Chapter 78

RESTORING FERTILITY TO THE SOIL.

By Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., Rothamsted, Eng.

A relation of mine, who already possessed a very considerable estate, consisting of light land, about twenty years ago purchased a large property adjoining it at a very high price. These were days when farmers were flourishing, and they no more anticipated what was in store for them in the future, than the inhabitants of the earth in the days of Noah.

Times have changed since then, and bad seasons, low prices of wheat, and cattle-disease, have swept off the tenants from these two estates, so that my relation finds himself now in the position of being the unhappy owner and occupier of five or six farms, extending over several thousand acres--one farm alone occupying an area of two thousand four hundred acres. Fortunately for the owner, he possesses town property in addition to his landed estates, so that the question with him is not, as it is with many land owners, how to find the necessary capital to cultivate the land, but, having found the capital, how to expend it in farming, so as to produce a proper return.

It is not very surprising that, under these circumstances, my opinion should have been asked. What, indeed, would have been the use of a relation, who not only spent all his time in agricultural experiments, but also pretended to teach our neighbors how to farm on the other side of the Atlantic, if he could not bring his science to bear on the land of an adjoining county! Here is the land--my relation might naturally say--here is the money, and I have so much confidence in your capacity that I will give you _carte-blanche_ to spend as much as you please--what am I to do?

An inspection of the property brought out the following facts--that all the land was very light, and that you might walk over the fresh plowed surface in the wettest weather without any clay sticking to your boots: still a portion of the soil was dark in color, and therefore probably contained a sufficient amount of fertility to make cultivation profitable, provided the management could be conducted with that care and economy which are absolute essentials in a business where the expenditure is always pressing closely upon the income.

Upon land of this description meat-making is the backbone of the system, which must be adopted, and a large breeding flock of sheep the first essential towards success.

Science can make very little improvement upon the four-course rotation--roots, barley, clover, and wheat, unless, perhaps, it may be by keeping the land in clover, or mixed grass and clover, for two or three years.

A good deal of the land I was inspecting was so light, that, in fact, it was hardly more than sand, and for some years it had been left to grow anything that came up, undisturbed by the plow.

To a practised eye, the character of the natural vegetation is a sure indication of the fertility of the soil. Where herds of buffaloes are to be seen--their sides shaking with fat--it is quite evident that the pastures upon which they feed cannot be very bad; and in the same way, where a rank growth of weeds is found springing up upon land that has been abandoned, it may be taken for certain that the elements of food exist in the soil. This ground was covered with vegetation, but of the most impoverished description, even the “Quack” or “Couch-grass” could not form a regular carpet, but grew in small, detached bunches; everything, in fact, bore evidence of poverty.

Possibly, the first idea which might occur to any one, on seeing land in this state, might be: Why not grow the crops by the aid of artificial manures?

Let us look at the question from two points of view: first, in regard to the cost of the ingredients; and, secondly, in regard to the growth of the crop.

We will begin with wheat. A crop of wheat, machine-reaped, contains, as carted to the stack, about six pounds of soil ingredients in every one hundred pounds; that is to say, each five pounds of mineral matter, and rather less than one pound of nitrogen, which the plant takes from the soil, will enable it to obtain ninety-four pounds of other substances from the atmosphere. To grow a crop of twenty bushels of grain and two thousand pounds of straw, would require one hundred and sixty pounds of minerals, and about thirty-two pounds of nitrogen; of the one hundred and sixty pounds of minerals, one-half would be silica, of which the soil possesses already more than enough; the remainder, consisting of about eighty pounds of potash and phosphate, could be furnished for from three to four dollars, and the thirty-two pounds of nitrogen could be purchased in nitrate of soda for six or eight dollars. The actual cost of the ingredients, therefore, in the crop of twenty bushels of wheat, would be about ten to twelve dollars. But as this manure would furnish the ingredients for the growth of both straw and grain, and it is customary to return the straw to the land, after the first crop, fully one-third of the cost of the manure might, in consequence, be deducted, which would make the ingredients of the twenty bushels amount to six dollars. Twenty bushels of wheat in England would sell for twenty-eight dollars; therefore, there would be twenty-two dollars left for the cost of cultivation and profit.

A French writer on scientific agriculture has employed figures very similar to the above, to show how French farmers may grow wheat at less than one dollar per bushel. At this price they might certainly defy the competition of the United States. It is one thing, however, to grow crops in a lecture room, and quite another to grow them in a field. In dealing with artificial manures, furnishing phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen, we have substances which act upon the soil in very different ways. Phosphate of lime is a very insoluble substance, and requires an enormous amount of water to dissolve it. Salts of potash, on the other hand, are very soluble in water, but form very insoluble compounds with the soil. Salts of ammonia and nitrate of soda are perfectly soluble in water. When applied to the land, the ammonia of the former substance forms an insoluble compound with the soil, but in a very short time is converted into nitrate of lime; and with this salt and nitrate of soda, remains in solution in the soil water until they are either taken up by the plant or are washed away into the drains or rivers.

Crops evaporate a very large amount of water, and with this water they attract the soluble nitrate from all parts of the soil. Very favorable seasons are therefore those in which the soil is neither too dry nor too wet; as in one case the solution of nitrate becomes dried up in the soil, in the other it is either washed away, or the soil remains so wet that the plant cannot evaporate the water sufficiently to draw up the nitrates which it contains.

The amount of potash and phosphoric acid dissolved in the water is far too small to supply the requirements of the plant, and it is probable that what is required for this purpose is dissolved by some direct action of the roots of the plant on coming in contact with the insoluble phosphoric acid and potash in the soil.

In support of this view, I may mention that we have clear evidence in some of our experiments of the wheat crop taking up both phosphates and potash that were applied to the land thirty years ago.

To suppose, therefore, that, if the ingredients which exist in twenty bushels of wheat and its straw, are simply applied to a barren soil, the crop will be able to come in contact with, and take up these substances, is to assume what certainly will not take place.

I have often expressed an opinion that arable land, could not be cultivated profitably by means of artificial manures, unless the soil was capable of producing, from its own resources, a considerable amount of produce; still the question had never up to this time come before me in a distinct form as one upon which I had to decide one way or the other. I had, however, no hesitation in coming to the conclusion, that grain crops could never be grown at a profit upon my relation’s land, and that consequently, for some years, it would be better to give up the attempt, and try to improve the pasture.

After what I have said about the insolubility of potash and phosphoric acid, it may possibly be asked--why not give a good dose of these substances at once, as they do not wash out of the soil--say enough to grow sixty crops of grain, and apply the nitrate, or ammonia every year in just sufficient amounts to supply the wants of the crop?

The objections to this plan are as follows: assuming the most favorable conditions of climate, and the largest possible produce, the wheat could certainly not take up the whole of the thirty-two pounds of nitrogen applied, and the crop which requires nearly one pound of nitrogen in every one hundred pounds of gross produce, would be certainly less than three thousand two hundred pounds, if supplied with only thirty-two pounds of nitrogen. If we take the total produce of the best and worst wheat crop, grown during the forty years of our experiments, we shall arrive at a better understanding in the matter. The following are the figures:

Weight of Dry Produce of Wheat Per Acre.

_Straw and Grain._ 1863 9330 lbs. 1879 3859 ”

In order to ascertain the increase due to the nitrogen of the salts of ammonia or nitrate of soda, we must deduct from the crop the produce obtained, where mineral manures without nitrogen were used. In 1863 this amount was three thousand pounds, and in 1879 it was one thousand two hundred pounds. Deducting these amounts from the gross produce in each case, leaves six thousand three hundred and thirty as the produce due to the nitrogen in the season of 1863, and two thousand six hundred and fifty-nine as the produce due to the nitrogen in 1879.

But in each case we applied the same amount of nitrogen, eighty-seven pounds; and as the amount of nitrogen in a wheat crop, as carted from the field, contains less than one per cent. of nitrogen, it is evident that if all that was contained in the manure had been taken up by the plant, the increased crop should have weighed eight thousand seven hundred pounds instead of six thousand three hundred and thirty. Thus even in our best year, some of the nitrogen applied failed to produce growth; and when we come to the bad year we find that only twenty-six and a half pounds were taken up out of the eighty-seven pounds applied, thus leaving more than two-thirds of the whole unaccounted for.

Seasons are only occasionally either very bad or very good. What we call an average season does not differ very much from the mean of the best and worst years, which in this case would be represented by a crop of four thousand four hundred and ninety-four pounds, containing nearly forty-five pounds of nitrogen. I may say that, although I have employed one per cent. to avoid fractions in my calculations, strictly speaking three-quarters of a per cent. would more nearly represent the real quantity. If, however, on the average, we only obtain about forty-five pounds from an application of about eighty-seven pounds of nitrogen, it is evident that not more than one-half of the amount applied enters into the crop.

Now in dealing with a substance of so costly a nature as ammonia, or nitrate of soda--the nitrogen contained in which substances cannot cost much less than twenty-five cents per pound by the time it is spread upon the land, it becomes a question of importance to know what becomes of the other half, or the residue whatever it may be, which has not been taken up by the crop. Part is undoubtedly taken up by the weeds which grow with the wheat, and after the wheat has been cut. Part sinks into the sub-soil and is washed completely away during the winter.

I, myself, am disposed to think that the very great difference in the size of the Indian corn crops, as compared with the wheat crops in the States, is partly accounted for by their greater freedom from weeds, which are large consumers of nitric acid, and, in the case of the wheat crop, frequently reduce the yield by several bushels per acre. It must, however, be borne in mind that, though the wheat is robbed of its food where there are weeds, still if there were no weeds, the amount of nitric acid which the crop could not get hold of, would, in all probability, be washed out of the soil during the ensuing winter. I come to the conclusion, therefore, that the nitrogen alone, which would be required to produce one bushel of wheat, would cost not much less than fifty cents; and that, in consequence, wheat-growing by means of artificial manures, will not pay upon very poor land.

I have said that the land, about which I was consulted, had not been plowed for several years, and that although nature had done all she could to clothe the soil with vegetation, the most disheartening feature in the case was, the poverty of the weeds. A thistle may be a giant or a dwarf, according to circumstances; here they were all dwarfs. The plaintain, which I believe is sometimes sown in these districts for food, has a very deep root; here the plants were abundant, but the leaves were very small and lay so close to the ground, that, as the manager informed me, “the sheep were often injured from the amount of sand which they swallowed with the leaves when feeding.”

At Rothamsted, the analyses of the rain water passing through the ordinary soil of one of my fields, which has been kept free from vegetation, have shown that the amount of nitric acid liberated in a soil, and washed out each year, is very large. Taking the ten years during which these special experiments have been in progress, I should think that the loss of nitrogen would be equal to, or possibly exceed, the amount of that substance removed by the average crops grown in the United States.

The results obtained by the rain gauges, are further completely confirmed by those in an adjoining field, where wheat and fallow have been grown alternately for twenty-seven years. The liberation of nitric acid, during the year of rest, produced for a time a large growth of wheat, but it was done at a very great waste of the fertility of the soil, and the produce is now, in proportion, considerably lower than that grown on the continuously unmanured land.

These results, if they are to be accepted as correct, must bring about a very considerable change in the generally received views in regard to fertility. We not only see more clearly the connection between a former vegetation and the stored up fertility in our soil, but we also see the importance of vegetation at the present day, as the only means by which the loss of nitric acid is prevented. The more completely the land is covered with vegetation, and the more growth there is, the greater will be the evaporation of water, and the less will be the loss of nitric acid by drainage.

I was not at all surprised to find, that the surface soil of a wood on my farm, was poorer in nitrogen than the soil of an old permanent pasture, to which no manure had been applied for twenty-five years, though during the whole period, the crop of hay had been removed every year from the land. The wood to which I refer is covered with oak, centuries old, and the foliage is so dense that but little underwood or other vegetation can grow beneath it. If both the wood and the pasture were put into arable cultivation, I have no doubt that the pasture would prove much more fertile than the wood land.

In our experiments on permanent pasture, it has been observed that the character of the herbage is mainly dependent on the food supplied. Weeds, and inferior grasses, can hold their own as long as poverty exists, but with a liberal supply of manure, the superior grasses overgrow and drive out the bad grasses and weeds. In consequence of the low price of wheat a good deal of land in England has been laid down to permanent pasture, and much money has been spent in cleaning the land preparatory to sowing the grass-seeds. I have on more occasions than one, suggested that the money employed in this process would be better expended in manure, by which the weeds would be “improved” off the face of the land. While walking over the abandoned portion of these estates I explained my views upon this point to the manager. They were, however, received with the usual skepticism, and the rejoinder that “there was only one way of getting rid of the weeds, which was by the plow and fire.”

There is nothing that speaks to me so forcibly as color in vegetation; when travelling by rail, I do not require to be told that such a farm is, or is not, in high condition, or that we are passing through a fertile or infertile district. There is a peculiar green color in vegetation which is an unmistakable sign that it is living upon the fat of the land. I need hardly say that, in this case, the color of the vegetation gave unmistakable signs of the poverty of the soil; but in the midst of the dingy yellowish-green of the herbage, I came upon one square of bright green grass. In answer to my enquiry I was told that, a “lambing-fold had been there last year,” and my informant added his opinion, “that the manure would be so strong that it would kill anything!” It had certainly killed the weeds, but in their place, some good grasses had taken possession of the soil.

The plan I proposed to adopt was, to spend no more money on tillage operations, but to endeavor to improve the pasture by giving to it the food necessary to grow good grasses, sowing at the same time a small quantity of the best seeds. I further suggested that a flock of sheep should be allowed to run over the whole of the land by day, and be folded there every night--about one pound of cotton-seed cake per head being allowed daily. By this means, as the fold would be moved every day, the amount of manure deposited on the soil could be estimated.

If there were a hundred sheep, receiving one pound of decorticated cotton-seed cake per head, daily, and the hurdles were arranged to enclose a space of twenty-five by twenty yards, in the course of ten days an acre of land would have received manure from one thousand pounds of cake; which amount would supply seventy-seven pounds of nitrogen, sixty-eight pounds of phosphate of lime, and thirty-two pounds of potash. This amount of cake would cost about sixteen dollars.

As regards the value of the cake as a food, it is somewhat difficult to form an estimate; but it takes nine or ten pounds of dry food--say roots, cake, and hay--to produce an increase of one pound of live weight in sheep. The cake has certainly a higher feeding value, than either hay or roots, but I will here give it only the same value, and consider that one hundred and ten pounds of increase of the animal was obtained by the consumption of the one thousand pounds of cake. The value of the increase of the live weight would be in England fully eleven dollars, leaving five dollars as the cost of the manure. Now the cake furnished seventy-seven pounds of nitrogen alone, which, if purchased in an artificial manure, would have cost nineteen dollars; and the other substances supplied by the cake, would have cost from four to five dollars more. The manures required, therefore, would be obtained much more cheaply by this than by any other process.

Labor would be saved by not cultivating the land. Manure would be saved by substituting vegetation which grows under or above ground, almost all the year round. And, by feeding the stock with cake, the necessary fertility would be obtained at the lowest possible cost.

It is probable that the land would require this treatment to be repeated for several years, before there would be a fair growth of grass. The land might then be broken up and one grain crop be taken, then it might again be laid down to grass.

Hitherto, I have considered a case where fertility is almost absent from the land, this, however, is an exception, as agriculture generally is carried on upon soils which contain large stores of fertility, though they may be very unequally distributed. By analysis of the soil we can measure the total amount of fertility which it contains, but we are left in ignorance in regard to the amount of the ingredients which are in such a form that the crops we cultivate can make use of them.

At Rothamsted, among my experiments on the growth of continuous wheat, at the end of forty years, the soil supplied with salts of ammonia has yielded, during the whole time, and still continues to yield, a larger produce than is obtained by a liberal supply of phosphates and alkaline salts without ammonia.

When we consider that every one hundred pounds of wheat crop, as carted to the stack, contains about five per cent. of mineral matter, and one per cent. of nitrogen, it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that my soil has a large available balance of mineral substances which the crop could not make use of for want of nitrogen. The crop which has received these mineral manures now amounts to from twelve to thirteen bushels per acre, and removes from the land about sixteen pounds of nitrogen every year.

Analyses of the soil show that, even after the removal of more than thirty crops in succession, without any application of manure containing ammonia, the soil still contains some thousands of pounds of nitrogen. This nitrogen is in combination with carbon; it is very insoluble in water, and until it becomes separated from the carbon, and enters into combination with oxygen, does not appear to be of any use to the crop.

The combination of nitrogen with oxygen, is known as nitric acid. The nitric acid enters into combination with the lime of the soil, and in this form becomes the food of plants.

From its great importance in regard to the growth of plants, nitric acid might be called the main spring of agriculture, but being perfectly soluble in water, it is constantly liable to be washed out of the soil. In the experiment to which I have referred above--where wheat is grown by mineral manures alone--we estimate that, of the amount of nitric acid liberated each year, not much more than one-half is taken up by the crop.

The wheat is ripe in July, at which time the land is tolerably free from weeds; several months, therefore, occur during which there is no vegetation to take up the nitric acid; and even when the wheat is sown at the end of October, much nitric acid is liable to be washed away, as the power of the plant to take up food from the soil is very limited until the spring.

The formation of nitric acid, from the organic nitrogen in the soil, is due to the action of a minute plant, and goes on quite independent of the growth of our crops. We get, however, in the fact an explanation of the extremely different results obtained by the use of different manures. One farmer applies lime, or even ground limestone to a soil, and obtains an increase in his crops; probably he has supplied the very substance which has enabled the nitrification of the organic nitrogen to increase; another applies potash, a third phosphates; if either of these are absent, the crops cannot make use of the nitric acid, however great may be the amount diffused through the soil.

It may possibly be said that the use of mineral manures tends to exhaust the soil of its nitrogen; this may, or may not, be true; but even if the minerals enable the crop to take up a larger amount of the nitric acid found in the soil year by year, this does not increase the exhaustion, as the minerals only tend to arrest that which otherwise might be washed away.

We must look upon the organic nitrogen in the soil, as the main source of the nitrogen which grows our crops. Whatever may be the amount derived from the atmosphere, whether in rain, or dew; or from condensation by the soil, or plants, it is probable that, where the land is in arable cultivation, the nitrogen so obtained, is less than the amount washed out of the soil in nitric acid. Upon land which is never stirred by the plow, there is much less waste and much less activity.

The large increase in the area of land laid down to permanent pasture in England, is not due alone to the fall in the price of grain. The reduction of fertility in many of the soils, which have been long under the plow, is beginning to be apparent. Under these circumstances a less exhausting course of treatment becomes necessary, and pasture, with the production of meat, milk, and butter, takes the place of grain fields.

APPENDIX.

Letter from Edward Jessop, York, Pa.

YORK, PA., March 16, 1876.

_Joseph Harris, Esq., Moreton Farm, Rochester, N.Y.:_

DEAR SIR--Your favor of the 22d of last month came safely to hand, and I am truly obliged to you for the reply to my question.--You ask, can I help you with facts or suggestions, on the subject of manure? I fear not much; but it may be useful to you to know what others need to know. I will look forward to the advent of “Talks on Manures” with much interest, hoping to get new light on a subject second to none in importance to the farmer.

I have done a little at composting for some years, and am now having a pile of about forty cords, made up of stable-manure and earth taken from the wash of higher lands, turned and fined. The labor of digging and hauling the earth, composting in thin layers with manure, turning, and fining, is so great, I doubt whether it pays for most farm crops--this to be used for mangel-wurzel and market-garden.

The usual plan in this county is to keep the stable-manure made during winter, and the accumulation of the summer in the barn-yard, where it is soaked by rain, and trampled fine by cattle, and in August and September is hauled upon ground to be seeded with wheat and grass-seeds. I do not think there is much piling and turning done.

My own conclusions, not based on accurate experiments, however, are, that the best manure I have ever applied was prepared in a covered pit on which cattle were allowed to run, and so kept well tramped--some drainage into a well, secured by pouring water upon it, when necessary, and the drainage pumped and distributed over the surface, at short intervals, particularly the parts not well tramped, and allowed to remain until it became a homogeneous mass, which it will do without having undergone so active a fermentation as to have thrown off a considerable amount of gas.

The next best, composting it with earth, as above described, piled about five or six feet high, turned as often as convenient, and kept moist enough to secure fermentation.

Or, to throw all the manure as made into a covered pit, until it is thoroughly mixed and made fine, by allowing hogs to run upon it and root at will; and when prepared for even spreading, apply it as a top-dressing on grass-land--at any convenient time.

As to how many loads of fresh manure it takes to make one of well-rotted manure, it may be answered approximately, _three to one_, but that would depend a good deal on the manner of doing it, and the amount of rough material in it. If well trodden by cattle under cover, and sufficient drainage poured over it, to prevent any violent fermentation, the loss of weight, I think, would not be very great, nor the bulk lessened over one-half.

Many years ago an old and successful farmer said to me, “if you want to get the full benefit of manure, spread it as a top-dressing on some _growing crop_,” and all my experience and observation since tend to confirm the correctness of his advice.

While on this subject, allow me to protest against the practice of naming the quantity of manure applied to a given space, as so many _loads_, as altogether too indefinite. The bushel or cord is a definite quantity, which all can understand.

The average price of good livery stable horse-manure at this place has been for several years four dollars a cord.

With two and a half miles to haul, I am trying whether keeping a flock of 50 breeding ewes, and feeding liberally with wheat bran, in addition to hay and pasture, will not produce the needed manure more cheaply.

Respectfully yours,

EDWARD JESSOP.

_P.S._--You ask for the average weight of a cord of manure, such as we pay four dollars for.

I had a cord of horse-stable manure from a livery stable in York which had been all the time under cover, with several pigs running upon it, and was moist, without any excess of wet, loaded into a wagon-box holding an entire cord, or 128 cubic feet, tramped by the wagoner three times while loading.

The wagon was weighed at our hay-scales before loading, and then the wagon and load together, with a net result for the manure of 4,400 lbs. I considered this manure rather better than the average. I had another load, from a different place, which weighed over 5,000 lbs., but on examination it was found to contain a good deal of coal ashes. We never _buy_ by the ton. Harrison Bros. & Co., Manufacturing Chemists, Philadelphia, rate barnyard-manure as worth $5.77 per ton, and say that would be about $7.21 per cord, which would be less than 1½ tons to the cord. If thrown in loosely, and it happened to be _very dry_, that might be possible.

Waring, in his “Handy Book of Husbandry,” page 201, says, he caused a cord of well-trodden livery stable manure containing the usual proportion of straw, to be carefully weighed, and that the cord weighed 7,080 lbs.

The load I had weighed, weighing 4,400 lbs., was considered by the wagoner and by myself as a fair sample of good manure. In view of these wide differences, further trials would be desirable. Dana, in his “Muck Manual,” says a cord of green cow-dung, pure, as dropped, weighs 9,289 lbs.

Farmers here seldom draw manure with less than three, more generally with four horses or mules; loading is done by the purchaser. From the barn-yard, put on loose boards, from 40 to 60 bushels are about an average load.

In hauling from town to a distance of three to five miles, farmers generally make two loads of a cord each, a day’s work. From the barn-yard, a very variable number, per day. In my own case, two men with three horses have been hauling six and seven loads of sixty bushels, fine compost, a distance of from one-half to three-fourths of a mile, up a long and rather steep hill, and spreading from the wagon, as hauled, upon grass-sod.

Our larger farmers often have one driver and his team, two wagons, one loading, while the other is drawn to the field; the driver slips off one of the side-boards, and with his dung-hook draws off piles at nearly equal distances, to be spread as convenient.

EDWARD JESSOP.

Letter from Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, South Framingham, Mass.

SOUTH FRAMINGHAM, MASS., April 2, 1876.

FRIEND HARRIS--Manure about Boston is sold in various ways. First, according to the number of animals kept; price varying so much, that I do not venture to name the figures. By the cord, to be trodden over while loading; never by weight, so far as I can learn--price from 0 to $12.00 per cord, according to season, and various accidental circumstances. During the past winter, manure has been given away in Boston. Handling, hauling to the railroad, and freight costing $4 per cord for carrying 30 miles out. Market-gardeners usually haul manure as a return freight on their journeys to and from market. About South Framingham, price stiff at $8 a cord in the cellar, and this may be considered the ruling suburban price. Very friendly yours,

E. LEWIS STURTEVANT.

Letter from M. C. Weld.

NEW YORK, Nov. 9, 1876.

MY DEAR HARRIS--I don’t know what I can write about manures, that would be of use. I have strong faith in humus, in ashes, leached and unleached, in lime, gas-lime, plaster, bones, ammonia ready formed, nitrates ready formed, not much in meat and blood, unless they are _cheap_. Nevertheless, they often are cheap, and produce splendid effects. I believe in sulphuric acid, with organic nitrogenous manures; the composting of meat, blood, hair, etc., with peat and muck, and wetting it down with dilute sulphuric acid. I believe in green-manuring, heartily, and in tillage, tillage, tillage. Little faith in superphosphates and compounded manures, at selling prices. Habirshaw’s guano is good enough. So much for my creed. Truly yours,

M. C. WELD.

Letter from Peter Henderson.

NEW YORK, Oct. 26, 1876.

_Mr. Joseph Harris_:

DEAR SIR--If you will refer to my work “Gardening for Profit,” New Edition, page 34, you will get about all the information I possess on Manures, except that I do not say anything about price. In a general way it might be safe to advise that whenever _a ton_ (it is always best to speak of manures by weight) of either cow, horse, hog, or other stable-manure can be laid on the ground for $3, it is cheaper than commercial fertilizers of any kind at their usual market rates. This $3 per ton, I think, would be about the average cost in New York, Boston, or Philadelphia. We never haul it on the ground until we are ready to plow it in. If it has to be taken from the hog or cattle yards, we draw it out into large heaps, convenient to where it is to be put on the land, turning it, to keep it from burning or “fire-fanging,” if necessary. None of our farmers or market-gardeners here keep it under cover. The expense of such covering and the greater difficulties in getting at it, for the immense quantities we use, would be greater than the benefits to be derived from keeping it under cover--benefits, in fact, which, I think, may be greatly overrated. Very truly yours,

PETER HENDERSON.

Letter from J. M. B. Anderson, Ed. “Canada Farmer,” Toronto.

“CANADA FARMER” OFFICE, TORONTO, March 29, 1876.

_J. Harris, Esq._:

DEAR SIR--Yours of the 25th inst. is to hand, and I shall be most happy to render you any assistance in my power. The work you undertake is in able hands, and I have every confidence that, when completed, it will form an invaluable acquisition to the agricultural literature of the day.

Manure in this city is usually sold by the two-horse load--about 1½ tons--at the rate of $1 per load, or 66 cents per ton. The load contains just about a cord of manure, consequently a cord will weigh about 1½ tons.

With reference to the general management of manure in Canada, I may say that the system followed differs in no material respect from that of New York and the other Eastern States. It is usually kept over winter in the open barn yard (rarely under cover, I am sorry to say), laid out on the land about the time of disappearance of last snow, and plowed in. In some cases it is not carted out until the land is ready for immediate plowing. With some of our more advanced farmers, the system has lately been adopted of keeping manure under cover and sprinkling it thoroughly at intervals with plaster and other substances. Tanks are also becoming more common than formerly, for the preservation of liquid manure, which is usually applied by means of large, perforated hogs-heads, after the manner of street-watering.

You ask, how the manure is managed at Bow Park, Brantford. That made during fall and winter is carefully kept in as small bulk as possible, to prevent exposure to the weather. In February and March it is drawn out and put in heaps 8 feet square, and well packed, to prevent the escape of ammonia. In spring, as soon as practicable, it is spread, and plowed under immediately. Manure made in spring and summer is spread on the field at once, and plowed under with a good, deep furrow.

Very truly yours, J. M. B. ANDERSON, Ed. _Canada Farmer_.

MANURE STATISTICS OF LONG ISLAND.

The Manure Trade of Long Island--Letter from J. H. Rushmore.

OLD WESTBURY, Long Island, April 6, 1876.

_Joseph Harris, Esq._:

DEAR SIR--The great number of dealers in manure in New York precludes accuracy, yet Mr. Skidmore (who has been testifying voluminously before the New York Board of Health in relation to manure and street dirt), assures me that the accompanying figures are nearly correct. I enclose statement, from two roads, taken from their books, and the amount shipped over the other road I obtained verbally from the General Freight Agent, and embody it in the sheet of statistics.

The Ash report I _know_ is correct, as I had access to the books showing the business, for over ten years. I have made numerous applications, verbally, and by letter, to our largest market gardeners, but there seems to exist a general and strong disinclination to communicate anything worth knowing. I enclose the best of the replies received. Speaking for some of our largest gardeners, I may say that they cultivate over one hundred acres, and use land sufficiently near to the city to enable them to dispense with railroad transportation in bringing manure to their places and marketing crops. I have noticed that one of the shrewdest gardeners invariably composts horn-shavings and bone-meal with horse-manure several months before expecting to use it. A safe average of manure used per acre by gardeners, may be stated at ninety (90) tubs, and from two hundred to twenty hundred pounds of fertilizer in addition, according to its strength, and the kind of crop.

The following railroad manure statistics will give a generally correct idea of the age of manure, when used:

Statement of Manure Sent from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 1875.

_Over F.N.S.&C.R.R._ _Over Southern R.R._ January 1,531 tubs. 5,815 tubs. February 4,357 ” March 740 ” 12,217 ” April 12,122 ” 7,055 ” May 7,383 ” 3,049 ” June 5,725 ” 1,365 ” July 6,473½ ” 685 ” August 6,370½ ” 2,911 ” September 3,197 ” 14,702 ” October 880 ” 660 ” November 512 ” 840 ” December 1,406 ” 4,923 ” -------------- ------------ 46,340 tubs. 57,679 tubs.

A tub is equal to 14 bushels.

Hobson, Hurtado & Co. report the amount of Peruvian guano sold in this country last year at thirty thousand tons.

Estimated number of horses in New York city, 100,000.

Estimated product of manure per horse. Four cords.

Estimated proportion of straw to pure excrement. One-half.

Amount shipped direct from stables. Nearly all.

Amount shipped on vessels. One-half.

Length of time the unshipped manure remains in heaps. From three to four months.

Average cost per horse, annually. $3.

Greatest distance of shipment. Virginia.

Average amount shipped via L.I.R.R. 60,000 tubs.

Price of manure per tub delivered on cars or vessel. 80 cents.

Average amount put on car. 40 tubs.

Statistics of Ash Trade.--Time when ashes are delivered. From middle of June to middle of October.

Places from which they are mostly shipped. Montreal, Belleville, and Toronto (Canada).

Method of transportation. Canal boats.

Average load per boat. About 8,000 bushels.

Average amount annually sold. 360,000 bushels.

Average cost delivered to farmers. 20½ cents per bushel.

_Per Acre, about._ Amount used by farmers for potatoes 60 tubs. ” ” ” ” ” cabbage (late) 50 ” ” ” ” ” ” corn 12 ”

Amount of guano used on Long Island, as represented by the books of Chapman & Vanwyck, and their estimate of sales by other firms, 5,000 tons.

The fertilizers used on the Island are bought almost exclusively by market gardeners or farmers, who do a little market gardening, as it is the general conviction that ordinary farm-crops will not give a compensating return for their application. Most market gardeners keep so little stock that the manure made on the place is very inconsiderable. Our dairy farmers either compost home-made manures with that from the city, spread it on the land for corn in the spring, or rot it separate, to use in the fall for wheat, on land that has been cropped with oats the same year. The manure put on for potatoes is generally estimated to enrich the land sufficient for it to produce one crop of winter grain, and from five to seven crops of grass, when it is again plowed and cultivated in rotation with, first, corn, second, potatoes or oats, and is reseeded in autumn of the same year.

Fish and fish guano are largely used on land bordering the water, and adjacent to the oil-works. The average price for guano in bulk at oil-works is $12 per ton. The average price for fish on wharf is $1.50 per thousand, and it is estimated that, as a general average, 6,000 fish make a ton of guano. The fish, when applied to corn, are placed two at each hill, and plowed under at any time after the corn is large enough to cultivate. Seaweed is highly prized by all who use it, and it will produce a good crop of corn when spread thickly on the land previous to plowing.

Very respectfully,

J. H. RUSHMORE.

Letter from John E. Backus.

NEWTOWN, Long Island, N.Y., March 2nd, 1876.

_Mr. G. H. Rushmore_:

DEAR SIR.--Some farmers and market-gardeners use more, and some less, manure, according to crops to be raised. I use about 30 good two-horse wagon-loads to the acre, to be applied in rows or broad-casted, as best for certain crops. I prefer old horse-dung for most all purposes. Guano, as a fertilizer, phosphate of bone and blood are very good; they act as a stimulant on plants and vegetation, and are highly beneficial to some vegetation--more valuable on poor soil than elsewhere, except to produce a thrifty growth in plants, and to insure a large crop.

By giving you these few items they vary considerably on different parts of the Island; judgment must be used in all cases and all business. Hoping these few lines may be of some avail to Mr. Harris and yourself,

I remain, yours, etc.,

JOHN E. BACKUS.

MANURE IN PHILADELPHIA.

Letter from Joseph Heacock.

JENKINTOWN, Montgomery Co., Pa., April 18th, 1876.

MY DEAR FRIEND HARRIS.--Stable-manure in Philadelphia, costs by the single four-horse-load, about $9 or $10. Mostly, the farmers who haul much of it, have it engaged by the year, and then it can be had for from $7 to $8 per load. Mostly, four horses are used, though we frequently see two and three-horse teams, and occasionally, five or six horses are used. I have never seen any kind of dung hauled but that of horses. Cow-manure would be thought too heavy to haul so long a distance. Sugar-house waste, spent hops, glue waste, etc, are hauled to a small extent. We live about 9 miles from the center of the city, and the road is very hilly, though otherwise a good one, being made of stone.

The loads vary from 2½ to 3½ or 4 tons for four horses, according to the dryness of the manure. The wagons are made very strong, and weigh from 1,600 lbs. to 2,300 or 2,400 lbs., according to the number of horses that are to be used to them. I cannot say how many cords there are in an average load, but probably not less than two cords to four horses. One of my neighbors has a stable engaged by the year. He pays $2.50 per ton, and averages about three tons per load, and the distance from the stable in the city to his place, can not be less than 12 miles. His team goes empty one way and of course can not haul more than a load a day. In fact, can not average that, as it would be too hard on his horses. The horses used for the purpose are large and strong. Fifteen or twenty years ago, there was kept on most farms of 75 to 100 acres, a team purposely for hauling manure from the city. But it is different now, many of the farmers using artificial manures, as it costs so much less; and others are keeping more stock, and so making their own manure. Still, there is a great deal hauled yet. And some of it to a distance of 20 miles. Though when hauled to this distance, the teams are loaded both ways. For instance, they will start to the city with a load of hay (35 to 50 cwt.), on Monday afternoon (Tuesday is the day of the Hay Market); and when they have their load of hay off on Tuesday, they load their manure and drive out five or six miles and put up for the night. Next morning they start about 3 o’clock, arriving home before noon, having been away two days. On Thursday afternoon, they start again. You can see that manuring in this way is very expensive. But farmers about here well know that if they do not manure well they raise but little. Probably about four loads are used per acre on the average. Each load is generally thrown off the wagon in one large heap near where wanted, and is allowed to lie until they use it. I can not tell how much it loses in bulk by lying in the heap.

As to what crops it is used on, farmers do not think that they could go amiss in applying it to anything except oats. But it is probably used more for top-dressing mowing land, and for potatoes, than for anything else.

The usual rotation is corn, potatoes, or oats, wheat seeded to clover and timothy, and then kept in grass from two to four years. Those who haul stable-manure, usually use bone-dust or superphosphate to a greater or less extent.

Last December I built a pig-pen, 20 ft. × 40 ft., 1½ stories high. The upper story to be used for litter, etc. There is a four feet entry on the north side, running the length of the building. The remainder is divided into five pens, each 8 ft. × 16 ft. It is made so that in cold weather it can be closed up tight, while in warmer weather it can be made as open as an out-shed. I am very much pleased with it. The pigs make a great deal of manure, and I believe that it can be made much cheaper than it can be bought and hauled from Philadelphia.

JOSEPH HEACOCK, Jr.

Letter from Herman L. Routzahn.

MIDDLETOWN, Md., May 11th, 1876.

_Joseph Harris, Esq._:

I herewith proceed to answer questions asked.

Wheat and corn are principal crops. Corn is fed now altogether to stock for the manure.

There is but little soiling done. The principal method of making manure is: Feeding all the corn raised, as well as hay, oats, and roots, to cattle; using wheat straw, weeds, etc., as bedding, throwing the manure in the yard (uncovered), and to cover the pile with plaster (by sowing broadcast), at least once a week. To this pile is added the manure from the hog-pens, hen-house, etc., and worked over thoroughly at least twice before using. It is then applied to corn by plowing _under_; to wheat, as a top-dressing. For corn it is usually hauled to the field, thrown off in heaps 25 feet each way, a cart-load making two heaps. Spread just before the plow. For wheat, spread on directly after plowing, and thoroughly harrowed in. Applied broadcast for potatoes. Composts of different kinds are made and used same as in other localities, I presume. Artificial manures are going into disrepute (justly too). This is the plan now adopted by the farmers in this county (Frederick). Where woods are accessible, leaves and mould are hauled in and added to the manure-heap; in fact, every substance that can be worked into the manure-heap is freely used. Well-rotted stable-manure is worth from $1.50 to $2.50 per cord, according to condition and locality.

Very Respectfully Yours,

HERMAN L. ROUTZAHN.

Letter from Prof. E. M. Shelton, Prof. of Agriculture, Kansas State Agricultural College.

KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,

MANHATTAN, Kansas, May 5, 1876.

DEAR SIR.--In reply to your first question, I would say that stable-manure in this vicinity, is held in very light estimation. Indeed, by the householders of this city, and quite generally by the farmers, manure is regarded as one of those things--like drouth and grasshoppers--with which a mysterious Providence sees fit to clog the operations of the husband-man. The great bulk of the stable-manure made in this city is, every spring, carted into ravines and vacant lots--wherever, in short, with least expense it can be put out of reach of the senses.

It must not be understood by this that manure has little influence on the growing crops in Kansas. Nowhere have I seen such excellent results from application of home-made fertilizers, as in Kansas. For those sterile wastes known as “Alkali lands,” and “Buffalo wallows,” manure is a speedy and certain cure. During two years of severe drouth, I have noticed that wherever manure had been supplied, the crop withstood the effects of dry weather much better than where no application had been made. Four years ago, a strip across one of our fields was heavily manured; this year this field is into wheat, and a dark band that may be seen half a mile shows where this application was made.

These facts the better class of our farmers are beginning to appreciate. A few days ago, a neighbor, a very intelligent farmer, assured me that from manuring eight to ten acres every year, his farm was now in better condition than when be broke up the prairie fifteen years ago.

I know of no analysis of stable or farmyard-manure made in Kansas. Concerning the _weight_ of manures, I can give you a few facts, having had occasion during the past winter to weigh several loads used for experimental purposes. This manure was wheeled into the barnyard, chiefly from the cattle stalls, during the winter of 1874-5. It lay in the open yard until February last, when it was weighed and hauled to the fields. I found that a wagon-box, 1½ × 3 × 9 feet, into which the manure was pitched, without treading, held with slight variations, when level full, one ton. At this rate a cord would weigh very close to three tons.

The greatest difficulty that we have to encounter in the management of manure grows out of our dry summers. During our summer months, unless sufficient moisture is obtained, the manure dries out rapidly, becomes fire-fanged and practically worthless. My practice upon the College farm has been to give the bottom of the barn-yard a “dishing” form, so that it holds all the water that falls upon it. The manure I keep as flat as possible, taking pains to place it where the animals will keep it trod down solid. I have adopted this plan after having tried composting and piling the manure in the yards, and am satisfied that it is the only _practical_ way to manage manures in this climate.

There is no particular crop to which manure is generally applied in this State, unless, perhaps, wheat. The practice of applying manure as a top-dressing to winter-wheat, is rapidly gaining ground here. It is found that the manure thus applied, acting as a mulch, mitigates the effects of drouth, besides improving the quality of the grain.

Very Respectfully Yours,

E. M. SHELTON.

Letter from Prof. W. H. Brewer, Professor of Agriculture in Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College.

SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF YALE COLLEGE,

NEW HAVEN, Conn., April 14th, 1876.

_Joseph Harris, Esq., Rochester, N.Y._:

MY DEAR SIR.--I have made inquiries relating to “the price of stable-manure in New Haven, and how far the farmers and gardeners haul it, etc.” I have not been to the horse-car stables, but I have to several _livery_ stables, and they are all essentially the same.

They say that but little is sold by the _cord_ or _ton_, or by any weight or measure. It is sold either “in the lump,” “by the month,” “by the year,” or “per horse.” Some sell it at a given sum per month for all their horses, on a general estimate of their horses--thus, one man says, “I get, this year, $25 per month for all my manure, he to remove it as fast as it accumulates; say one, two, or three times per week. He hauls it about five miles and composts it all before using.”

Another says, he sells _per horse_. “I get, this year, $13 per horse, they to haul it.” The price per horse ranges from $10 to $15 per year, the latter sum being high.

From the small or private stables, the manure is generally “lumped” by private contract, and is largely used about the city. It is hauled sometimes as much as 10 miles, but usually much less.

But the larger stables often sell per shipment--it is sent by cars up the Connecticut Valley to Westfield, etc., where it is often hauled several miles from the railroad or river.

Much manure is sent by boat from New York to the Connecticut Valley tobacco lands. Boats (“barges”) are even loaded in Albany, go down the Hudson, up the Sound to Connecticut, to various places near Hartford, I am told. Two or three years ago, a man came here and exhibited to us pressed masses of manure--a patent had been taken out for pressing it, to send by R.R. (stable manure). I never heard anything more about it--and he was confident and enthusiastic about it.

Yours truly,

WM. H. BREWER.

FOOD, INCREASE, MANURE, ETC., OF FATTENING ANIMALS.

The following table is given by Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamsted, England, showing the relation of the increase, manure, and loss by respiration, to the food consumed by different animals:

[Transcriber’s Note:

The table headers as printed are difficult to interpret. I have given my best guess about what the author intended.]

250/600/3500 (Oxen): 250 lbs. Oil-cake } 600 lbs. Clover-chaff } 3500 lbs. Swede turnips } Produce 100 lbs. Increase and supply: 250/300/4000 (Sheep) 250 lbs. Oil-cake } 300 lbs. Clover-chaff } 4000 lbs. Swede turnips } Produce 100 lbs. Increase and supply: 500 lbs. Barley meal (Pigs) produce 100 lbs. increase and supply:

(In) Food. 100 I: In 100 lbs. Increase. (In) Man(ure). (In) Resp(iration, etc). 100 Total Dry (Substance of Food supply.) (In) Inc(rease). Amount (of each constituent) stored (up for 100 of it consumed).

OXEN. ---------------------+-----------------------++----------------++----- | 250/600/3500 || 100 Total Dry || A S +----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++ m t |Food|100 I| Man.|Resp. || Inc.|Man.|Resp.|| t d. ---------------------+----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++----- |lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs. || | | || Nitrogenous substance| 218| 9.0}| | { || 0.8}| | {|| 4.1 Non-Nitrogenous | | }|323.0| 636{ || }|29.1|57.3{|| substance | 808|58.0}| | { || 5.2}| | {|| 7.2 Mineral Matter | 83| 1.6 | 81.4| .. || 0.2 | 7.4| .. || 1.9 Total dry substance |1109|68.6 |404.4| 636 || 6.2 |36.5|57.3 || .. ---------------------+----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++----- SHEEP. ---------------------+-----------------------++----------------++----- | 250/300/4000 || 100 Total Dry || A S +----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++ m t |Food|100 I| Man.|Resp. || Inc.|Man.|Resp.|| t d. ---------------------+----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++----- |lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs. || | | || Nitrogenous substance|177 | 7.5}| {| {|| 0.8}| | {|| 4.2 Non-Nitrogenous | | }| 229{|548.5{|| }|25.1|60.1{|| substance |671 |63.0}| {| {|| 7.0}| | {|| 9.4 Mineral Matter | 64 | 2.0 | 62 | .. || 0.2 | 6.8| .. || 3.1 Total dry substance |912 |72.5 | 291 |548.5 || 8.0 |31.9|60.1 || .. ---------------------+----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++----- PIGS. ---------------------+-----------------------++----------------++----- | 500 lbs. Barley meal || 100 Total Dry || A S +----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++ m t |Food|100 I| Man.|Resp. || Inc.|Man.|Resp.|| t d. ---------------------+----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++----- |lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs. || | | || Nitrogenous substance| 52| 7.0}| {| {|| 1.7}| | {||13.5 Non-Nitrogenous | | }|59.8{|276.2{|| }|14.3|65.7{|| substance | 357|66.0}| {| {||15.7}| | {||18.5 Mineral Matter | 11| 0.8 |10.2 | .. || 0.2 | 2.4| .. || 7.3 Total dry substance | 420|73.8 |70.0 |276.2 ||17.6 |16.7|65.7 || .. ---------------------+----+-----+-----+------++-----+----+-----++-----

In the last edition of his book on Manure, “Praktische Düngerlehre,” Dr. Emil Wolff, gives the following tables:

Of 100 lbs. of _dry substance_ in the food, there is found in the excrements:

--------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Dry Substance. | _Cow_ | _Ox_ | _Sheep_ | _Horse_ | _Mean_ --------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- In the Dung |38.0 lbs.|45.6 lbs.|46.9 lbs.|42.0 lbs.|43.1 lbs. In the Urine | 9.1 ” | 5.8 ” | 6.6 ” | 3.6 ” | 6.3 ” Total dry substance | | | | | in the Manure |47.1 ” |51.4 ” |53.5 ” |45.6 ” |49.4 ” --------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------

Of 100 lbs. of _organic substance_ in the food, there is found in the excrements:

----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Organic | _Cow_ | _Ox_ | _Sheep_ | _Horse_ | _Mean_ Substance. | | | | | ----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- In the Dung |36.5 lbs.|43.9 lbs.|45.6 lbs.|38.2 lbs.|41.0 lbs. In the Urine | 6.0 ” | 3.2 ” | 3.9 ” | 2.5 ” | 3.9 ” Total organic | | | | | substance | | | | | in Manure |42.5 ” |47.1 ” |49.5 ” |40.7 ” |44.9 ” ----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------

Of 100 lbs. of _nitrogen_ in the food, there is found in the excrements:

----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Nitrogen. | _Cow_ | _Ox_ | _Sheep_ | _Horse_ | _Mean_ ----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- In the Dung |45.5 lbs.|51.0 lbs.|43.7 lbs.|56.1 lbs.|49.1 lbs. In the Urine |18.3 ” |38.6 ” |51.8 ” |27.3 ” |34.0 ” Total Nitrogen | | | | | in Manure |63.8 ” |89.6 ” |95.5 ” |83.4 ” |83.1 ” ----------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------

Of 100 lbs. _mineral matter_ in the food, there is found in the excrements:

--------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Mineral Matter. | _Cow_ | _Ox_ | _Sheep_ | _Horse_ | _Mean_ --------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- In the Dung |53.9 lbs.|70.8 lbs.|63.2 lbs.|85.6 lbs.|68.4 lbs. In the Urine |43.1 ” |46.7 ” |40.3 ” |16.3 ” |35.1 ” Total mineral | | | | | matter in Manure |97.0 ” |117. 5 ” |103. 5 ” |101.9 ” |103. 5 ” --------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------

The excess of mineral matter is due to the mineral matter in the water drank by the animals.

The following tables of analyses are copied in full from the last edition (1875), of Dr. Emil Wolff’s _Praktische Düngerlehre_.

The figures differ materially in many cases from those previously published. They represent the average results of numerous reliable analyses, and are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes connected with the subject of manures. In special cases, it will be well to consult actual analyses of the articles to be used.

I.--TABLES FOR CALCULATING THE EXHAUSTION AND ENRICHING OF SOILS.

A.--HARVEST PRODUCTS AND VARIOUS MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. Average quantity of water, nitrogen, and total ash, and the different ingredients of the ash in 1000 lbs. of fresh or air-dried substance.

W Water. N Nitrogen. A Ash. P Potash. S Soda. L Lime. M Magnesia. PhA Phosphoric Acid. SA Sulphuric Acid. S&S Silica and Sand.

+----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----- Substance. | W | N | A | P | S | L | M |PhA | SA | S&S ------------------+----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----- I.--HAY. Meadow Hay |143 |15.5| 51.5|13.2| 2.3| 8.6| 3.3| 4.1| 2.4| 13.9 Rye Grass |143 |16.3| 58.2|20.2| 2.0| 4.3| 1.3| 6.2| 2.3| 18.5 Timothy |143 |15.5| 62.1|20.4| 1.5| 4.5| 1.9| 7.2| 1.8| 22.1 Moharhay |134 |17.3| 58.4|21.2| 1.2| 6.1| 5.4| 3.4| 2.1| 16.3 Red Clover |160 |19.7| 56.9|18.3| 1.2|20.0| 6.1| 5.6| 1.7| 1.4 Red Clover, ripe |150 |12.5| 44.0| 9.8| 1.4|15.6| 6.8| 4.3| 1.3| 3.0 White Clover |165 |23.2| 59.8|10.1| 4.5|19.3| 6.0| 8.4| 4.9| 2.5 Alsike Clover |160 |24.0| 39.7|11.0| 1.2|13.5| 5.0| 4.0| 1.6| 1.6 Crimson Clover |167 |19.5| 50.7|11.7| 4.3|16.0| 3.1| 3.6| 1.3| 8.2 Lucern |160 |23.0| 62.1|15.3| 1.3|26.2| 3.3| 5.5| 3.7| 3.8 Esparsette |167 |21.3| 45.8|13.0| 1.5|16.8| 3.0| 4.6| 1.4| 3.7 Yellow Clover |167 |22.1| 55.7|11.9| 1.3|32.6| 2.1| 4.3| 1.0| 1.5 Green Vetch Hay |167 |22.7| 83.7|28.3| 5.6|22.8| 5.4|10.7| 2.8| 4.9 Green Pea Hay |167 |22.9| 62.4|23.2| 2.3|15.6| 6.3| 6.8| 5.1| 0.9 Spurry |167 |19.2| 56.8|19.9| 4.6|10.9| 6.9| 8.4| 2.0| 0.8

II.--GREEN FODDER. Meadow Grass |700 | 5.4| 18.1| 4.6| 0.8| 3.0| 1.1| 1.5| 0.8| 4.9 in bloom | | | | | | | | | | Young Grass |800 | 5.6| 20.7|11.6| 0.4| 2.2| 0.6| 2.2| 0.8| 2.1 Rye Grass |734 | 5.7| 20.4| 7.2| 0.7| 1.5| 0.4| 2.2| 0.8| 6.5 Timothy Grass |700 | 5.4| 21.6| 7.4| 0.5| 1.6| 0.7| 2.5| 0.6| 7.7 Rye-Fodder |760 | 5.3| 16.3| 6.3| 0.1| 1.2| 0.5| 2.4| 0.2| 5.2 Green Oats |810 | 3.7| 18.8| 7.5| 0.6| 1.2| 0.6| 1.7| 0.6| 5.7 Green Corn-Fodder |822 | 1.9| 12.0| 4.3| 0.5| 1.6| 1.4| 1.3| 0.4| 1.7 Sorghum |773 | 4.0| 13.0| 3.6| 1.8| 1.2| 0.5| 0.8| 0.4| 3.7 Moharhay |700 | 5.9| 13.9| 5.0| 0.3| 1.4| 1.3| 0.8| 0.5| 3.9 Red Clover |780 | 5.1| 13.7| 4.4| 0.3| 4.8| 1.5| 1.4| 0.4| 0.3 in blossom | | | | | | | | | | ” ” | | | | | | | | | | before ” |830 | 5.3| 14.5| 5.3| 0.3| 4.2| 1.5| 1.7| 0.3| 0.4 White Clover |805 | 5.6| 13.6| 2.3| 1.0| 4.4| 1.4| 1.9| 1.1| 0.6 Alsike Clover |820 | 5.3| 8.8| 2.4| 0.3| 3.0| 1.1| 0.9| 0.4| 0.4 Crimson Clover |815 | 4.3| 12.2| 2.8| 1.0| 3.8| 0.7| 0.9| 0.3| 2.0 Lucern |740 | 7.2| 18.7| 4.6| 0.4| 7.9| 1.0| 1.6| 1.1| 1.1 Esparsette |800 | 5.1| 12.1| 3.4| 0.4| 4.4| 0.8| 1.2| 0.4| 1.0 Yellow Clover |830 | 4.5| 14.7| 3.2| 0.3| 8.6| 0.6| 1.1| 0.3| 0.4 Green Vetch |820 | 5.6| 18.1| 6.1| 1.2| 4.9| 1.2| 2.3| 0.6| 1.1 Green Peas |815 | 5.1| 13.9| 5.1| 0.5| 3.5| 1.4| 1.5| 1.1| 0.2 Green Rape |870 | 4.6| 12.2| 4.0| 0.4| 2.7| 0.5| 1.4| 1.7| 0.6 Spurry |800 | 3.7| 12.2| 4.3| 1.0| 2.3| 1.5| 1.8| 0.4| 0.2

III.--ROOT CROPS. Potatoes |750 | 3.4| 9.4| 5.7| 0.2| 0.2| 0.4| 1.6| 0.6| 0.2 Jerusalem |800 | 3.2| 9.8| 4.7| 1.0| 0.3| 0.3| 1.4| 0.5| 1.0 Artichoke | | | | | | | | | | Mangel-wurzel |880 | 1.8| 7.5| 4.1| 1.2| 0.3| 0.3| 0.6| 0.2| 0.2 Sugar Beets |815 | 1.6| 7.1| 3.9| 0.7| 0.4| 0.5| 0.8| 0.3| 0.1 Turnips |920 | 1.8| 7.3| 3.3| 0.7| 0.8| 0.3| 0.9| 0.8| 0.1 Carrots |850 | 2.2| 7.8| 2.8| 1.7| 0.9| 0.4| 1.0| 0.5| 0.2 Russia Turnips |870 | 2.1| 11.6| 4.7| 1.2| 1.3| 0.3| 1.7| 1.5| 0.1 Succory |800 | 2.5| 6.7| 2.6| 1.1| 0.5| 0.3| 0.8| 0.5| 0.3 Sugar Beet, upper | | | | | | | | | | part of root |840 | 2.0| 9.6| 2.8| 2.3| 0.9| 1.1| 1.2| 0.7| 0.2

IV.--LEAVES & STEMS OF ROOT CROPS. Potato Vines, |770 | 4.9| 19.7| 4.3| 0.4| 6.4| 3.3| 1.6| 1.3| 0.9 nearly ripe | | | | | | | | | | Potato Vines, | | | | | | | | | | unripe |825 | 6.3| 16.5| 4.4| 0.3| 5.1| 2.4| 1.2| 0.8| 1.2 Jerusalem | | | | | | | | | | Artichoke |800 | 5.3| 14.5| 3.1| 0.2| 5.0| 1.3| 0.7| 0.2| 3.6 Mangel-wurzel |905 | 3.0| 14.1| 4.1| 2.9| 1.6| 1.3| 0.8| 0.8| 0.5 Sugar Beets |897 | 3.0| 8.1| 6.5| 2.7| 2.7| 2.7| 1.3| 0.9| 0.7 Turnips |898 | 3.0| 11.9| 2.8| 1.1| 3.9| 0.5| 0.9| 1.1| 0.5 Carrots |822 | 5.1| 26.0| 2.9| 5.2| 8.5| 0.9| 1.2| 2.0| 2.9 Succory |850 | 3.5| 16.5| 4.3| 2.9| 3.2| 0.4| 1.0| 1.4| 0.6 Russia Turnips |850 | 4.6| 25.3| 3.7| 1.0| 8.4| 1.0| 2.6| 3.0| 2.6 Cabbage, white |890 | 2.4| 16.0| 6.3| 0.9| 3.1| 0.6| 1.4| 2.4| 0.2 Cabbage Stems |820 | 1.8| 11.6| 5.1| 0.6| 1.3| 0.5| 2.4| 0.9| 0.2

V.--MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS & REFUSE. Wheat Bran |131 |22.4| 53.5|14.3| 0.2| 1.7| 8.8|27.3| 0.1| 0.5 Rye Bran |125 |23.2| 71.4|19.3| 1.0| 2.5|11.3|34.3| .. | 1.4 Barley Bran |120 |23.7| 48.4| 8.1| 0.7| 1.8| 3.0| 8.9| 0.9| 23.6 Oat Hulls |140 | .. | 34.7| 4.9| 0.3| 1.4| 1.0| 1.6| 1.3| 23.3 Pea Bran |140 | .. | 22.7|10.3| 0.2| 4.1| 2.2| 3.1| 0.9| 0.9 Buckwheat Bran |140 |27.2| 34.6|11.2| 0.7| 3.4| 4.6|12.5| 1.0| 0.7 Wheat Flour |136 |18.9| 7.2| 2.6| 0.1| 0.2| 0.4| 3.7| .. | .. Rye Flour |142 |16.8| 16.9| 6.5| 0.3| 0.2| 1.4| 8.5| .. | .. Barley Meal |140 |16.0| 20.0| 5.8| 0.5| 0.6| 2.7| 9.5| 0.6| .. Corn Meal |140 |16.0| 5.9| 1.7| 0.2| 0.4| 0.9| 2.6| .. | .. Green Malt |475 |10.4| 14.6| 2.5| .. | 9.5| 1.2| 5.3| .. | 4.8 Dry Malt | 75 |16.0| 26.6| 4.6| .. | 1.0| 2.2| 9.7| .. | 8.8 Brewer’s Grains |766 | 7.8| 11.7| 0.5| 0.1| 1.3| 1.0| 4.1| .. | 4.6 Beer |900 | .. | 6.2| 2.1| 0.6| 0.2| 0.4| 2.0| 0.2| 0.6 Malt-sprouts | 80 |36.8| 66.7|20.6| 1.2| 1.9| 1.8|18.0| 2.9| 14.7 Potato Fibre |850 | 1.3| 1.8| 0.3| .. | 0.9| 0.1| 0.4| .. | 0.1 Potato Slump |948 | 1.6| 5.0| 2.2| 0.4| 0.3| 0.4| 1.0| 0.4| 0.2 Sugar-beet Pomace |700 | 2.9| 11.4| 3.9| 0.9| 2.6| 0.7| 1.1| 0.4| 0.9 Clarifying Refuse |948 | 0.8| 3.3| 0.3| 0.1| 1.1| 0.2| 0.2| 0.1| 0.7 Sugar-beet | | | | | | | | | | Molasses |172 |12.8| 82.3|57.5|10.0| 4.7| 0.3| 0.5| 1.7| 0.3 Molasses Slump |920 | 3.2| 14.0|11.0| 1.5| 0.2| .. | 0.1| 0.2| .. Rape-cake |150 |48.5| 54.6|12.4| 1.8| 6.8| 7.0|19.2| 3.2| 2.8 Linseed Oil-cake |115 |45.3| 50.8|12.4| 0.7| 4.3| 8.1|16.1| 1.6| 6.4 Poppy-cake |100 |52.0| 76.9| 2.3| 2.3|27.0| 6.2|31.2| 1.9| 4.5 Beech-nut-cake |100 |38.1| 43.3| 6.5| 4.6|13.2| 3.6| 9.7| 0.6| 0.8 Walnut-cake |137 |55.3| 46.2|14.3| .. | 3.1| 5.6|20.2| 0.6| 0.7 Cotton-seed-cake |115 |39.0| 58.4|14.6| .. | 2.7| 8.9|28.1| 0.7| 2.3 Cocoanut-cake |127 |37.4| 55.1|22.4| 1.3| 2.6| 1.6|14.9| 2.1| 1.9 Palm-oil-cake |100 |25.9| 26.1| 5.0| 0.2| 3.1| 4.5|11.0| 0.5| 0.8

VI. STRAW. Winter Wheat |143 | 4.8| 46.1| 6.3| 0.6| 2.7| 1.1| 2.2| 1.1| 31.2 Winter Spelt |143 | 4.0| 50.1| 5.2| 0.3| 2.9| 1.2| 2.6| 1.2| 36.0 Winter Rye |143 | 4.0| 40.5| 7.8| 0.9| 3.5| 1.1| 2.1| 1.1| 22.9 Spring Wheat |143 | 5.6| 38.1|11.0| 1.0| 2.6| 0.9| 2.0| 1.2| 18.2 Spring Rye |143 | 5.6| 46.6|11.2| .. | 4.2| 1.8| 3.0| 1.2| 26.1 Barley |143 | 6.4| 41.3| 9.4| 1.7| 3.2| 1.1| 1.9| 1.5| 21.5 Oats |143 | 5.6| 40.4| 8.9| 1.2| 3.6| 1.6| 1.9| 1.3| 19.6 Indian Corn-stalks|150 | 4.8| 41.9| 9.6| 6.1| 4.0| 2.6| 5.3| 1.2| 11.7 Buckwheat Straw |160 |13.0| 51.7|24.2| 1.1| 9.5| 1.9| 6.1| 2.7| 2.9 Pea Straw |160 |10.4| 44.0|10.1| 1.8|16.2| 3.5| 3.5| 2.7| 3.0 Field Bean |160 |16.3| 43.9|18.5| 1.1| 9.8| 3.3| 3.2| 1.6| 3.2 Garden Bean |160 | .. | 40.0|12.8| 3.2|11.1| 2.5| 3.9| 1.7| 1.9 Common Vetch |160 |12.0| 44.1| 6.3| 6.9|15.6| 3.7| 2.7| 3.3| 3.6 Lupine |160 | 9.4| 41.4| 8.0| 2.6|14.8| 3.6| 3.7| 3.0| 2.1 Rape |160 | 5.6| 40.8|11.1| 3.8|11.6| 2.5| 2.4| 3.1| 2.6 Poppy |160 | .. | 48.7|18.4| 0.6|14.7| 3.1| 1.6| 2.5| 5.5

VII. CHAFF. Winter Wheat |143 | 7.2| 92.5| 8.5| 1.7| 1.8| 1.2| 4.0| .. | 75.1 Spring Wheat |143 | 7.5|121.4| 4.8| 1.0| 4.0| 1.5| 3.1| 0.7|105.3 Winter Spelt |143 | 5.6| 82.7| 7.9| 0.2| 2.0| 2.1| 6.1| 1.9| 61.3 Winter Rye |143 | 5.8| 84.0| 5.3| 0.3| 3.5| 1.2| 5.6| 0.1| 69.2 Barley Awns |143 | 4.8|120.0| 9.4| 1.2|12.7| 1.6| 2.4| 3.7| 86.6 Oats |143 | 6.4| 71.2| 4.6| 2.9| 4.0| 1.5| 1.3| 3.5| 50.4 Indian Corn-cobs |140 | 2.3| 4.6| 2.4| 0.1| 0.2| 0.2| 0.2| 0.1| 1.3 Field Beans |150 |16.8| 54.5|35.3| 1.3| 6.8| 5.9| 2.7| 1.2| 0.3 Lupine |143 | 7.2| 18.1| 8.7| 0.7| 3.6| 1.5| 1.1| 0.5| 0.9 Rape |140 | 6.4| 73.2|11.8| 4.4|36.3| 4.2| 3.4| 7.3| 1.0 Flax-seed hulls |120 | .. | 54.7|15.4| 3.0|15.4| 3.3| 4.5| 3.4| 5.0

VIII. COMMERCIAL PLANTS, ETC. Flax Stems |140 | .. | 30.4| 9.4| 2.5| 6.8| 2.0| 4.0| 2.0| 1.7 Rotted Flax Stems |100 | .. | 7.0| 0.3| 0.2| 3.6| 0.2| 0.8| 0.2| 1.3 Flax Fibre |100 | .. | 6.8| 0.3| 0.3| 3.6| 0.3| 0.7| 0.3| 0.8 Hemp Stems |150 | .. | 33.2| 4.6| 0.7|20.3| 2.4| 2.3| 0.7| 3.5 Hops, entire plant|140 | .. | 81.4|20.1| 2.8|18.1| 6.4| 7.5| 3.7| 16.4 Hops |120 | .. | 66.8|23.0| 1.4|11.1| 3.7|11.2| 2.4| 11.1 Hop Stems |160 | .. | 40.7|11.4| 1.7|12.6| 2.7| 4.4| 1.3| 3.4 Tobacco Leaves |180 | .. |151.0|30.3| 5.1|62.8|17.7| 4.8| 5.8| 13.5 Wine and Must |866 | .. | 2.1| 1.3| .. | 0.1| 0.1| 0.4| 0.1| .. Wine-grounds |650 | .. | 13.9| 6.1| 0.2| 2.9| 0.7| 2.5| 0.6| 0.2 Grape Stems, etc. |550 | .. | 13.0| 4.0| 1.4| 4.5| 0.7| 1.6| 0.3| 0.2 Mulberry Leaves |850 | .. | 16.3| 3.9| 0.2| 5.4| 1.0| 1.3| 0.3| 4.1

IX. MATERIALS FOR BEDDING. Reed |180 | .. | 36.7| 6.8| 0.2| 3.3| 1.1| 2.3| 0.6| 20.0 Sedge Grass |140 | .. | 61.2|17.7| 4.9| 4.2| 2.9| 4.6| 2.3| 20.3 Rush |140 | .. | 48.1|19.0| 3.1| 3.6| 3.1| 4.3| 1.3| 6.8 Beech Leaves, | | | | | | | | | | August |560 | .. | 19.0| 3.7| 0.4| 6.4| 1.4| 1.8| 0.4| 3.8 ” ” | | | | | | | | | | Autumn |150 | 8.0| 58.5| 2.3| 0.4|26.4| 3.5| 2.4| 2.1| 19.7 Oak Leaves, | | | | | | | | | | August |550 | .. | 15.8| 5.4| .. | 4.1| 2.1| 1.9| 0.4| 0.7 ” ” | | | | | | | | | | Autumn |150 | 8.0| 41.7| 1.4| 0.3|20.3| 1.7| 3.5| 1.8| 12.9 Fir Needles |475 | 5.0| 18.4| 1.0| 0.3| 6.1| 1.1| 1.0| 0.4| 6.3 Pine ” |450 | .. | 32.0| 0.6| 0.1| 4.3| 0.5| 1.4| 0.6| 22.6 Moss |250 | .. | 19.2| 2.6| 1.6| 2.2| 1.1| 0.9| 1.0| 5.5 Fern |250 | .. | 50.7|18.0| 2.1| 6.2| 3.5| 4.2| 1.8| 10.3 Heath |200 |10.0| 16.6| 2.1| 1.1| 3.6| 1.6| 1.1| 0.7| 4.9 Broom |250 | .. | 13.6| 4.8| 0.3| 2.2| 1.6| 1.1| 0.4| 1.3 Sea-Weed |150 |14.0|122.3|15.9|28.1|16.7|10.0| 3.8|26.3| 2.5

X. GRAINS AND SEEDS. Winter Wheat |144 |20.8| 16.9| 5.3| 0.4| 0.6| 2.0| 7.9| 0.1| 0.4 Spring Wheat |143 |20.5| 18.3| 5.5| 0.4| 0.5| 2.2| 8.9| 0.3| 0.3 Spelt, | | | | | | | | | | without husk |143 |22.0| 14.2| 5.1| 0.5| 0.4| 1.7| 6.0| .. | 0.2 Spelt, with husk |148 |16.0| 36.6| 5.7| 0.4| 1.0| 2.4| 7.6| 1.1| 17.1 Winter Rye |143 |17.6| 17.9| 5.6| 0.3| 0.5| 2.1| 8.4| 0.2| 0.4 Winter Barley |145 |16.0| 17.0| 2.6| 0.7| 0.2| 2.1| 5.6| 0.5| 4.9 Spring Barley |143 |16.0| 22.2| 4.5| 0.6| 0.6| 1.9| 7.7| 0.4| 6.1 Oats |143 |19.2| 27.0| 4.4| 0.6| 1.0| 1.9| 6.2| 0.4| 12.8 Millet |140 |20.3| 29.8| 3.4| 0.4| 0.2| 2.9| 5.9| 0.1| 15.8 Indian Corn |144 |16.0| 13.0| 3.7| 0.2| 0.3| 2.0 5.9| 0.2| 0.2 Sorghum |140 | .. | 16.0| 3.3| 0.5| 0.2| 2.4| 8.1| .. | 1.2 Buckwheat |140 |14.4| 11.8| 2.7| 0.7| 0.5| 1.5| 5.7| 0.2| 0.1 Peas |143 |35.8| 23.5| 9.8| 0.2| 1.2| 1.9| 8.6| 0.8| 0.2 Field Beans |145 |40.8| 30.7|13.1| 0.4| 1.5| 2.2|11.9| 0.8| 0.2 Garden Beans |150 |39.0| 27.4|12.0| 0.4| 1.8| 2.0| 9.7| 1.1| 0.2 Vetch |143 |44.0| 26.8| 8.1| 2.1| 2.1| 2.4|10.0| 1.0| 0.3 Lupine |130 |56.6| 34.1|10.2| 0.1| 3.0| 4.0|14.3| 1.5| 0.2 Red Clover |150 |30.5| 38.3|13.5| 0.4| 2.5| 4.9|14.5| 0.9| 0.5 White Clover |150 | .. | 33.8|12.3| 0.2| 2.5| 3.9|11.6| 1.6| 0.8 Esparsette |160 | .. | 38.4|11.0| 1.1|12.3| 2.6| 9.2| 1.2| 0.3 Ruta-bagas |140 | .. | 48.8| 9.1| 8.5| 7.6| 8.6| 7.6| 2.1| 1.1 Sugar-Beet |146 | .. | 45.3|11.1| 4.2|10.2| 7.3| 7.5| 2.0| 0.8 Carrots |120 | .. | 74.8|14.3| 3.5|29.1| 5.0|11.8| 4.2| 4.0 Succory |130 | .. | 54.6| 6.5| 4.6|17.3| 5.9|16.5| 2.4| 0.6 Turnips |125 | .. | 34.6| 7.6| 0.4| 6.1| 3.1|14.0| 2.5| 0.2 Rape |118 |31.2| 39.1| 9.6| 0.6| 5.5| 4.6|16.5| 0.9| 0.5 Summer-Rape |120 | .. | 34.9| 7.7| .. | 5.2| 4.7|14.9| 2.3| .. Mustard |130 | .. | 36.5| 5.9| 2.0| 7.0| 3.7|14.6| 1.8| 0.9 Poppy |147 |28.0| 52.9| 7.2| 0.5|18.7| 5.0|16.6| 1.0| 1.7 Linseed |118 |32.8| 32.6|10.0| 0.7| 2.6| 4.7|13.5| 0.8| 0.4 Hemp |122 |26.1| 45.3| 9.4| 0.4|10.9| 2.6|16.9| 0.1| 5.5 Grape-Seeds |110 | .. | 25.0| 7.2| .. | 8.4| 2.1| 6.0| 0.6| 0.3 Horse-chestnuts, |492 |10.2| 12.0| 7.1| .. | 1.4| 0.1| 2.7| 0.3| 0.3 fresh | | | | | | | | | | Acorns, fresh |560 | .. | 9.6| 6.2| 0.1| 0.7| 0.5| 1.4| 0.4| 0.1

XI. VARIOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS Cows’ Milk |875 | 5.1| 6.2| 1.5| 0.6| 1.3| 0.2| 1.7| .. | .. Sheep |860 | 5.5| 8.4| 1.8| 0.3| 2.5| 0.1| 3.0| 0.1| 0.2 Cheese |450 |45.3| 67.4| 2.5|26.6| 6.9| 0.2|11.5| .. | .. Ox-blood |790 |32.0| 7.5| 0.6| 3.4| 0.1| 0.1| 0.4| 0.2| 0.1 Calf-blood |800 |29.0| 7.1| 0.8| 2.9| 0.1| 0.1| 0.6| 0.1| .. Sheep-blood |790 |32.0| 7.5| 0.5| 3.3| 0.1| 0.1| 0.4| 0.1| .. Swine-blood |800 |29.0| 7.1| 1.5| 2.2| 0.1| 0.1| 0.9| 0.1| .. Ox-flesh |770 |36.0| 12.6| 5.2| .. | 0.2| 0.4| 4.3| 0.4| 0.3 Calf flesh |780 |34.9| 12.0| 4.1| 1.0| 0.2| 0.2| 5.8| .. | 0.1 Swine-flesh |740 |34.7| 10.4| 3.9| 0.5| 0.8| 0.5| 4.6| .. | .. Living Ox |597 |26.6| 46.6| 1.7| 1.4|20.8| 0.6|18.6| .. | 0.1 Living Calf |662 |25.0| 38.0| 2.4| 0.6|16.3| 0.5|13.8| .. | 0.1 Living Sheep |591 |22.4| 31.7| 1.5| 1.4|13.2| 0.4|12.8| .. | 0.2 Living Swine |528 |20.0| 21.6| 1.8| 0.2| 9.2| 0.4| 8.8| .. | .. Eggs |672 |21.8| 61.8| 1.5| 1.4|54.0| 1.0| 3.7| 0.1| 0.1 Wool, washed |120 |94.4| 9.7| 1.8| 0.3| 2.4| 0.6| 0.3| .. | 2.5 Wool, unwashed |150 |54.0| 98.8|74.6| 1.9| 4.2| 1.6| 1.1| 4.0| 3.0 ------------------+----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----

B.--AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS MANURES.

W Water. OS Organic Substance. A Ash. N Nitrogen. P Potash. S Soda. L Lime. M Magnesia. PhA Phosphoric Acid. SA Sulphuric Acid. S&S Silica and Sand. C&F Chlorine and Florine.

+----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+---- Name of | | | | | | | | | | | | Fertilizer. | W | OS | A | N | P | S | L | M | PhA| SA |S&S |C&F ------------+----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+---- I.--Animal Excrements. | | | | | | | | | (In 1000 parts of Manure.) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Fresh Fæces:| | | | | | | | | | | | Horse |757 |211 | 31.6| 4.4| 3.5| 0.6| 1.5|1.2| 3.5| 0.6|19.6| 0.2 Cattle |838 |145 | 17.2| 2.9| 1.0| 0.2| 3.4|1.3| 1.7| 0.4| 7.2| 0.2 Sheep |655 |314 | 31.1| 5.5| 1.5| 1.0| 4.6|1.5| 3.1| 1.4|17.5| 0.3 Swine |820 |150 | 30.0| 6.0| 2.6| 2.5| 0.9|1.0| 4.1| 0.4|15.0| 0.3 Fresh Urine: | | | | | | | | | | | Horse |901 | 71 | 28.0|15.5|15.0| 2.5| 4.5|2.4| .. | 0.6| 0.8| 1.5 Cattle |938 | 35 | 27.4| 5.8| 4.9| 6.4| 0.1|0.4| .. | 1.3| 0.3| 3.8 Sheep |872 | 83 | 45.2|19.5|22.6| 5.4| 1.6|3.4| 0.1| 3.0| 0.1| 6.5 Swine |967 | 28 | 15.0| 4.3| 8.3| 2.1| .. |0.8| 0.7| 0.8| .. | 2.3 Fresh Dung (with straw:)* | | | | | | | | | Horse |713 |254 | 32.6| 5.8| 5.3| 1.0| 2.1|1.4| 2.8| 0.7|17.7| 0.4 Cattle |775 |203 | 21.8| 3.4| 4.0| 1.4| 3.1|1.1| 1.6| 0.6| 8.5| 1.0 Sheep |646 |318 | 35.6| 8.3| 6.7| 2.2| 3.3|1.8| 2.3| 1.5|14.7| 1.7 Swine |724 |250 | 25.6| 4.5| 6.0| 2.0| 0.8|0.9| 1.9| 0.8|10.8| 1.7 Common Barn-yard Manure: | | | | | | | | | Fresh |710 |246 | 44.1| 4.5| 5.2| 1.5| 5.7|1.4| 2.1| 1.2|12.5| 1.5 Moderately| | | | | | | | | | | | rotted |750 |192 | 58.0| 5.0| 6.3| 1.9| 7.0|1.8| 2.6| 1.6|16.8| 1.9 Thoroughly| | | | | | | | | | | | rotted |790 |145 | 65.0| 5.8| 5.0| 1.3| 8.8|1.8| 3.0| 1.3|17.0| 1.6 Drainage from Barn-yard | | | | | | | | | Manure |982 | 7 | 10.7| 1.5| 4.9| 1.0| 0.3|0.4| 0.1| 0.7| 0.2| 1.2 Human Fæces,| | | | | | | | | | | | fresh |772 |198 | 29.9|10.0| 2.5| 1.6| 6.2|3.6|10.9| 0.8| 1.9| 0.4 ” Urine,| | | | | | | | | | | | ” |963 | 24 | 13.5| 6.0| 2.0| 4.6| 0.2|0.2| 1.7| 0.4| .. | 5.0 Mixed human excrements, | | | | | | | | | fresh |933 | 51 | 16.0| 7.0| 2.1| 3.8| 0.9|0.6| 2.6| 0.5| 0.2| 4.0 Mixed human excrements, mostly | | | | | | | | liquid |955 | 30 | 15.0| 3.5| 2.0| 3.0| 1.0|0.6| 2.8| 0.4| 0.2| 4.3 Dove Manure,| | | | | | | | | | | | fresh |519 |308 |173.0|17.6|10.0| 0.7|16.0|5.0|17.8| 3.3|20.2| .. Hen ” ” |560 |255 |185.0|16.3| 8.5| 1.0|24.0|7.4|15.4| 4.5|35.2| .. Duck ” ” |566 |262 |172.0|10.0| 6.2| 0.5|17.0|3.5|14.0| 3.5|28.0| .. Geese ” ” |771 |134 | 95.0| 5.5| 9.5| 1.3| 8.4|2.0| 5.4| 1.4|14.0| .. | | | | | | | | | | | | II.--Commercial Manures. | | | | | | | | | (In 100 parts of Fertilizer.) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Peruvian | | | | | | | | | | | | Guano |14.8|51.4| 33.8|13.0| 2.3| 1.4|11.0|1.2|13.0| 1.0| 1.7| 1.3 Norway | | | | | | | | | | | | Fish-Guano|12.6|53.4| 34.0| 9.0| 0.3| 0.9|15.4|0.6|13.5| 0.3| 1.6| 1.1 Poudrette |24.0|27.0| 49.0| 2.0| 0.9| 1.0|18.6|0.5| 2.1| 1.0| 5.4| 1.5 Pulverized Dead | | | | | | | | | | | Animals | 5.7|56.9| 37.4| 6.5| 0.3| 0.8|18.2|0.4|13.9| 1.0| 1.7| 0.2 Flesh-Meal |27.8|56.6| 15.6| 9.7| .. | .. | 7.0|0.3| 6.3| 0.1| 1.1| .. Dried Blood |14.0|79.0| 7.0|11.7| 0.7| 0.6| 0.7|0.1| 1.0| 0.4| 2.1| 0.4 Horn-Meal and | | | | | | | | | | | Shavings| 8.5|68.5| 25.0|10.2| .. | .. | 6.6|0.3| 5.5| 0.9|11.0| .. Bone-Meal | 6.0|33.3| 60.7| 3.8| 0.2| 0.3|31.3|1.0|23.2| 0.1| 3.5| 0.3 Bone-Meal from solid | | | | | | | | | | parts | 5.0|31.5| 63.5| 3.5| 0.1| 0.2|33.0|1.0|25.2| 0.1| 3.0| 0.2 Bone-Meal from soft | | | | | | | | | | parts | 7.0|37.3| 55.7| 4.0| 0.2| 0.3|29.0|1.0|20.0| 0.1| 3.5| 0.2 Bone-black, before | | | | | | | | | | used | 6.0|10.0| 84.0| 1.0| 0.1| 0.3|43.0|1.1|32.0| 0.4| 5.0| .. Bone-black, | | | | | | | | | | | | spent |10.0| 6.0| 84.0| 0.5| 0.1| 0.2|37.0|1.1|26.0| 0.4|15.0| .. Bone ash | 6.0| 3.0| 91.0| .. | 0.3| 0.6|46.0|1.2|35.4| 0.4| 6.5| .. Baker Guano |10.0| 9.2| 81.0| 0.5| 0.2| 1.2|41.5|1.5|34.8| 1.5| 0.8| 0.3 Jarvis Guano|11.8| 8.2| 80.0| 0.4| 0.4| 0.3|39.1|0.5|20.6|18.0| 0.5| 0.2 Estremadura | | | | | | | | | | | | Apatite | 0.6| .. | .. | .. | 0.7| 0.3|48.1|0.1|37.6| 0.2| 9.0| 1.5 Sombrero | | | | | | | | | | | | Phosphate | 8.5| .. | 91.5| 0.1| .. | 0.8|43.5|0.6|35.0| 0.5| 1.0| 0.6 Navassa | | | | | | | | | | | | Phosphate | 2.6| 5.4| 92.0| 0.1| .. | .. |37.5|0.6|33.2| 0.5| 5.0| 0.1 Nassau Phosphorite, | | | | | | | | | | rich | 2.6| .. | 97.4| .. | 0.8| 0.4|45.1|0.2|33.0| 0.3| 5.5| 3.1 Nassau Phosphorite, | | | | | | | | | | medium | 2.5| .. | 97.5| .. | 0.7| 0.4|40.1|0.2|24.1| .. |20.8| 1.5 Westphalian Phos-| | | | | | | | | | | phorite | 6.5| 1.6| 91.8| .. | .. | .. |21.8|0.9|19.7| 1.0|22.0| 1.6 Hanover Phos- | | | | | | | | | | | phorite | 2.0| 3.5| 94.5| .. | .. | .. |37.2|0.2|29.2| 0.5| 3.3| 1.5 Coprolites | 4.3| .. | 95.7| .. | 1.0| 0.5|45.4|1.0|26.4| 0.8| 7.5| 0.1 Sulphate of | | | | | | | | | | | | Ammonia | 4.0| .. | .. |20.0| .. | .. | 0.5| ..| .. |58.0| 3.0| 1.4 Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | Soda | 2.6| .. | .. |15.5| .. |35.0| 0.2| ..| .. | 0.7| 1.5| 1.7 Wool-dust and | | | | | | | | | | | offal |10.0|56.0| 34.0| 5.2| 0.3| 0.1| 1.4|0.3| 1.3| 0.5|29.0| 0.2 Lime-cake | 6.5|47.0| 46.5| 3.1| .. | .. |20.5|2.4| 3.0| .. | 8.0| .. Whale-oil | | | | | | | | | | | | refuse |23.0|68.4| 8.6| 5.7| .. | .. | 3.0|0.2| 2.3| .. | 3.0| .. Common Salt | 5.0| .. | 95.0| .. | .. |44.3| 1.2|0.2| .. | 1.4| 2.0|48.2 Gypsum or | | | | | | | | | | | | Plaster |20.0| .. | 80.8| .. | .. | .. |31.0|0.1| .. |44.0| 4.0| .. Gas-lime | 7.0| 1.3| 91.7| 0.4| 0.2| .. |64.5|1.5| .. |12.5| 3.0| .. Sugar-House | | | | | | | | | | | | Scum |34.5|24.5| 41.0| 1.2| 0.2| 0.6|20.7|0.3| 1.5| 0.3| 9.1| 0.1 Leached wood| | | | | | | | | | | | ashes |20.0| 5.0| 75.0| .. | 2.5| 1.3|24.5|2.5| 6.0| 0.3|20.0| .. Wood-soot | 5.0|71.8| 23.2| 1.3| 2.4| 0.5|10.0|1.5| 0.4| 0.3| 4.0| .. Coal-soot | 5.0|70.2| 24.8| 2.5| 0.1| .. | 4.0|1.5| .. | 1.7|16.0| .. Ashes from Deciduous | | | | | | | | | | trees | 5.0| 5.0| 90.0| .. |10.0| 2.5|30.0|5.0| 6.5| 1.6|18.0| 0.3 Ashes from Evergreen | | | | | | | | | | trees | 5.0| 5.0| 90.0| .. | 6.0| 2.0|35.0|6.0| 4.5| 1.6|18.0| 0.3 Peat-ashes | 5.0| .. | 95.0| .. | 1.5| 0.8| ? |1.5| 0.6| 1.3| ? | 0.2 Bituminous | | | | | | | | | | | | coal-ashes| 5.0| .. | 95.0| .. | 0.5| 0.4| ? |3.2| 0.2| 3.5| ? | .. Anthracite | | | | | | | | | | | | coal-ashes| 5.0| 5.0| 90.0| .. | 0.1| 0.1| ? |3.0| 0.1| 5.0| ? | .. | | | | | | | | | | | | III. Superphosphate, from | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Peruvian | | | | | | | | | | | | Guano |16.0|41.9| 42.1|10.0| 2.0| 1.2| 9.5|1.0|10.5|15.0| 1.5| 1.1 Baker Guano |15.0| 6.2| 78.8| 0.3| 0.1| 0.8|25.9|0.9|21.8|28.5| 0.9| 0.2 Estremadura | | | | | | | | | | | | Apatite |15.0| .. | 85.0| .. | 0.4| 0.2|28.2|0.1|22.1|28.5| 5.3| 0.9 Sombrero | | | | | | | | | | | | Phosphate |15.0| .. | 85.0| .. | .. | 0.5|26.4|0.4|20.2|25.5| 0.6| 0.4 Navassa | | | | | | | | | | | | Phosphate |15.0| 2.5| 82.5| .. | .. | ? |17.0|0.3|15.4|19.5| 2.3| ? Nassau Phosphorite, | | | | | | | | | | rich |15.0| .. |85.0 | .. | 0.5| 0.2|26.5|0.1|19.4|25.5| 3.2| 1.8 Nassau Phosphorite, | | | | | | | | | | medium |12.0| .. |88.0 | .. | 0.3| 0.1|24.2|0.1|16.6|19.5|13.5| 1.3 Bone-black |15.0| 8.0|77.0 | 0.3| .. | 0.1|25.0|0.7|16.2|21.0| 9.3| .. Bone-Meal |13.0|23.8|63.2 | 2.0| 0.1| 0.2|22.4|0.7|16.6|19.5| 2.5| 0.2 Phospho-guano (manu- | | | | | | | | | | factured.)|15.5|13.0|80.3 | 3.3| 0.3| 0.4|24.0| ..|20.5|28.8| 3.0| 0.9 ------------+----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---+----+----+----+----

* It is estimated that in the case of horses, cattle, and swine, one-third of the urine drains away. The following is the amount of wheat-straw used daily as bedding for each animal. Horse, 6 lbs.; Cattle, 8 lbs.; Swine, 4 lbs., and sheep, 0.6 lbs.

2.--TABLE SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN SOME MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.

DS Dry Substance. N Nitrogen. A Ash. P Potash. L Lime. M Magnesia. PhA Phosphoric Acid.

+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- Name of Material. | DS | N | A | P | L | M | PhA ----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- 1.--Brewing. | lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs. 1000 lbs. Barley, contain |855 | 15.2|22.23|4.48 |0.58 |1.92 |7.71 15 ” Hops ” | 13.2| .. | 1.00|0.345|0.167|0.056|0.168 Distribution of the Ingredients: | | | | | Water | .. | .. | 1.23|0.852|0.039|0.045|0.234 Malt-Sprouts | 33 | 1.38| 2.43|0.749|0.069|0.066|0.653 Brewers’ Grains |269 | 8.74|13.08|0.580|1.474|1.134|3.631 Spent Hops | 9 | .. | 0.54|0.032|0.160|0.055|0.062 Yeast | 30 | 2.94| 2.27|0.643|0.097|0.185|1.349 Beer | .. | 2.14| 3.65|1.998| .. |0.484|0.939 | | | | | | | 2.--Distillery. | | | | | | | a. 1000 lbs. Potatoes, | | | | | | | contain |250 | 3.2 | 9.43|5.69 | 0.24|0.44 |1.63 40 ” Kiln-Malt | 37 | 0.56| 1.06|0.184|0.040|0.088|0.388 20 ” Yeast-Malt | 18.5| 0.28| 0.53|0.092|0.020|0.044|0.194 The Slump, contains |125 | 4.04|11.02|5.966|0.300|0.572|2.212 (b.) Grain Spirits. | | | | | | | 800 lbs. Rye, contain |684 |14.08|14.32|4.501|0.376|1.648|6.710 200 ” Kiln-Malt, contain |184 | 2.82| 5.12|0.883|0.195|0.429|1.526 50 ” Yeast-Malt, ” | 46 | 0.71| 1.28|0.221|0.049|0.107|0.382 The Slump, contains |443 |17.61|20.72|5.605|0.620|2.184|8.618 | | | | | | | 3.--Yeast Manufacture. | | | | | | | 700 lbs. bruised Rye, | | | | | | | contain |599 |12.32|12.53|3.941|0.329|1.444|5.876 300 ” Barley-Malt, ” |276 | 4.23| 7.67|1.325|0.293|0.643|2.801 Distribution of the Ingredients: | | | | | Yeast | 45 | 4.60| 3.41|1.273|0.192|0.367|2.672 Grains and Slump |325 |11.95|16.79|3.993|0.430|1.720|6.005 | | | | | | | 4.--Starch Manufacture. | | | | | | | 1000 lbs. Potatoes, contain |250 | 3.20| 9.43|5.69 |0.24 |0.44 |1.63 The remains in the Fibre | 75 | 0.60| 0.51|0.086|0.266|0.042|0.133 ” ” ” Water | 45 | 2.60| 8.89|5.604| .. |0.398|1.497 | | | | | | | 5.--Milling. | | | | | | | 1000 lbs. Wheat, contain |857 |20.80|16.88|5.26 |0.57 |2.02 |7.94 Distribution of the Ingredients: | | | | | Flour (77.5 per cent) |664 |14.65| 5.50|1.980|0.154|0.458|2.862 Mill-feed ( 6.5 ” ) | 58 | 1.64| 1.80|0.648|0.050|0.148|0.936 Bran (16.0 ” ) |135 | 4.51| 9.60|2.762|0.396|1.394|4.102 | | | | | | | 6.--Cheese-Making. | | | | | | | 1000 lbs. Milk, contain |125 | 4.80| 6.10|1.505|1.333|0.186|1.735 Distribution of the Ingredients: | | | | | Cheese | 65 | 4.53| 2.84|0.247|0.687|0.028|1.515 Whey | 60 | 0.27| 3.26|1.258|0.646|0.158|0.584 | | | | | | | 7.--Beet-Sugar Manufacture. | | | | | | 1000 lbs. Roots, contain |184 | 1.60| 7.10|3.914|0.379|0.536|0.780 Distribution of the Ingredients: | | | | | Tops and Tails (12 per cent | | | | | | | of roots) | 19 | 0.24| 1.15|0.336|0.108|0.132|0.144 Pomace (15 per cent | | | | | | | of roots) | 46 | 0.44| 1.71|0.585|0.390|0.105|0.165 Skimmings (4 per cent | | | | | | | of roots) | 24 | 0.60| 1.20|0.380|8.640|0.240|0.384 Molasses (3 per cent | | | | | | | of roots) | 25 | 0.32| 2.47|1.741|0.141|0.009|0.015 Sugar and loss | 85 | .. | 0.57|0.872| .. |0.040|0.072 | | | | | | | 8. Flax Dressing. | | | | | | | 1000 lbs. Flax-Stalks, | | | | | | | contain |860 | .. |30.36|9.426|6.751|1.995|3.990 Distribution of the Ingredients: | | | | | In the Water |215 | .. |25.15|9.175|4.100|1.850|3.400 Stems or Husks |460 | .. | 4.03|0.171|2.052|0.096|0.474 Flax and Tow |155 | .. | 1.22|0.054|0.648|0.054|0.126 ----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----

INDEX.

Absorptive Powers of Soils, 217 Ammonia Absorbed by Soil from the Atmosphere, 219 Ammonia and Superphosphate, 242 ” and Weeds, 254 ” Converted into Nitric Acid in the Soil, 313 ” for Oats, 253-254 ” for Potatoes, 261 ” for Wheat, 192-213 ” in Fresh Horse-dung, 96 ” in Limed and Unlimed Soils, 220 ” in the Soil Liberated by Lime, 221 ” Locked Up in the Soil, 221 ” Loss of by Fermenting Manure, 98 ” on Grass Land, 273 ” Potential, 31 ” Quantity of to Produce One Bushel of Wheat, 211-212 ” Required to Produce a Bushel of Barley, 240-242 ” Retained by the Soil, 218 ” Salts, Composition of, 312 ” ” How to Apply, 286-312 ” ” for Private Gardens, 297 Anderson, J. M. B., Letter from, 345 Animals, Composition of Manure from Different, 306 ” What They Remove from the Food, 301 Apple Trees, Nitrate of Soda for, 314 Artificial Manures, Will They Pay, 214 Ashes, Burnt Earth, 72 ” Coal, 72 ” for Barley, 241 ” for Indian Corn, 279 ” for Oats, 253 ” for Potatoes, 259 ” of Manure for Wheat, 173 ” on Long Island, 346 ” Plaster and Hen-dung for Potatoes, 255 ” Wood, 104

Barley After Ten Crops of Turnips, 250 ” a Large Yield of, 242 ” and Clover after a heavily-manured Root-crop, 287 ” Best Soil for, 227 ” Cost of Raising With and Without Manure, 245 ” Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on, 227 ” Potash Increases the Crop of at Rothamsted, 329 ” Profits of Raising in Poor Seasons, 243 ” Quality and Price of, 242 ” Yield Per Acre, 11 Barn-yard Manure, Difference in Quality of, 246 Bean-straw for Manure, 48 Beets, Sugar, Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on, 288 ” ” Manure for, 286 Blood, 32 Bone-dust, 314 ” ” Composition of Compared with Stable Manure, 316 ” ” Fermented with Manure, 316 ” ” Made into Superphosphate, 319 ” ” on Dairy Farms, 315 Bones as Manure, 102 Bran, 26 ” for Manure, 102 ” Richer in Plant-food than Wheat, 301 Brewer, Prof. W. H., Letter from, 341

Cabbage and Barn-yard Manure, Composition of, 292 ” Composition of, 290-292 ” Hog and Cow Manure for, 302 ” Lime for, 292 ” Manure for, 275-290 ” Manure for Early and Late, 291 ” Needs a Large Supply of Nitrogen in the Soil. Though it Removes but Little, 293 ” Potash for, 292 ” Special Manure for, 323 ” Yield of per Acre, 291 Cattle vs. Sheep as Manure-makers, 303 Cheese, from a Ton of Hay, 111 ” Plant-food in, 101 ” versus Beef, 110 Clay Retains Ammonia, 219 Clover and Indian Corn, 275 ” as a Renovating and Exhausting Crop, 277 ” as Manure, 119-122 ” as Manure for Wheat, 158 ” Does it Get Nitrogen from the Atmosphere, 133-138 ” Dr. Vœlcker’s Experiments on, 135 ” for Wheat, 126 ” Gathers Up Manure from the Sub-soil, 287 ” Hay, Composition of, 129-137 ” Hay, English and German, for Manure, 47 ” How to Make a Farm Rich by Growing, 133-163 ” Letting it Rot on the Surface as Manure, 134 ” Nitrogen as a Manure for, 141 ” Pasturing by Sheep versus Mowing for Hay, 137 ” Plowing Under versus Feeding Out, 123 ” Roots, Amount of per Acre, 143-144-155 ” Roots, Composition of, 145-147 ” Seed, Amount of Roots per Acre, 162 ” Water Evaporated by, 132 ” Why it Enriches Land, 131 Coal-ashes to Mix with Artificial Manures, 312 Composting Cow-manure with Muck, Leaves, etc, 302 Compost of Stable-manure and Earth, 342 Corn, as a Renovating Crop, 275 ” Ashes for, 279 ” Barn-yard Manure for, 284 ” Cost of Raising, 9 ” Crop, Composition of, 25 ” Experiments on, 279 ” Guano for, 279-284 ” Manure for, 275 ” Meal for Manure, 185 ” Superphosphate for, 279-284 ” Fodder, 275 ” ” vs. Mangel-wurzels, 288 ” ” Plaster for, 277 ” ” vs. Wheat, Yield per acre, 276 Cotton-seed Cake, 46-339 Cow-manure, 86-100 ” ” and How to Use it, 302 ” ” Composition of, 306 Cows, Feeding Grain to, 110-113 ” Feeding in Winter for Manure, 256 Crops Best to Apply Manure to, 265 ” How to Get Larger, 28-36 ” Raised and Sold from the Farm, 27 ” Rotation of, 116-168 ” We Must Raise Larger per Acre, 266 ” Why so Poor, 28

Dairy Farms, Bone-dust on, 315 Drainage from Barn-yard, 306 Dry Earth for Pig Pens, 304

Earth-closet Manure, 310 ” ” ” on Grass, 225

Fallow, Fall, 12 ” for Wheat, How to--Mr. Lawes’ Experiments, 35 ” Summer, for Wheat, 15-34 Farm Dairy, Receipts and Expenses of, 109 ” Hon. George Geddes’, 119 ” Hon. Joseph Shull’s, 109 ” John Johnston’s, 76-81-120 ” Mr. Dewey’s, 39 ” Mr. Joseph O. Sheldon’s, 15 ” to Restore a Worn Out, 37 Farming, a Poor Business, 9 ” Difference Between High and Good, 11 ” Faith in Good, 14 ” Good Does Not Lead to Over Production, 14 ” Slow Work, 17 Fermenting Manure to Kill Weed-Seeds, 97 Fish as Manure, 347 Food, Nothing Added to it by the Animal, 42

Gardens, Manure for Private, 296 Geddes, Hon. George, 17-117 Grains, Malt, English and German, 47 Grass a Saving’s Bank, 41 ” Importance of Rich, 113 ” Manure for, 120 Guano as a Top-dressing for Wheat, 270 ” for Barley, 240 ” for Oats, 253 ” for Peas, 17 ” for Potatoes, 255-258 ” on Wheat, 120-180-184 ” Peruvian, Composition of, 311 ” ” for Onions, 294 ” ” Price and Composition of Now and 30 Y’rs Ago, 327 ” ” Rectified for Turnips, 286 ” ” What it is, 311 Gypsum, 104-116-126 ” for Oats, 254 ” for Peas, 17 ” for Potatoes, 255-259

Harison, T. L., Letter from, 115 Hay, Best Manure for, 274 ” Plant-food in, 101 Heacock, Joseph, Letter from, 348 Henderson, Peter, Letter from, 344 Hen Manure, 43-104-301 ” ” for Potatoes, 255 High Farming, 12 ” ” versus Good Farming, 11 Hops, Manure for, 274 Horse-manure, Composition of, 306 Hot-beds, Manure for, 297 Human Excrements, Composition of, 308

Indian Corn. See Corn. Irrigation on Market Gardens, 295

Jessup, Edward, Letter from, 342 Johnson, Prof. S. W., on the Value of Fertilizers, 324

Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on Barley, 227 Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on Oats, 252 Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on Permanent Meadows, 271 Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on the Amount of Excrements Voided by Man, 309 Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on Sugar beets and Mangel-wurzels, 288 Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on Wheat, 170 Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments, Potash Beneficial for Barley, 329 Lawes’ Table, Showing Composition and Value of Foods, 45 Lettuce, Manure for, 289 ” Superphosphate for, 290-293 Lewis, Hon. Harris, Letter from, 103 Liebig’s Special Manures, 321 Lime as Manure, 215 ” Beneficial Effect of for Thirty Years, 216 ” Changes the Chemical and Physical Character of the Soil, 224 ” Composting with Old Sods, 224 ” for Cabbage, 292 ” Hastens the Maturity of the Crop, 222 ” Impoverishes the Soil, 222 ” in Connecticut, 224 ” in Delaware, 223 ” in New Jersey, 223 ” in Pennsylvania, 224 ” Mixed with Barn-yard Manure, 222 ” on Grass Land, 223 ” on Lime-stone Land, 217 ” Quantity per Acre, 216 ” Sets Free Ammonia in the Soil, 221 ” Silicate Absorbs Ammonia from Atmosphere, 219 ” When to Apply, 223 ” Why Beneficial, 220 Liquid Manure, 306 Lowland, Draining, 30

Malt-combs, 46 Mangel-wurzels for Manure, 48 ” ” Manure for, 103-286-288 ” ” Yield per Acre, 11 Manure Absorbing Liquid, 115 ” Amount from Feed and Bedding, 78 ” Amount Made by a Horse, 50-346 ” ” Made by Horses, Cows, Sheep, and Pigs, 51 ” Amount Made on a 250-acre Farm, 257 ” Amount of Rain Required to Dissolve, 267 ” Amount of Straw in Horse, 346 ” and Rotation of Crops, 246 ” Applying Artificial, 312 ” Applying Near the Surface, 267 ” Applying on the Surface, 173 ” as Top-dressing, 269 ” Barn-yard for Barley, 240 ” Barn-yard vs. Artificial for Indian Corn, 284 ” Basin for, 92 ” Best for Hay, 274 ” Bone-dust, 314-316 ” Brings in Red Clover, 82 ” Buying, 306 ” Buying by Measure or Weight, 305 ” Buying by the Load or Ton, 306 ” Cellar, 114 ” Cheapest a Farmer Can Use, 127 ” Clover as, 119-122 ” Clover-seed as, 127 ” Comes from the Land, 42 ” Common Salt as, 200 ” Composition of Fresh Barnyard, 51 ” Composition of from Different Animals, 306 ” Composition of Heap at Different Periods, 57 ” Corn-meal for, 185 ” Cost of Hauling, 342 ” Cost of Loading and Drawing, 77 ” Cow, 87-100 ” Dairy-farm, How to Save and Apply, 114 ” Dr. Vœlcker’s Experiments on, 51 ” Drawing Out to the Field, 89 ” English Plan of Keeping, 69 ” Equivalent to Water, 296 ” Farm-yard for Potatoes, 261 ” Fermenting in Winter, 85-92-93 ” Fermenting, Shrinkage in, 116 ” Fire-fang, 84-98 ” Fish, as, on Long Island, 347 ” Foods which Make Rich, 45 ” for Cabbage, Parsnips, Onions, Carrots, Lettuce, etc, 289 ” for Corn, 80 ” for Grass, 82 ” for Hops, 274 ” for Hot-beds, 297 ” for Indian Corn, 275 ” for Mangel-wurzels and Sugar-beets, 287 ” for Market Gardens, 294 ” for Oats, 252 ” for Potatoes, 255 ” for Seed-growing Farms, 296 ” for Sorghum or Chinese Sugar-cane, 283 ” for Tobacco, 275 ” for Turnips, 285-322 ” for Wheat, 167 ” from Cows, 302 ” from Earth-closet, 310 ” from Oxen, 303 ” from Pigs, Mr. Lawes’ Experiments, 301 ” from Sheep, 303 ” Grain Farms, Management of, 117 ” Guano, Price of Now and Thirty Years Ago, 328 ” Guano, Rectified Peruvian, 319 ” Gypsum and Clover as, 125 ” Heap, Changes in, 67 ” ” Fermenting, 38 ” ” in Winter, 84 ” ” Piling in Field, 88-89-90 ” ” Turning, 88 ” Hen, 43-104-301 ” Horse, 32-86 ” Horse and Farm-yard, 50 ” How and When it Should be Applied, 267 ” How John Johnston Manages it, 76 ” How Made and Used in Maryland, 349 ” How the Deacon Makes it, 74 ” How to Make, 41 ” How to Make More, 256 ” How to Make More and Better on Dairy Farms, 105 ” How to Make Poor, Rich, 274-293 ” How to Make Richer, 257 ” How Much it Shrinks by Fermentation, 342 ” How Much Nitrogen in a Load of, 306 ” in Kansas, 340 ” in Philadelphia, Interesting Facts, 338 ” Keeping Under Cover, 59 ” Lime as, 215 ” Liquid, 306 ” Management of in Canada, 335 ” Mr. Lawes’ Experiments with, 95 ” Loss from Leaching, 99 ” Management of, 94 ” Market Value of, 104 ” Mixed with Lime, 222 ” Natural, 23 ” Night soil as, 308 ” Nitrate of Soda as, 134 ” Not Available, 95 ” on Dairy Farm, 101 ” on Permanent Meadows and Pastures, 271 ” Preserved by the Soil, 177 ” Pigs’, 86 ” Piling, 116 ” Potash as, 329 ” Price of in Boston, 344 ” ” ” Maryland, 339 ” ” ” New Haven, 341 ” ” ” New York, 334 ” ” per Horse in New York, 336 ” Quantity Made on a Farm, 12 ” Quantity of Used on Long Island. Interesting Statistics, 336 ” Reduced by Fermentation, 297 ” Richer in Plant-food than the Food from which it is Derived, 301 ” Sea-weed as, 337 ” Sheep, 86 ” Should be Broken Up Fine, 268 ” Soluble Phosphates in, 72 ” Special, 140-320 ” Specific Gravity of from Different Animals, 305 ” Spread in Open Yard, 63 ” Stable, Management, 333 ” Straw and Chaff as, 200 ” Superphosphate, How Made, 317 ” Swamp-Muck as, 29 ” Tank, 115 ” the Author’s Plan of Managing, 83 ” Tillage as, 32-121-225 ” Top-dressing for Wheat in Kansas, 350 ” ” ” on Growing Crops, 343 ” to What Crops Should it be Applied, 265 ” Value of, 78 ” Value of Depends on the Food, Not on the Animal, 43 ” Value of Straw as, 123 ” Water in, 124 ” Weeds as, 24 ” Weight of, 343-350 ” Well-rotted, Composition of, 65 ” Well-rotted, Loss from Leaching, 65 ” What is it?, 19-22 ” Why Do We Ferment?, 94 Market Gardens, Irrigation in, 295 ” ” Manure for, 294 ” ” Pig-manure on, 295 Meadows, Manure for, 271

Night soil, 225-308 Nitrate of Potash, 312 Nitrate of Soda, 134 ” ” Acts Quicker than Ammonia, 313 ” ” as a Top-dressing for Wheat, 270 ” ” Composition of, 312 ” ” for Apple Trees, 314 ” ” for Barley, 243 ” ” for Oats, 252 ” ” for Onions, 294 ” ” for Sugar-Beets, 289 ” ” for Wheat, 159 ” ” How to Apply, 312 Nitric Acid, 341 Nitrogen, Amount per Acre in the Soil, 28-162 ” as Manure, 28 ” in Soils, 106-226-336-341 ” Makes Poor Manure Rich, 246 Nurserymen, Manure for, 297

Oats, Experiments on in Virginia, 253 ” Experiments on at Moreton Farm, 254 ” Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on, 252 ” Manures for, 252 Oil-cake for Sheep, 76 Onions, Manure for, 294

Peas for Pigs, 17 Pea-straw for Manure, 48 Peat, Composition of, 31 Phosphates, 27 ” Exhaustion of on Dairy Farms, 101 ” Soluble in Barn-yard Manure, 72 Phosphoric Acid in Soils, 106-226 ” ” per Acre in Soils, 162 ” ” Retained by the Soil, 219 ” ” Removed from the Farm by Hay, and by Milch Cows, 316 Pig Manure, 43-86 ” ” Composition of, 306 ” ” for Cabbage, 302 Pigs as Manure-Makers for Market Gardeners, 295 Pigs’ Bedding, 31 ” for Enriching Pasture-Land, 304 ” How to Save Manure from, 304 ” Manure from, 301-304 Piling Manure, 97 Plant-food, 21-105 ” ” Amount of in an Acre, 24-39 ” ” in New and Cultivated Land, 39 Plaster for Indian Corn, 277 Plowing in the Fall, 17 Potash, Amount of in the Soil, 25-329 ” as Manure, 329 ” as Manure for Wheat, 215 ” for Cabbages, 292 ” for Potatoes, 255-260 ” for Potatoes and Root-Crops, 330 ” How to Ascertain when the Soil Needs, 330 ” in Nitrate of Potash, 314 ” Not a Special Manure for Turnips, 322 ” on Grass Land, 273 ” our Soils not so likely to be Deficient in, as of Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid, 330 ” Retained by the Soil, 219 ” Value of in Artificial Manures, 326 Potatoes, after Root-Crops, 287 ” Ammonia for, 261 ” Cost of Raising, 10 ” Experiments on at Moreton Farm, 259 ” for Manure, 48 ” How to Raise a Large Crop, 255 ” Manures for, 255 ” Mr. Hunter’s Experiments on in England, 260 ” on Rich Land, 263 ” Profits of Using Artificial Manures on, 263 ” Will Manure Injure, Quality of, 264

Rape-cake, 46 ” ” as Manure for Hops, 274 Roots, Amount of Left in Soil by Different Crops, 164 Root-crops, 17 Rotation of Crops and Manures, 246 Rushmore, J. H., Letter from, 345 Routzahn, H. L., Letter from, 349

Salt as a Manure for Wheat, 270 ” Common as Manure for Wheat, 200 ” for Mangel-wurzels, 104 Saw-dust for Bedding, 103 Season, a Poor, Profitable for Good Farmers, 213 ” and Manure for Oats, 253 ” Influence of on the Growth of Wheat, 210 ” Profit in Raising Oats in a Poor, 253 ” Profit in Raising Barley in a Poor, 243 Seasons, Influence on Crops, 21 Seed Growers, Manures for, 296 Sewage, 308 Sheep-Manure, 303-333-339 ” ” Composition of, 306 ” vs. Oxen as Manure Makers, 303 Shelton, Prof. E. M., Letter from, 350 Soil, Composition of, 144-150 ” Exhaustion of, 23-27-332 ” from Earth-closet, 225 ” Nitrogen and Phosphoric Acid in, 226 ” Plant-food in, 105 ” Weight of per Acre, 221 Soils Absorb Ammonia from Atmosphere, 219 ” Absorptive Powers of, 217 Sorghum, Manures for, 283 Special Manures, 320 Straw, 26 ” Amount of Manure from, 124 ” and Chaff for Manure, 200 ” for Manures, 48 ” on Grain Farms, 118 ” Selling, 123 Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., Letter from, 344 Superphosphate, 116 ” for Barley, 241 ” for Indian Corn, 279 ” for Potatoes, 259 ” for Private Gardens, 296 ” for Turnips, 285-322 ” for Wheat, 168-169 ” from Bones, Composition of, 319 ” from Mineral Phosphates, 320 ” How Applied, 320 ” on Dairy Farms, 315 ” on Grass Land, 273 ” Value of as Compared with Bone-Dust, 319 ” What Crops Best for, 243 Superphospate of Lime, Doctor Tells How it is Made, 317 Superphosphate of Lime, When First Made in the United States, 324 Surface Application of Manure, 70-268 Swamp-muck, 29 ” ” Composition of, 31 Swine, see Pigs.

Thomas, J. J., Remarks on the Application of Manures, 269 Tillage is Manure, 32-121-163-225 Tobacco, Manure for, 275 Top dressing with Manure, 269 Turnips, Do They Absorb Nitrogen from the Atmosphere, 250 ” Impoverish the Soil More than Grain, 250 ” Manure for, 285 ” and Wheat, Special Manures for, 321

Urine from Farm Animals Richer than Human, 309 ” vs. Solid Manure, 294

Valuation of Fertilizers, 324

Water, Amount Given Off by Plants During Their Growth, 131 Water Equivalent to Manure, 296 Weeds, 15-41-189 Weed-seeds in Manure, 97 Weld, Col. M. C., Letter from, 344 Wheat, Ammonia for, 192 ” Artificial Manures for Should be Drilled in with Seed, 168-169 ” Common Salt as Manure for, 200 ” Crop, Composition of, 26-129-138-340 ” Effect of Manure on, in Poor Season, 213 ” Influence of Season on, 210 ” is it Deteriorating? 189 ” Larger Crops per Acre, 122 ” Lawes’ and Gilbert’s Experiments on, 140-170-333 ” Manures for, 167 ” Mr. Lawes’ Experiments on, 122 ” Nitrogen as Manure for, 141 ” Plant-food in, 101 ” Potash as Manure for, 215 ” Straw and Chaff as a Manure for, 200 ” Summer Fallowing for, 35-168 ” the 20th Crop on Same Land, 213 ” Top-dressing for, 270 ” vs. Corn, Comparative Yield of, 276 ” Well-rotted Manure for, 267 ” Why Our Crops are so Poor, 214 ” Yield per Acre, 11

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+Feeding Farm Animals+

By Professor THOMAS SHAW. This book is intended alike for the student and the farmer. The author has succeeded in giving in regular and orderly sequence, and in language so simple that a child can understand it, the principles that govern the science and practice of feeding farm animals. Professor Shaw is certainly to be congratulated on the successful manner in which he has accomplished a most difficult task. His book is unquestionably the most practical work which has appeared on the subject of feeding farm animals. Illustrated. 5½ × 8 inches. Upward of 500 pages. Cloth. $2.00

+Profitable Dairying+

By C. L. PECK. A practical guide to successful dairy management. The treatment of the entire subject is thoroughly practical, being principally a description of the methods practiced by the author. A specially valuable part of this book consists of a minute description of the far-famed model dairy farm of Rev. J. D. Detrich, near Philadelphia, Pa. On the farm of fifteen acres, which twenty years ago could not maintain one horse and two cows, there are now kept twenty-seven dairy cattle, in addition to two horses. All the roughage, litter, bedding, etc., necessary for these animals are grown on these fifteen acres, more than most farmers could accomplish on one hundred acres. Illustrated. 5 × 7 inches. 200 pages. Cloth. $0.75

+Practical Dairy Bacteriology+

By Dr. H. W. CONN, of Wesleyan University. A complete exposition of important facts concerning the relation of bacteria to various problems related to milk. A book for the classroom, laboratory, factory and farm. Equally useful to the teacher, student, factory man and practical dairyman. Fully illustrated with 83 original pictures. 340 pages. Cloth. 5½ × 8 inches. $1.25

+Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products+

By L. L. VanSLYKE. This is a clear and concise discussion of the approved methods of testing milk and milk products. All the questions involved in the various methods of testing milk and cream are handled with rare skill and yet in so plain a manner that they can be fully understood by all. The book should be in the hands of every dairyman, teacher or student. Illustrated. 214 pages. 5 × 7 inches. $0.75

+Animal Breeding+

By THOMAS SHAW. This book is the most complete and comprehensive work ever published on the subject of which it treats. It is the first book which has systematized the subject of animal breeding. The leading laws which govern this most intricate question the author has boldly defined and authoritatively arranged. The chapters which he has written on the more involved features of the subject, as sex and the relative influence of parents, should go far toward setting at rest the wildly speculative views cherished with reference to these questions. The striking originality in the treatment of the subject is no less conspicuous than the superb order and regular sequence of thought from the beginning to the end of the book. The book is intended to meet the needs of all persons interested in the breeding and rearing of live stock. Illustrated. 405 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

+Forage Crops Other Than Grasses+

By THOMAS SHAW. How to cultivate, harvest and use them. Indian corn, sorghum, clover, leguminous plants, crops of the brassica genus, the cereals, millet, field roots, etc. Intensely practical and reliable. Illustrated. 287 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00

+Soiling Crops and the Silo+

By THOMAS SHAW. The growing and feeding of all kinds of soiling crops, conditions to which they are adapted, their plan in the rotation, etc. Not a line is repeated from the Forage Crops book. Best methods of building the silo, filling it and feeding ensilage. Illustrated. 364 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

+The Study of Breeds+

By THOMAS SHAW. Origin, history, distribution, characteristics, adaptability, uses, and standards of excellence of all pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep and swine in America. The accepted text book in colleges, and the authority for farmers and breeders. Illustrated. 371 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

+Clovers and How to Grow Them+

By THOMAS SHAW. This is the first book published which treats on the growth, cultivation and treatment of clovers as applicable to all parts of the United States and Canada, and which takes up the entire subject in a systematic way and consecutive sequence. The importance of clover in the economy of the farm is so great that an exhaustive work on this subject will no doubt be welcomed by students in agriculture, as well as by all who are interested in the tilling of the soil. Illustrated. 5 × 7 inches. 337 pages. Cloth. Net. $1.00

+Land Draining+

A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of draining, by MANLY MILES, giving the results of his extended experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the disappointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing, aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats. Illustrated. 200 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00

+Barn Plans and Outbuildings+

Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers. Chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of barns, grain barns, horse barns, cattle barns, sheep barns, cornhouses, smokehouses, icehouses, pig pens, granaries, etc. There are likewise chapters on birdhouses, doghouses, tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings, workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits, etc. 235 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00

+Irrigation Farming+

By LUTE WILCOX. A handbook for the practical application of water in the production of crops. A complete treatise on water supply, canal construction, reservoirs and ponds, pipes for irrigation purposes, flumes and their structure, methods of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the garden, the orchard and vineyard, windmills and pumps, appliances and contrivances. New edition, revised, enlarged and rewritten. Profusely illustrated. Over 500 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $2.00

+Forest Planting+

By H. NICHOLAS JARCHOW, LL. D. A treatise on the care of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on plains and mountains. The author has fully described those European methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This experience has been adapted to the different climates and trees of America, full instructions being given for forest planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley. Illustrated. 250 pages. 5 × 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50

* * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Errors and Anomalies noted by transcriber:

Close quotes have been supplied or deleted where unambiguous, and paragraph-ending full stops (periods) have been silently supplied. No other attempt was made to regularize quotation format or punctuation.

The Deacon, the Doctor, the Squire, Charlie _the name is spelled “Charley” everywhere else_ it would seem desirable to apply the superphosphate _text reads “superhosphate”_ wherever agri-_culture_ is practised. _so in original_ Turning over, and fining a manure-heap _word “fining” probably technical term, not error_ said the Doctor, “but value.” “Suppose, Deacon,” said he _quotation marks as in original (same speaker)_ carbonaceous matter and water, of little or no value?” _text has question mark after close quote_ It would be a very exceptional case. _word “It” illegible_ “7. In the insoluble organic matters _number 7 missing from original; adjacent paragraphs have 6 and 8_ would be reduced to 49.6-10 tons _numeral format as in original: 49-6/10 or 49.6, though computed total is 49.508_ Dr. Vœlcker draws the following conclusions _text reads “Voelcker” with separate vowels_ It is high, rolling land, but needed underdraining. _text reads “under / draining” at line break without hyphen_ “Why so?” asked the Deacon. _text has question mark after close quote_ and consequently will ferment or putrefy much more rapidly _text reads “putrify”_ crenic and apocrenic acids are produced _text reads “aprocrenic”_ 100 tons of hay lying dormant _text reads “dorment”_ endeavor to persuade them to eat more _text reads “persaude”_ when we draw deductions from the facts of the case _text reads “the the case”_ and I think the mechanical condition of the land _text reads “mechancial”_ ”In 672 lbs. of clover-ash, we find: _open quote missing_ Organic matter* ... 64.76 _text reads “Oganic”_ “Now,” said the Doctor, “... in the soil_.” “There was more clover-roots per acre... _unclear whether speaker is the same for both paragraphs (delete close quote) or changes (from the Doctor to Harris)_ For the superphosphate of lime, _text reads “superphoshate”_ Table VII.--Manures and Produce; 7th Season, 1849-50. 6b | .. | *00 | 200 _first digit of number is missing: probably “300”_ Even gold may be bought too dear. _text reads “to dear”_ The value of quick-lime as a manure _anomalous hyphen in original_ Table IV.--Offal Corn per Acre--lbs. 1 N. |}(94){|283 ‖109 ... 2 N. |} {|228 ‖286 ... _double lines as printed: should be one year earlier?_ ] cotton-seed-cake _hyphenation as in original (two occurrences); similarly “Beech-nut-cake”, “Palm-oil-cake” etc._ fish-scrap, woollen-rags, Peruvian guano _hyphens as in original_ the plants / came up first, and exhibited a healthy, dark-green _text reads “exhibted”_ for sugar-making purposes, or for fodder _text reads “foddder”_ ruta-bagas _hyphenation is standard for this text_ Isn’t it paying a little too much for the whistle? _text reads “Is’nt”_ And this fact ought to be understood _text reads “An this fact” with invisible “d”_ The plaintain, which I believe is sometimes sown _spelling “plaintain” as in original_ ... his book on Manure, “Praktische Düngerlehre,” Dr. Emil Wolff _text reads “Wollf”_

[Index] _Note that the Index uses short dashes where commas would be expected_ Crops Best to Apply Manure to _“Crops” entries printed out of sequence, between “Corn” and “Cotton”_ Farm Dairy // Mr. Joseph O. Sheldon’s _name in body text is James O. Sheldon_