led horses close in rear, cavalry may allow the enemy to approach within 700 yards or less, before withdrawing. (See “Cavalry tactics,” Chap. IX.)

Ranges to important points in the foreground should be determined (and marked) if there is time. The field of fire is cleared and the position intrenched to the extent that time allows, or conditions require.

The instructions to “prepare the line for defense” cover the construction of intrenchments and obstacles and the necessary clearing. In this the engineers assist at the most difficult places. The intrenching proper should usually be done by the troops who are to occupy the trenches, but this rule is not rigid.

The supreme commander will direct in orders that the empty ammunition wagons be assembled at a point (or points) in rear. Subsequently they refill at designated point from the ammunition train, one or more companies of which are ordered up for this purpose or, in a smaller action, the combat wagons may be assembled and marched back to a depot to refill. Empty wagons of all kinds moving to the rear may be utilized for the evacuation of the wounded.

If the fight is to be to decision the artillery should if possible be so located that it can be run up to a crest for direct fire in the later stages of the defense.

When contact is established the cavalry uncovers the front and transfers its activities to the flanks, reconnoitering those of the enemy, and operating to his rear to observe the approach of possible hostile reinforcements. In retiring to a flank the movements of the hostile cavalry must be considered, and the enemy should be denied a superiority in this arm on either flank if the strength of the cavalry permits it. It is therefore inadvisable, unless greatly superior in strength to the enemy, to disperse the cavalry. The bulk of it should be kept in hand to oppose that of the enemy. A small detachment of the cavalry may be used for observation on the other flank.

The advance guard regiment may be directed to provide for the security of the command to the front until the position is occupied. Former march conditions cease (if command has been on the march). In retiring to its position the advance guard regiment must not mask the fire of troops already on the line, or allow the enemy to follow it too closely, and possibly gain an advantageous position.

Machine guns should be preferably near the flanks. If especially desirable positions for dagger batteries are available they may be used. (A dagger battery is one so situated as to be protected from frontal fire and able to surprise the attacker by flanking or oblique fire from a position at short range, such as a saddle in front of and perpendicular to the line. See “Machine Guns”--post.)

Flank patrols (inf.) are sent out by the regiment on the flank without special orders. But if special measures such as a strong flank guard with a machine gun platoon, are required, the supreme commander should order flank organization (or reserve) to provide for this. In general it will be the duty of flank organizations to provide for security to the flanks.

The reserve should provide for the security of the lines of retreat, especially the bridges. They may be used to assist in preparing the position for defense--preferably clearing rather than intrenching. They will assemble at their designated post in rear on cessation of the work. Same for engineers, who join the reserve when work ceases.

Dressing station will be established by order or the location of dressing station may be announced later.

A usual formation for a brigade in defense is two regiments on the line and one in reserve. If any departure from this is made it should be in the way of a _larger reserve_ (except in delaying actions). (See “Counter attack”--post.)

A defensive position should not be too strongly garrisoned at the opening of the attack. The line should be held lightly with strong general reserves until the attacker has shown his intentions. The reserves are thrown in at the threatened point and used to deliver a counter attack.

It is sometimes advisable to defend advanced posts (but not advanced positions as a rule) to prevent enemy from seizing them too early. They cannot be held to a decision. One determined stand is better than several half-hearted ones. Especially is this the case if troops retreating out of one position under cover of fire from another, mask part of this fire, and arrive in disorder on the front. Also this means a dispersion of troops, and a diminution of the defender’s fighting strength at the very beginning of the action. One good prepared position to be defended by all troops is preferable to a succession of positions, in a decisive action.

An independent detachment is seldom justified in sacrificing itself. A covering detachment must do so when necessary for the protection of its main body.

_The Counter attack._ Every active defense should contemplate an eventual assumption of the offensive. The defense, being intrenched, not subject to losses nor exhaustion to such an extent as the attacker, and being more easily supplied with ammunition and better able to maintain an accurate, continuous fire, can use fewer men in its firing line and supports. Hence the defense is characterized by large general reserves. This feature should be developed to the utmost possible, the defensive line being held with the least practicable number, in order that the general reserves may be as strong as possible.

The general reserve is employed in three ways: (a) To extend the flanks in order to meet the enemy’s enveloping attack. When the terrain allows, the troops on the flank should be so disposed as to bring oblique or enfilade fire to bear upon the enveloping attack. (b) To reinforce critical points of the line, against which the enemy has concentrated his force. (c) For counter attacks.

Counter attacks are perhaps less subject to rule than any other tactical operation. They vary in size from small local counter attacks to a general reversal of the situation and an assumption of the offensive by the entire force of the defender.

The troops for the counter attack are kept well in hand and _concealed_ near the position from which it is proposed to launch the attack.

The proper time and manner of delivering a counter attack require good judgment on the part of the commander. A counter attack to be successful should be sprung as a surprise on the enemy.

The counter attack may be delivered just as the enemy has carried the position and is disorganized and in confusion. It may be delivered before his assault and while he is closely held within effective range by the fire of the defense. A counter attack is naturally most effective, when delivered from a flank. The attacker’s reserves will, of course, be on the lookout for counter attacks, hence the defense must hold out reserves to protect the counter attack. The most favorable time, then, to make a counter attack, is when the enemy is known to have thrown in his last reserve. He then has nothing to oppose to the defender’s counter attack.

Supporting points in rear of the main line of defense aid in breaking up an assault and contribute to the success of a counter attack.

The attacker’s artillery, after supporting the infantry to the last practicable moment will probably switch its fire to search the ground occupied by the defender’s reserves, or that over which they must approach in delivering the counter attack. The artillery of the defense should be posted and handled to meet this contingency.

If the attacker fails to establish fire superiority and his advance is checked the defender increases the volume of his fire, reinforcing his firing line if necessary. As the attacker wavers or starts to withdraw, the defender assumes the offensive and advances against him. If at the same time a strong counter-stroke can be launched against the attacker’s flank, his repulse or even his utter rout is probable. The nature of the terrain should, of course, be such as to favor the assumption of the offensive, and the position should be selected with this in view.

The commander of the defense should study the terrain and carefully watch the progress of the action with a view to taking the offensive at the proper moment.

From the foregoing considerations it is possible to draw the following suggestions as to the conduct of an ideal active defense.

(a) Select a position whose front is such as to favor the assumption of the offensive.

(b) Cover, concealment and good communications for the reserves are essential.

(c) The position should be artificially strengthened to as great an extent as time allows, or as conditions appear to demand.

(d) The defensive position should not be too greatly extended nor too strongly garrisoned at the outset, and before the enemy’s intentions have become manifest. The line may be extended and strengthened during the course of the action, as the developments thereof may require. At the opening of an engagement, however, a line lightly held, with _strong reserves_, is characteristic of an _active_ defense.

(e) Compel the attack to deploy at long range.

(f) Meet the attacker’s envelopment by an extension of the line.

(g) Prevent the enemy from gaining fire superiority, reinforcing the firing line if necessary. Cause him to throw in his supports and reserves.

(h) Check the enemy’s advance in a position favorable for a counter attack.

(i) Launch a strong counter attack against one of his flanks, holding out some reserves to meet those of the enemy.

(k) As the counter attack rolls back the enemy, advance against him along the whole line, the artillery following up the infantry.

It will not often be possible for the defender to regulate the course of the action, unless he be nearly equal in strength to the attacker or exceptionally favored by the terrain.

It will be usually a question of taking advantage of such opportunities as may in the course of events be presented. The only rule that can be given is that the defender should have large reserves and be constantly on the lookout for a favorable opportunity to make aggressive use of them. The most favorable opportunities for a counter stroke will _usually_ be presented on that flank which the enemy is endeavoring to envelop.

(For the use of auxiliary arms in combat see also “Artillery Tactics,” and “Cavalry Tactics,” Chaps. VIII and IX.)

ORDER FOR A FRONTAL ATTACK BY AN ADVANCE GUARD.

Advance Guard, 1st Division, 1st Blue Army Corps, ASH GROVE S. H., PA., Field Orders, } 1 July, '12, 9:05 a. m. No. -- } Gettysburg-Antietam 3" map.

1. A hostile detachment consisting of 3 or 4 regiments of cavalry and 1 or 2 batteries of horse artillery occupies a defensive line across the BALTIMORE TURNPIKE just east of GERMANTOWN. The left of the line rests on the wood southeast of MEYER F. H., the right on the small wood northeast of the B. D. SNYDER F. H. Our main body halts at LITTLESTOWN until 10:30 a. m.

2. This advance guard will make a frontal attack on the hostile force near GERMANTOWN at once, and clear the road to GETTYSBURG. Former march conditions now cease.

3. (a) The 1st Battalion, 1st Light Artillery, will move at a trot under cover to a position in the vicinity of Hill 607 and at once open fire on the enemy and support the attack.

(b) The 1st Infantry will move north of the turnpike under cover to the vicinity of road junction 584, deploying perpendicular to the BALTIMORE TURNPIKE with its left resting thereon and, in conjunction with the 2d Infantry, will advance and attack that portion of the enemy’s line north of the turnpike.

(c) The 2d Infantry will move south of the turnpike under cover to the vicinity of GOUKER F. H., deploying perpendicular to the turnpike with its right resting thereon, and will advance and attack that portion of the enemy’s line south of the turnpike.

(d) The 3rd Infantry, in reserve, will follow the 1st Infantry to the vicinity of road junction 584, and there await orders. 8 mounted orderlies of this regiment will report to me at once.

(e) The 1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry, on withdrawing from the front will cover our right, operating against the enemy’s left and rear. A half troop under an officer will be sent to cover our left.

(f) Co. A, 1st Engineers, will repair the bridge on the BALTIMORE TURNPIKE east of GIDD F. H., making it safe for the passage of artillery, and construct two additional crossings for foot troops only over ALLOWAY CREEK, one north of the turnpike the other south of same. Upon the completion of this work the engineers will join the reserve.

4. The 1st Ambulance Co. will take a position in readiness off the road just east of Hill 607. Location of dressing station will be announced later.

When extra ammunition has been issued the empty battalion ammunition wagons will assemble off the road opposite the 1st Amb. Co.

5. Messages to GIDD F. H.

A, Brigadier General.

Verbally to Staff and C. O. of:

1st Inf. 2d Inf. 3d Inf. 1st Bn., 1st L. A. Co. A, 1st Engrs. Copy by aide to C. O., 1st Sq., 1st Cav. Copy by mtd. messenger to C. O., 1st Amb. Co.

By mtd. officer: Adv. Gd., 1st Div., 1st Blue Army Corps, 1 July, '12, 9:08 a. m.

C. G., 1st Div.:

3 or 4 regts. Red Cavalry with 1 or 2 btrys. H. A. across BALTIMORE PIKE, just east of GERMANTOWN, left near MEYER F. H., right near B. D. SNYDER F. H. Am making frontal attack at once, 3d inf. in reserve, cav. covering our right. Messages to GIDD F. H.

A, Brig. Gen.

_Notes_: Considerable latitude has been allowed the artillery commander.

He is not told to reconnoiter advanced positions for the reason that he always does this as a matter of course. Gen. A will consult him when the time arrives to move the artillery forward.

The exact routes to their deploying positions are not prescribed for the infantry regiments. Gen. A has no time to make a deep study of the matter of cover. There is no danger of the regiments getting lost or interfering with each other, and their colonels may be trusted to lead them to their positions with as little exposure as possible, reconnoitering in advance with mounted men as they proceed.

General A considers no special measures necessary for the protection of his flanks, beyond those provided for in the orders to the cavalry. In the absence of any special instructions the Colonels of the 1st and 2nd Infantry will take such measures as they deem necessary for flank protection, using mounted and infantry patrols.

Very general instructions only, are given to the cavalry. Major A is an experienced cavalry officer. He understands that he is dealing with a large cavalry force which, while fighting a dismounted action, undoubtedly has strong mounted reserves in hand. He therefore appreciates the need for caution. He also understands that the enemy’s most vulnerable parts are his groups of led horses.

All the bridges over Alloway Creek have been destroyed or injured by flood and the creek is flowing bank full. The engineer commander will at once despatch his mounted section with the necessary tools to prepare crossings north and south of the turnpike for the 1st and 2d Infantry. He will do this by repairing the old crossings if practicable; and endeavor to finish the work promptly so as not to delay the attacking troops in getting into position. Later the foot section of the engineer company will improve these crossings (for the use of the Division should it have to take part in the attack) and will put the bridge near Gidd F. H. in good order.

The ammunition wagons are assembled in one place in order to have them at hand when wanted. Without such orders they might be scattered all along the road, interfering also with the movements of troops. General A may use them later to transport wounded to Littlestown, at which time also they would proceed to the division trains to refill.

The references given in this order (such as “the woods S. of MEYER F. H.”) might not be readily understood at the time by General A’s subordinates, who are not provided with 3" maps. At the time of giving his orders General A would point out the various localities mentioned to his subordinates (who are with him on Hill 607). Then by the aid of their Geological (1”) Maps they can easily identify the places referred to. The brigade adjutant in later writing up the order, would ascertain the names of the various farm houses as far as practicable, as this is the easiest and surest means of identifying them.

Following is the foregoing order reduced to smaller compass:

Adv. Gd., 1st Div., 1st Blue Army Corps, ASH GROVE S. H., PA., Field Orders, } 1 July, '13, 9:05 a. m. No. -- } Gettysburg-Antietam 3" map.

1. A hostile detachment of 3 or 4 regiments of cavalry and 1 or 2 batteries of horse artillery is in position just east of GERMANTOWN; right at small wood northeast of B. D. SNYDER, left at wood southeast of MEYER.

Our main body halts at LITTLESTOWN until 10:30 a. m.

2. We attack at once.

3. (a) Artillery takes position near Hill 607 and supports attack.

(b) 1st Inf. moves north of turnpike to near road jct. 584, thence in conjunction with 2d Inf. attacks enemy line north of turnpike.

(c) 2d Inf. moves south of turnpike to near GOUKER, thence at once attacks enemy line south of turnpike.

(d) 3d Inf., reserve, follows 2d to near road jct. 584 and awaits orders.

(e) Cavalry on withdrawing from front covers right and operates against enemy’s left and rear. A half troop covers our left.

(f) Engineers make bridge east of GIDD passable for artillery, construct two crossings for foot troops over ALLOWAY CREEK, north and south of turnpike, join reserve.

4. Ambulance Co., and empty ammunition wagons east of Hill 607.

5. Messages to GIDD.

A, Brig. Gen.

How and to whom transmitted, etc., etc.

The body of the order in this second example contains but half as many words as the first and yet conveys all the instructions necessary in this case. Thus for instance the guiding directions for the infantry regiments in attack are omitted as it will be perfectly apparent that they will use the turnpike which separates the enemy’s line into the sectors assigned to each attack. A comparison of these two orders will indicate how unnecessary verbiage may often be eliminated. It is to be noted, however, that clearness is more important than brevity.

ORDER FOR AN ENVELOPING ATTACK.

Detch., 1st Div., 1st Blue Army Corps, Hill 636 (1 mi. southeast of HUNTERSTOWN, PA.) Field Orders, } 1 October, '12, 10:20 a. m. No. -- }

Gettysburg-Antietam 3" map.

1. A hostile detachment of 2 regts. of infantry, one or two btrys. of field artillery, and a troop of cavalry, has taken up a defensive position on the heights west of HUNTERSTOWN. Its right flank rests on Hill 603, its left near HENDERSON MEETING HOUSE.

Our cavalry has driven in the hostile cavalry which retreated to the north of HUNTERSTOWN.

2. This detachment will attack the enemy in its front at once, enveloping his right flank. Former march conditions now cease.

3. (a) The 1st Bn., 1st Light Arty. will take a position near Hill 636 and support the attack.

(b) The 1st Inf. will proceed along main road to the edge of the wood near road junction 585, deploying perpendicular to the road with its left about 250 yds. south thereof. From here it will advance and attack the enemy’s line north of Hill 603, directing its left on the hill and moving to the attack in conjunction with the 2d Inf.

A half company will be sent to the vicinity of the orchard on Hill 592 to cover our right.

(c) The 2d Inf. will leave the main road near 606 and move via the 632--600--585 road, thence under cover to the small wood ½ mile east of 572. From there, it will advance and attack the enemy’s line south and west of Hill 603, directing its right on the eastern corner of the orchard southwest of HUNTERSTOWN.

A half company will be sent to the orchard at 572 to cover our left.

(d) The 3d Inf. in reserve, will follow in rear of the right flank of the 2d Inf.

(e) The cavalry will withdraw to and cover our right flank, operating against the enemy’s left and rear. A half troop will be sent well to our left. Reconnaissance to GOLDENVILLE and TABLE ROCK.

(f) The engineers will open up two trails through the thicket northeast of HUNTERSTOWN, and then take station at the eastern edge of same.

(g) The signal troops will connect me with the 1st Inf. and the artillery.

4. The 1st Amb. Co. will establish a dressing station south of the main road at the stream crossing ⅓ mile west of 632.

When the issue of extra ammunition is completed the empty ammunition wagons will join 1st Amb. Co. where they will be at the disposal of the Chief Surgeon until further orders.

The field trains will halt off the road at place of receipt of this order.

5. Messages to the reserve.

A, Brig. Gen.

Verbally to Staff and C. O.:

1st Bn., 1st L. A. Signal troops. Co. A, 1st Engrs. 1st Inf. 2d Inf. 3d Inf.

Copy by aide to C. O., 1st Sq., 1st Cav. Copy by mtd. messenger to C. O., 1st Amb. Co., F. Tn. (Report of dispositions to C. G., 1st Div.--see ante.)

_Notes_: General A considers special measures necessary for the protection of his flanks. The engineers are so placed as to guard against a counter attack on the Blue right.

The cavalry amongst other duties watches for the approach of hostile reinforcements.

As General A will be with the reserve regiment he does not need any orderlies other than those of that regiment.

ORDER FOR THE OCCUPATION OF A DEFENSIVE POSITION.

Detch., 1st Div., 1st Blue Army Corps, Road Junction 616, South of PLAINVIEW, PA., Field Orders, } 20 Sept., '12, 10:00 a. m. No. -- } Gettysburg-Antietam 3" map.

1. A hostile force of all arms is moving northward on the GETTYSBURG--HARRISBURG ROAD, advance party at the COUNTY ALMSHOUSE, just outside of GETTYSBURG, at 9:00 a. m.

Our cavalry defeated the hostile cavalry near this point this morning and is now engaged in delaying the enemy’s advance.

2. This detachment will take up a defensive position across the HARRISBURG ROAD near road junction 561 to cover the crossings of the CONEWAGO CREEK for our division. Former march conditions now cease.

3. (a) The artillery will take a position in observation on the north slope of the ridge near Hill 707.

(b) The 1st Inf. will occupy the section from a point on the 666-576 road about 400 yds. southwest of 666 thence westward to the farm road leading southwest from Hill 712. This regiment will provide for the security of the entire command to the front until the position is occupied.

The 2d Inf. will occupy the section from the left of the 1st Inf. to a point on the nose about 200 yds. northeast of 561. A company with a machine gun platoon will be sent to the woods about 700 yds. south of PLAINVIEW and a half company to the woods about 1,500 yds. southeast of PLAINVIEW.

The entire position will be prepared for defense.

(c) The 3d Infantry in reserve, will take position in mass near 605. This regiment will provide for the security of the bridges 502W and near HERSHEY MILL. 10 mtd. orderlies of this regiment will report to me at once.

(d) The cavalry will continue to delay the enemy and when obliged to fall back will cover our right. A half troop will be sent to cover our left.

(e) The engineers will start work at once on the section assigned to the 1st Infantry, assisting that regiment, and joining the reserve when work ceases.

4. The 1st Amb Co. will take a position in readiness north of the bridge 502W.

The field trains will park east of the HARRISBURG ROAD north of WERMAN F. H.

The bn. combat trains and the caissons of the artillery when empty will be sent to YORK SPRINGS to refill.

5. Messages to Hill 712.

A, Brigadier General.

Dictated to Staff and C. O.: 1st Inf. 2d Inf. 3d Inf. 1st Bn., 1st L. A. Co. A, 1st Engrs.

Copies by mtd. messengers to C. O., 1st Amb. Co. and Tns.

Telegram.

Detch. 1st Div., PLAINVIEW, PA., 1 Oct. '12--10:05 a. m. C. G., 1st Div., 1st Blue Army Corps, YORK SPRINGS, PA.

Red force all arms weak in cavalry, probably 2d Div., 1st Red Corps, moved north from GETTYSBURG, starting 9:00 a. m. Detch. takes position across HARRISBURG ROAD near 561 (GETTYSBURG-ANTIETAM map) to delay advance. Cavalry covers right. Will guard bridges 502W and at HERSHEY MILL for div. Telegrams to PLAINVIEW.

A, Brig. Gen.

_Notes_: General A considers it unnecessary to mention to his own troops, the enemy’s great superiority of strength, although it is essential that he advise his superior. The fact that he is taking up a defensive position is sufficiently suggestive.

The position is described in general terms only in Par. 2, and more precisely in Par 3.

The Col. of the 1st Inf., without orders, will place a small combat patrol to the right. General A has made special provisions (outside the sphere of the Col. of the 2d Inf.) for the security of his left.

The expression “prepared for defense” includes (besides intrenching) clearing foreground, measuring ranges, constructing obstacles, etc., all so far as time allows. The infantry will do the intrenching--the engineers (if present) the special work. (See “Organization of a defensive position.”)

The message contains all the information which the division commander requires at this time. Upon approaching the position he will receive personal advices as to the latest developments in the situation.