Part 1

TEA

AND THE

EFFECTS OF TEA DRINKING.

BY

W. SCOTT TEBB, M.A., M.D., CANTAB., D.P.H.

FELLOW OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY, PUBLIC ANALYST TO THE

METROPOLITAN BOROUGH OF SOUTHWARK.

London: T. CORNELL & SONS, Commercial, Law and General Printers, 63, Borough Road, S.E.

In March, 1904, the Southwark Borough Council at the request of Sir William Collins gave permission for an inquiry to be made into the constituents of tea in order to ascertain what injurious ingredients were present, and if it were possible to obtain the characteristic effects without subjecting tea-drinkers to any of the deleterious symptoms. The subject will be seen to be of importance and I propose to include a brief history of the use of the Tea plant, together with a general review of the experience gained by those best competent to judge of the effects since its introduction of what has now come to be considered a necessity of life. In addition there are set forth the results of examination of different samples of tea and the general conclusions to which I have arrived.

What we call tea, is called by the Chinese tcha, tha, or te, and by the Russians tchai. The original English word was tee, at least this is the name used by Samuel Pepys one of the earliest to allude to the herb in this country. Tee was afterwards altered to tay, as will be seen from Pope’s lines in the “Rape of the Lock.”

Soft yielding minds to water glide away And sip, with nymphs, their elemental tay.

Or again,

Hear thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes tay.

Some of the modern editions of Pope have altered the spelling at the expense of the rhyme.

The tea-plant, Thea Sinensis, botanically speaking a close ally of the Camellia is in its natural state a tree which attains to 20 or 30 feet in height. Under cultivation it remains a shrub from three to six feet high. It grows in all tropical and sub-tropical countries, and roughly it takes the labour of one man a day to produce a pound of tea. The leaves--the only part of the plant used in commerce--vary from two to six inches long, are evergreen, lanceolate and serrated throughout nearly the whole margin; the leaves are stalked and arranged alternately on axis, the flowers somewhat resemble apple blossoms but are smaller.

The shrubs are planted in rows three or four feet apart and look like a field of currant or gooseberry bushes; at the end of the third year the bushes become large enough to allow of the first picking and in the eighth year the plant is cut down, when new shoots spring up from the old roots. In Ceylon and parts of India the first picking is in March and there may be as many as 25 pickings in the season until October; in China the first picking is in April, and in Japan late in April or early May. The early pickings make the finest quality of tea, and the very late leaves are not usually exported at all, but are used by the peasants locally. In preparation for commerce the leaves are subjected to various processes of drying, rolling and roasting, into which it would not be necessary at any length to enter; the essential point to remember is that black tea differs from green in that after a short preliminary rolling and roasting, the leaves are exposed to the air in a soft moist state, when they undergo fermentation with the result it is said that a portion of the tannic acid is converted to sugar. Robert Fortune,[1] an authority on the cultivation of the tea plant thought that the differences of manufacture “fully account for the difference in colour, as well as for the effect produced on some constitutions by green tea, such as nervous irritability, sleeplessness, &c.”

When we come to look into the early origin of the practice of tea-drinking we find that the subject is shrouded in the mists of antiquity. There are many legendary stories of the discovery and use of tea by the Chinese, but the only authentic and well-attested accounts were given by two Mahommedans who travelled in India and China in the ninth century. The original manuscript was found in the Comte de Seignelay’s library by Eusebius Renaudot and published in 1733. There is plain internal evidence that the manuscript was written about 1173, for there are observations upon the extent and circumference of the walls and towers of Damascus and other cities in subjection to the Sultan Nuroddin, who is spoken of as living at that time. This prince died in 1173 which fixes the date of the narrative before that time. The account speaks of the Arab merchants having been present in China in the years 851 and 867 respectively. On page 25 occurs the following important passage “The Emperor also reserves to himself the revenues which arise from the salt mines and from a certain Herb which they drink with hot water, and of which great quantities are sold in all the cities, to the amount of great sums. They call it _sah_ and it is a shrub more bushy than the pomegranate tree and of a more taking smell, but it has a kind of bitterness with it. Their way is to boil water, which they pour upon this leaf, and this drink cures all sorts of diseases; whatever sums are lodged in the treasury arise from the Poll-tax, and the duties upon salt, and upon this leaf.”[2]

Tea was therefore much in vogue in China in the 9th century. From China the knowledge was carried to Japan, and there the cultivation was established at the beginning of the 13th century; from that time until the 19th century China and Japan have been the only two tea producing countries. As with all innovations Europe and particularly England was very slow to take to the practice, for tea is hardly mentioned by any of the writers prior to the 16th century.

One of the earliest to allude to the subject was Giovanni Botero[3] in 1596, in his treatise on the causes of the magnificence and greatness of cities; he remarks that “they (the Chinese) have also an herb, out of which they press a delicate juice, which serves them for drink instead of wine, it also preserves their health and frees them from all those ills that the immoderate use of wine doth breed unto us.”

It will be observed that in these early accounts much stress is laid on the beneficial action of tea in preserving health and curing disease, and this was in all probability the first use to which the shrub was applied. Thus one of the Sloane Manuscripts, dated 1686, gives a long list of “qualities and operations,” attributed by the Chinese to the tea plant. It was said to purify the blood and kidneys, cure giddiness and pains in the head, vanquish superfluous sleep and heavy dreams, open obstructions, clear the sight, strengthen the memory, sharpen the wits and quicken the understanding.

About the year 1657, Thomas Garway of the Exchange Alley issued a sheet proclaiming the virtues of tea; the alleged qualities being almost identical with those given in the Sloane Manuscript just mentioned. This was a sort of advertisement of his place of business and he tells us that “many noblemen, physitians, merchants, and gentlemen of quality” sent to town for the “said leaf,” and “daily resort” to his house in Exchange Alley to drink tea. He informs us that prior to 1657 it was only used as a “regalia in high treatments and entertainments,” and for presents for princes and grandees.

Another early reference is from an advertisement in the “Mercurius Politicus” for 1658. “That excellent, and by all physitians approved _China_ drink, called by the _Chineans_, Tcha, by other nations _Tay alias Tee_ is sold at the _Sultaness-head_, a _Cophee-house_ in _Sweetings_ Rents, by the Royal Exchange, London.”[4]

A further early reference is by Thomas Rugge[5] which may be seen in a manuscript at the British Museum. “About this time the parliment that was forced out the 13th day of October, 59; it was called by all sorts of persons the Rump, because they war soe few in number; and there war also att this time a Turkish drink to be sould, almost in every street called Coffee, and another kind of drink called Tee, and also a drink called Chocolate which was a very harty drink.”

It is rather difficult to reconcile this account of the prevalence of the use of tea as a drink with that of other writers of the period. Thus Pepys writing a year afterwards under date September 25, 1660, says: “I did send for a cup of tee (a China drink) of which I never had drank before.” This clearly points to the novelty of the practice in 1660 for Samuel Pepys was Secretary of the Admiralty, and a public man of keen observation, and it is almost impossible if tea was commonly sold as a drink at this time that he should have been unaware of the fact. Macaulay[6] also mentions that about this time tea “had been handed round to be stared at.” It seems therefore clear that the herb was quite recently introduced in 1660, and it is possible that Rugge under the name of “tee” is referring to hot infusions of other leaves for it is well known that herbs were commonly used for making different sorts of teas as sage tea, &c.[7]

The first official notice of tea is in the Act of Parliament (12 Carolus II., c 23), by which a duty of eightpence was charged on every gallon of coffee, chocolate, sherbet, and tea made for sale. In 1662 Charles II. married Princess Catherine of Portugal, and the Poet Waller has immortalised tea-drinking by a birthday ode in her honour.

The muse’s friend, tea, does our fancy aid, Repress those vapours which the head invade, And keeps that palace of the soul serene Fit, on her birthday, to salute the Queen.

Two years later the King was a recipient of the then valuable gift of 2lb. 2oz. of tea from the East India Company.

In Pepys Diary under the date of June 28, 1667, we read “Home and there find my wife making of tea; a drink which Mr. Pelling, the Potticary, tells her is good for her cold and defluxions.” Tea, therefore, was just coming into vogue. In 1669 the East India Company received two canisters containing 143¹⁄₂ pounds; the price at this time was sixty shillings a pound. The Company imported 4713 pounds in 1678, but this amount probably glutted the market, for in the six subsequent years the imports were quite inconsiderable. In 1697-99 the imports averaged 20,000, in 1700-08 they reached 80,000 pounds, in 1728 over a million pounds, in 1754 four and a half million, in 1763 six million, and in 1779 nearly ten million pounds.[8] It is not necessary to follow the imports during the whole of the 18th century, speaking generally it was found that excessive duties led to smaller imports, and at the same time to a large increase of smuggling and other irregularities.

Since 1800 there has been an enormous increase of consumption in the United Kingdom, as will be seen from the following figures:--

TABLE A.

Average number of Average Average number of Year-Periods. pounds of Tea annual pounds of Tea consumed consumed per annum. Population. per head per annum. 1801-10 23,717,882 16,794,000 1·41 1811-20 24,753,808 19,316,700 1·28 1821-30 28,612,702 22,433,900 1·27 1831-40 34,441,766 25,257,200 1·36 1841-50 44,286,600 27,566,300 1·61 1851-60 65,160,456 28,172,400 2·31 1861-70 97,775,548 30,027,600 3·26 1871-80 144,462,622 33,055,020 4·37 1881-90 178,130,836 36,178,144 4·92 1891-1900 224,076,800 39,440,316 5·70 1901-03 255,270,472 41,550,773 6·10

Since the beginning of the last century therefore the average consumption per head has increased from 1·4 to 6·1 pounds. In our Australian and New Zealand Colonies the quantity consumed is even much larger than in the United Kingdom as will be seen from the table below:--

TABLE B.

Average number of pounds of Tea consumed per head per annum. New South Wales 8·01 Victoria 7·38 South Australia (except N. Territory) 8·87 South Australia (North Territory) 6·44 Western Australia 10·07 Queensland 7·09 Tasmania 6·62 All Australia 7·81 New Zealand 6·78

The enormous quantity of tea consumed in Great Britain and our Colonies will be better appreciated if comparisons are made with other Countries:--

TABLE C.

Average number of pounds of Tea consumed per head per annum. Russia 0·93 Germany 0·12 Holland 1·48 France 0·06 United States 1·09 Canada 4·64

I should like to say a few words concerning the sources of tea supply to the United Kingdom. Of course until fairly recent times practically all the tea came from China. Early in the last century it was found that the tea plant was indigenous to India. In 1825 the Society of Arts offered their gold medal “to the person who shall grow and prepare the greatest quantity of China tea, of good quality, not being less than 20 pounds weight”[9] in the East Indies and British Colonies. In 1832 Dr. Wallick made a report on the cultivation of tea in India and said “that under a well-directed management the tea plant may at no distant period be made an object of extensive cultivation in the Honourable East India Company’s Dominions.” Several years afterwards in 1839 the Society of Arts Medal was awarded to Mr. C. A. Bruce “for discovering the indigenous tea tracts and successfully cultivating and preparing tea in the British possessions in India.” In 1840 the first Indian Tea Company was formed, in 1853 tea was growing in Cachar, in 1856 in Sylhet, and in 1864 in Darjeeling and other places. Much more recently Ceylon has become prominent in supplying this country with tea. It came about in this way; the coffee plantations were destroyed by disease in 1868 and the planters succeeded in growing cinchona and tea as alternative crops. This experimental growth of tea in Ceylon has now become a flourishing industry.

The following table shows in five year periods since 1866, the proportion of each 100 pounds of tea imported into the United Kingdom from India, Ceylon, China and other countries respectively:

TABLE D.

Five Year Other Periods. India. Ceylon. China. Countries. 1866-70 6·62 0·00 91·44 1·94 1871-75 10·50 0·08 85·62 3·80 1876-80 18·26 0·06 80·18 1·50 1881-85 26·73 0·86 70·71 1·71 1886-90 39·66 10·96 47·07 2·32 1891-95 47·10 29·30 21·04 2·56 1896-1900 50·25 36·30 10·52 2·93 1901-03 58·45 33·28 4·74 3·53

It appears that China which formerly supplied 90 per cent. in 1866, now contributes less than 5 per cent. of our tea. During the same period the Indian supply has gone up from 6 to 58 per cent., and Ceylon which only commenced to send tea in 1875 now sends the substantial proportion of 33 per cent. of the total importation.

From the above tables it will be seen that of the yearly average of six pounds consumed in the United Kingdom, one third of a pound comes from China, three and a half pounds from India, and two pounds from Ceylon. The Dutch the next largest tea-drinkers to the British consume a pound and a half each person per annum, half of this comes from Java and the remaining half from the United Kingdom (principally of Chinese origin). Most of the tea drunk in Russia comes from China. In Australia two-thirds of the tea is imported from India and Ceylon, and the rest comes from China. In the United States more than half the tea comes from China and the bulk of the remainder from Japan.

I now proceed to deal briefly with the constituents of tea which are generally believed to impart to the tea infusion its special characters.

_Alkaloid._ The alkaloid which is present in tea to the extent of 3 or 4 per cent. is thought to be identical with that found in Coffee, viz: caffeine. It has the well-known stimulant and invigorating qualities with which the taking of tea is associated. Thus the brain is stimulated, the intellect becomes clear; there is removal of languor and fatigue with increased wakefulness and alertness. The following is by a Chinese writer, who lived over 1,000 years ago and he writes so well, and so much to the point, that we must not quarrel with him if he has omitted to give us the reverse aspect of the question.

It tempers the spirits, and harmonises the mind, Dispels lassitude, and relieves fatigue, Awakens thought, and prevents drowsiness, Lightens or refreshes the body, and clears the perceptive faculties.

We shall also forgive Cowper’s strong prepossession in favour of tea when we call to mind the cosy, comfortable picture which he describes:

And while the bubbling and loud hissing urn, Throws up a steamy column, and the cups That cheer but not inebriate, wait on each So let us welcome peaceful evening in.

I suppose that this verse has been as much quoted as anything in our language, and the homely picture of the evening meal has done much to wean the English people from stronger drinks.

The following article from the _Lancet_ of 1863 presents all the arguments, and very important arguments they are and very well stated which can be placed to the credit of tea-drinking:--

“It has a strange influence over mood--a strange power of changing the look of things, and changing it for the better: so that we can believe and hope, and do under the influence of tea, what we should otherwise give up in discouragement and despair,--feelings under the influence of which tissues wear rapidly. In the language of the poor, who in London we are told spend one-eight of their income in buying tea, it produces a feeling of comfort. Neither the philosopher nor the philanthropist will despise this property of tea, this power of conferring comfort, or removing _ennui_, of promoting those happier feelings of our nature under which we can do most and bear most. There is no denying the considerable dependence of our moods and frames upon substances; and as moods are as important as muscles, as they affect as largely a man’s ability for the great ends of life, we cannot regard the cheapening of such substances, when devoid of noxious qualities, as other than a most important benefit to the poor.”

This feeling of comfort, this power of changing the aspect of affairs, of appealing to the happier side of our nature, in other words of putting us at our best, is undoubtedly due to the alkaloid of tea. Since I have been interested in the subject I have conversed with a number of friends, and many have told me that the best time of day to do any writing or intellectual work is after a cup of tea in the afternoon, and I must confess to feeling more myself at this time than at any other; but, on the other hand if no afternoon tea is taken, this period of the day is when most people feel fagged and tired and incapable of mental exertion. This shews the great influence exercised by tea over our moods and feelings; and if tea is taken in moderation this property may be of great help and a mental stimulus to us in our daily vocation.

_Tannin._--The other important constituent of tea, viz.: tannin is present to the extent of 10 or 20 per cent. and it is this substance to which most of the injurious effects of tea have been attributed. In excess tannin tends to depress the action of the digestive fluids and ferments. It interferes with the normal activity of secretion by constricting the blood vessels and diminishing the circulation, and lastly it tends to combine with the nitrogenous principles of the food rendering them insoluble and incapable of digestion. The tendency therefore of this substance is greatly to impair digestion and it gives rise to palpitation of the heart, headache, flatulence, loss of appetite, constipation and other symptoms so well-known at the out-patient departments of our general hospitals; on inquiry it is often found that the patient is accustomed to drink large quantities of tea, which has stood for long periods and consequently extracted excessive amounts of tannin.

In addition to the alkaloid and tannin the older writers asserted that tea contained a volatile oil to the extent of 0·6 to 1 per cent., and many of the qualities and deleterious effects of tea have been traced to the presence of this substance. The latest experiments, however throw some doubts on these early results. Thus in the report of Schimmel & Co. for April, 1897, it is stated (p. 39) that “in former years we endeavoured on several occasions to distil various kinds of tea in order to introduce tea oil ... we have, however, in no case succeeded in obtaining more than mere traces of oil,” and they conclude that in the hands of the early experimenters the oil found on distillation was due to the artificial flavouring of tea which was common at that time. Schimmel & Co. in their Report for April, 1898 (p. 50) refer to a report of the Botanical Gardens in Buitenzorg for 1896. It appears that experiments were made on a large scale, thus 2500 kilograms of freshly fermented tea leaves were submitted to steam distillation and 130 cubic centimetres or 0·0052 per cent. of oil was obtained.[10] It must be remembered that this oil was only found in freshly fermented leaves and from the minute quantity I think we may conclude that tea oil if present has little or no connection with the qualities and attributes of tea, or the deleterious effects to which it may give rise.

A word or two with reference to the adulteration of tea. In former times a good many samples and especially of green tea were faced; this consisted in the addition of some colouring matter as Prussian blue, turmeric, or indigo; and sometimes black tea was faced with graphite. Another practice formerly prevalent was the addition of various leaves having a resemblance to tea leaves; and then there was the use of exhausted or spent leaves. All these forms of adulteration are now happily very seldom practiced. To shew the extreme rarity of tea adulteration in this country, in the 17 years from 1887 to 1903, 7595 samples were purchased under the Food and Drugs Acts and of these only 23 were found to be adulterated. These figures include 15 cases in 1898, and according to the report of the Local Government Board for this year many were of the description known as caper tea. This is one of the China varieties and consists of small granular masses made up by the aid of gum and starch, and this lends itself to the addition of sand and stones as actually happened in the cases in question. I think that with this exception of mineral matter, tea adulteration in this country may now be said to be practically non-existant.

We have glanced through the general effects of the important constituents of tea. I now propose to consider the amount of harm which can be justly attributed to this popular article of daily consumption.