CHAPTER VIII

CHARACTER AND CONDITIONS OF REVOLUTIONARY SYNDICALISM

The history of the General Confederation of Labor as told in the preceding chapters has brought out in a general way the character of revolutionary syndicalism and the conditions which have influenced its rise and development. It remains now in this last chapter to emphasize the principal points and to strengthen them by a more complete analysis of facts and conditions.

It has been maintained throughout this work that revolutionary syndicalism was created by a _bloc_ of revolutionary elements in the Confederation. This character of a _bloc_ has been denied by many. Those hostile to the Confederation are anxious to create the impression that the latter is exclusively the creation and the tool of the anarchists. Others more or less impartial fail to acknowledge the part played in the movement by the non-anarchist elements. Some anarchists themselves are only too glad to be considered the creators of the movement and to maintain a view which is a tribute to their organizing ability and to their influence.

Many revolutionary syndicalists, however, protest against being considered anarchists. Some of them are active members of the Unified Socialist Party. Others do not belong to the Socialist party, but have never been connected with the Anarchists. They are revolutionary syndicalists, "pure and simple." And these two other elements are by no means less influential in the Confederation than the Anarchists.

The three elements enumerated have somewhat different ways of regarding revolutionary syndicalism. To the anarchists revolutionary syndicalism is but a partial application of anarchist ideas. M. Yvetot, secretary of the section of Bourses, said at the recent Congress of Toulouse (1910): "I am reproached with confusing syndicalism and anarchism. It is not my fault if anarchism and syndicalism have the same ends in view. The former pursues the integral emancipation of the individual; the latter the integral emancipation of the workingman. I find the whole of syndicalism in anarchism."[214]

[214] _La Vie Ouvrière_, 20 Oct., 1910, p. 483; _XVII Congrès National Corporatif_ (Toulouse, 1910), p. 226.

To the revolutionary socialists in the Confederation syndicalism is the primary and fundamental form of revolutionary socialism. It does not exclude, however, other forms; on the contrary, it must be completed by the political organization of the Socialist party, because it has no answer of its own to many social problems.

The third group of revolutionary syndicalists regards revolutionary syndicalism as self-sufficing and independent of both anarchism and socialism. This group, like the first, emphasizes the fact that there is an irreconcilable antagonism between syndicalism and political socialism. "It is necessary," writes Jouhaux, secretary of the Confederation, "that the proletariat should know that between parliamentary socialism, which is tending more and more toward a simple democratization of existing social forms, and syndicalism, which pursues the aim of a complete social transformation, there is not only divergence of methods, but particularly divergence of aims."[215]

[215] L. Jouhaux, _Le Terrassier_, 20 June, 1911.

Those who consciously call themselves revolutionary syndicalists belong to one of the groups described, and the three groups constitute the _bloc_ spoken of above. To understand revolutionary syndicalism means to understand this _bloc_ of revolutionary elements, how it was made possible, why it is maintained, and what conditions have secured for it the leadership in the General Confederation of Labor.

It has been shown in the preceding chapters that since 1830 a considerable part of the French workingmen, the so-called "militant" workingmen, have always cherished the hope of a "complete" or "integral" emancipation which should free them from the wage-system and from the economic domination of the employer. The desire of independence had guided the life of the journeyman under the guild-system, and its birth under modern economic conditions is natural enough to need no explanation. But while under the guild-system this desire had an individualistic character, under the technical conditions of the present time it necessarily led to collectivist ideas. With the development of highly expensive means of production, only an insignificant number of workingmen could hope to become economically independent by individual action, and the only way to attain economic freedom and equality for all pointed to the collective appropriation of the means of production and to the collective management of industrial activities.

The insistence on economic freedom--in the sense indicated--runs through all the literature of the French Labor Movement. It is not only and not so much the inequality of wealth, the contrasts of distribution that stimulate the militant workingmen to their collectivist hopes, as it is the protest against the "arbitrariness" of the employer and the ideal of a "free workshop." To attain the latter is the main thing and forms the program of the General Confederation as formulated in the first clause of its statutes.

The sensitiveness to economic inferiority is increased in the French militant workingmen by the fact that in a country like France economic distinctions are combined with social distinctions. Owing to the traditions of the past, economic classes are separated by a number of other elements, in which intellectual, social and other influences combine and which transform the economic classes into social classes. The aspiration towards economic equality increases, therefore, in volume and becomes a striving after social equality.

The historical traditions of France combined with the impatience for emancipation explain the revolutionary spirit of the French socialist workingman. All who have come into contact with French life have convinced themselves of the power which the revolutionary traditions of the past exert over the people. The French workingman is brought up in the admiration of the men of the Great Revolution; his modern history is full of revolutionary secret societies, of insurrections, and of revolutionary struggles. He cherishes the memory of the Revolution of 1848, his indignation is aroused by the story of the Days of June, his pity and sympathy are stimulated by the events of the Commune. Looking backward into the history of the past century and a half, he can only get the feeling of political instability, and the conviction is strengthened in him that "his" revolution will come just as the revolution of the "Third-Estate" had come. Combined with the desire to attain the "integral" emancipation as soon as possible, these conditions engender in him the revolutionary spirit.[216]

[216] On the peculiar character of French history see Adams, _Growth of the French Nation_; Berry, _France since Waterloo_; Barrett Wendell, _France of To-day_.

The revolutionary spirit predisposes the socialist workingman to a skeptical attitude toward parliamentary action which rests on conciliation and on compromise and is slow in operation. He seeks for other methods which seem to promise quicker results. The methods themselves may change; they were insurrection once, they are now the general strike. But the end they serve remains the same: to keep up the hope of a speedy liberation.

The distrust of parliamentary methods has been strengthened in the French socialist workingman by another fact. The French workingmen have seen their political leaders rise to the very top, become Ministers and Premiers (_e. g._, Millerand, Viviani, Briand), and then turn against their "comrades" of old. The feeling has been thereby created in the socialist workingmen that parliamentary methods are merely a means to a brilliant career for individuals who know how to make use of them.

The mistrust of "politicians" finds some nourishment in the fact that the political leaders of the Socialist movement are generally the "intellectuals," between whom and the workingmen there is also some antagonism. The "intellectuals" are thrown out upon the social arena principally by the lower and middle bourgeoisie and generally enter the liberal professions. But whether lawyer, writer, doctor or teacher, the French "intellectual" sooner or later enters the field of "politics" which allures him by the vaster possibilities it seems to offer. In fact, the "intellectual" has always been a conspicuous figure in the history of French Socialism. As a socialist poet, Pierre Dupont, sang,

"Socialism has two wings, The student and the workingman."

And as the socialist ideas have spread, the number of "intellectuals" in the socialist movement has been constantly increasing.

The "two wings" of the Socialists, however, cannot perfectly adapt themselves to one another. The "intellectual" generally lacks the "impatience for deliverance" which characterizes the socialist workingman. The "intellectual" is bound by more solid ties to the _status quo_; his intellectual preoccupations predispose him to a calmer view of things, to regard society as a slow evolutionary process. Besides, the "intellectual" takes pride in the fact that he supplies "the proletariat with fresh elements of enlightenment and progress"; he is inclined, therefore, to dominate the workingman as his "minor brother", and to advocate methods which secure his own predominant part in the movement. Parliamentary action is the field best adapted to his character and powers. The socialist workingman, on the other hand, protests against the tendencies of the "intellectual", particularly against the dominating impulses of the latter. He is anxious to limit the powers of his leaders, if possible, and to create such forms of organization as shall assure his own independence.

When the syndicats began to develop in France, the revolutionary workingmen seized upon them as a form of organization particularly adapted to their demands. The syndicat was an organization which could take up the ideal of social emancipation; in the general strike, which the syndicat seemed to carry within itself, there was a method of speedy liberation; the syndicat excluded the "intellectuals" and above all by its "direct action" it maintained and strengthened the revolutionary spirit and safeguarded the revolutionary ideal from the compromises and dangers to which politics and the parliamentary socialists subjected it.

These conditions: the hope of social emancipation, the impatience for deliverance, the revolutionary spirit, and the defiance of the "intellectuals" and of the "politicians," gave and continue to give life to revolutionary syndicalism. They brought into being the "revolutionary _bloc_" in the General Confederation of Labor and maintain it there. Of course, differences of temperament and shadings of opinion exist. On the one extreme are those who are most vehement in their propaganda and who combat the Socialist party; on the other, are the revolutionary socialists who are disposed to co-operate with the parliamentary socialists, but who want to have an independent organization to fall back upon in case of disagreement with the political party. But differing in details, the revolutionary elements agree in the main points and they stamp upon the Confederation the character which it bears and which is described in the terms "revolutionary syndicalism."

The opponents of the revolutionary syndicalists claim that the latter are followed only by a minority in the General Confederation and that they maintain their leadership by means of the existing system of representation and by other more or less arbitrary devices. This statement, however, cannot be proved in any satisfactory way.

The best way of obtaining the exact number of revolutionary syndicalists in the Confederation would seem to be by means of an analysis of the votes taken at the Congresses. This method, however, is defective for several reasons. In the first place, not all the syndicats adhering to the Confederation are represented at the Congresses. At the Congress of Bourges (1904), 1,178 syndicats out of 1,792 were represented; at the Congress of Amiens, 1,040 out of 2,399; at the Congress of Marseilles, 1,102 out of 2,586, and at the Congress of Toulouse, 1,390 out of 3,012. It is evident, therefore, that even if all the votes were taken unanimously, they would still express the opinion of less than half the syndicats of the Confederation.

In the second place, the votes of the Confederation being taken by syndicats, to get the exact figures it would be necessary to know how many syndicats in each federation are revolutionary or not, and what is the proportional strength of both tendencies in each syndicat. This is impossible in the present state of statistical information furnished by the Confederation.

At the Congress of Amiens, for instance, the vote approving the report of the Confederal Committee (Section of Federation) stood 815 against 106 (18 blanks). This vote is important, because to approve or to reject the report meant to approve or to reject the ideas by which the General Confederation is guided.

Now, an analysis of the vote at Amiens shows that while some organizations voted solidly for the Confederal Committee, none voted solidly against it and that the votes of many organizations were divided. But even the number of those represented by the unanimous vote of their syndicats cannot in the most cases be ascertained. For instance, the agricultural syndicats cast their 28 votes for the Confederal Committee; the report of the Confederal Committee gives the Federation of Agricultural Laborers 4,405 members; but the same report says that the Federation consisted of 106 syndicats; of these 106 syndicats only 28 were represented at the Congress, and how many members they represented there is no possibility of ascertaining. The same is true of those Federations in which the syndicats did not cast the same vote.

This difficulty is felt by those who try to prove by figures that the Confederation is dominated by a minority. M. Ch. Franck, for instance, calculates that at the Congress of Marseilles 46 organizations with 716 mandates representing 143,191 members obtained the majority for the _statu quo_ against the proposition of proportional representation; while the minority consisted of 15 organizations with 379 mandates representing 145,440 members. In favor of the anti-militaristic resolution, he calculates further, 33 organizations with 670 mandates representing 114,491 members obtained the majority against 19 organizations with 406 mandates representing 126,540 members. But he is compelled to add immediately: "These figures have no absolute value, because we have taken each organization in its entirety, while in the same federation some syndicats have not voted with the majority"; he thinks that the proportion remains nevertheless the same because he did not take into consideration the divisions on each side.[217]

[217] _Op. cit._, pp. 345-6.

The last assumption, however, is arbitrary, because the syndicats dissenting on the one side may have been more numerous than those not voting with the majority on the other side; the whole calculation, besides, is fallacious, because it takes the figures of the federations in their entirety, while only a part of the syndicats composing them took part in the votes.

The attempt, therefore, to estimate the exact number of the revolutionary syndicalists in the Confederation must be given up for the present. The approximate estimate on either side can be given. According to M. Pawlowski,[218] 250,000 members of the Confederation (out of 400,000) repudiate the revolutionary doctrine; the revolutionary syndicalists, on the other hand, claim a majority of two-thirds for themselves. The impartial student must leave the question open.

[218] A. Pawlowski, _La Confédération Générale du Travail_ (Paris, 1910), p. 51.

It must be pointed out, however, that the system of representation which exists now in the Confederation affects both revolutionary and reformist syndicalists in a more or less equal degree. At the Congress of Amiens, for instance, the _Fédération du Livre_, with its 10,000 members, had 135 votes; the Railway Syndicat, with its 24,275 members, had only 36 votes; these two organizations were among the "reformists" who combated the Confederal Committee. On the other hand, the revolutionary Federation of Metallurgy had 84 votes for its 14,000 members, but the Federation of Marine, which is also revolutionary, disposed of six votes only for its 12,000 members. The revolutionary syndicalists, therefore, may be right in their assertion that proportional representation would not change the leadership of the Confederation. This belief is strengthened in them by the fact that in all so-called "reformist" organizations, as the _Fédération du Livre_, the Railway Syndicat, etc., there are strong and numerous revolutionary minorities.

It is often asserted that only the small syndicats, mostly belonging to the small trades, follow the revolutionary syndicalists. This assertion, however, is inexact. An examination of the syndicats which are considered revolutionary shows that some of them are very large and that others belong to the most centralized industries of France. For instance, the Federation of Building Trades is the most revolutionary organization in the Confederation; at the same time it is the most numerous, and its members pay the highest dues (after the _Fédération du Livre_) in France.[219] The revolutionary Federation of Metallurgy is also one of the large organizations in the Confederation and belongs to an industry which is one of the most centralized in France. The total horse-power of machines used in the metallurgic industries has increased from 175,070 in 1891 to 419,128 in 1906; the number of establishments has diminished from 4,642 in 1891 to 4,544 in 1906; that is, the total horse-power of machinery used in every industrial establishment has increased during this period from 38 to 92;[220] the number of workingmen per industrial establishment has also increased from 508 in 1896 to 697 in 1901 and to 711 in 1906. In fact the metallurgic industry occupies the second place after the mining industry which is the most centralized in France.[221]

[219] _Mouvement Socialiste_, May, 1911.

[220] E. Thery, _Les Progrès Économiques de la France_ (Paris, 1909), p. 181.

[221] _Journal des Économistes_, Jan., 1911, p. 133.

A diversity of conditions prevails in the industries to which the other revolutionary organizations belong. On the other hand, the so-called reformist organizations, the Federation of Mines, the _Fédération du Livre_, the Federation of Employees, differ in many respects and are determined in their policy by many considerations and conditions which are peculiar to each one of them.

The influence of the revolutionary syndicalists, therefore, can be explained not by special technical conditions, but by general conditions which are economic, political and psychological. To bring out the relation of these conditions to the syndicalist doctrine it is necessary to analyze the latter into its constituent elements and to discuss them one by one.

The fundamental condition which determines the policy of "direct action" is the poverty of French syndicalism. Except the _Fédération du Livre_, only a very few federations pay a more or less regular strike benefit; the rest have barely means enough to provide for their administrative and organizing expenses and can not collect any strike funds worth mentioning. In 1908, for instance, there were 1,073 strikes; of these 837 were conducted by organized workingmen. Only in 46 strikes was regular assistance assured for the strikers, and in 36 cases only was the assistance given in money.[222] The French workingmen, therefore, are forced to fall back on other means during strikes. Quick action, intimidation, _sabotage_, are then suggested to them by their very situation and by their desire to win.

[222] _Statistique des Grèves_, 1909, vi-vii.

The lack of financial strength explains also the enthusiasm and the sentiments of general solidarity which characterize French strikes. An atmosphere of enthusiasm must be created in order to keep up the fighting spirit in the strikers. To the particular struggle in any one trade a wider and more general significance must be attributed; it must be interpreted as a partial manifestation of a more general class-struggle. In this way the determination to struggle on is strengthened in those who strike and a moral justification is created for an appeal to the solidarity of all workingmen. These appeals are made constantly during strikes. Subscription lists are kept in the _Bourses du Travail_, in the Confederal Committee on Strikes, and are opened in the workingmen's and socialist newspapers whenever any big strike occurs.

New means to make up for the lack of financial resources are constantly devised. Of these means two which have come into existence within recent years are the _soupes communistes_ and the "exodus of children." The _soupes communistes_ are organized by the _Bourses du Travail_ and consist of meals distributed to those on strike. The _soupes communistes_ permit the feeding of a comparatively large number of strikers at small expense. Distribution occurs at certain points. The workingmen, if they wish, may take their meals home. The last Conferences of the section of Bourses have discussed the question how to organize these _soupes communistes_ more systematically and as cheaply as possible.

The "exodus of children" consists in sending away the children of the strikers to workingmen of other towns while the strike is going on. It has been used during several strikes and attracted widespread attention. The "exodus of children" relieves the strikers at home and creates sympathy for them over the country at large.

Financial weakness has also led French syndicats in recent years to reconsider the question of co-operation. Various federations have expressed themselves at their federal congresses in favor of "syndicalist co-operatives" in which all associates are at the same time members of the syndicat and organized on a communist basis. The main argument brought forward in favor of such co-operatives is the support they could furnish to workingmen on strike.

The poverty of the French syndicats is the result of the reluctance of the French workingmen to pay high dues. In the _Fédération du Livre_, which has the highest dues, every member pays a little over two francs a month. In other federations the dues are lower, coming down in some organizations to 10 centimes a month. In recent years there has been a general tendency in all federations to increase dues, but the efforts of the syndicalist functionaries in this direction have met with but slow and partial success.

The reluctance to high dues is in part the result of the comparatively low wages which prevail in France. Another factor is the psychology of the French workingman. "Our impulsive and rebellious (_frondeur_) temperament," wrote the Commission which organized the Congress of Montpellier, "does not lend itself to high dues, and if we are always ready to painful sacrifices of another nature, we have not yet been able to understand the enormous advantages which would follow from strong syndicalist treasuries maintained by higher assessments."[223] The French workingmen are conscious of their peculiar traits, and the literature of the syndicalist movement is full of both jeremiads and panegyrics with regard to these traits, according to the speaker and to the circumstances. The French workingmen recognize that they lack method, persistence and foresight, while they are sensitive, impulsive and combative.[224]

[223] _XIII Congrès National Corporatif_, 1902, pp. 30-31.

[224] _X Congrès National Corporatif_, p. 203; _XII Congrès National Corporatif_, pp. 15, 29, 44.

The result of this psychology is not only poor syndicats, but syndicats weak in other respects. Many syndicats are but loosely held together, are easily dissolved and are composed of a more or less variable and shifting membership. The instability is increased of course by the absence of benevolent features in the syndicats. The _Fédération du Livre_ alone pays sick and other benefits.

The weakness of the syndicats predisposes the French workingmen to more and more generalized forms of struggle. Syndicats on strike impelled by the desire to increase their forces try to involve as many trades and workingmen as possible and to enhance their own chances by enlarging the field of struggle. This is why such general movements, as the movement for an eight-hour day in 1906, described in the preceding chapter, are advocated by the syndicats. The latter feel that in order to gain any important demand they must be backed by as large a number of workingmen as possible. But in view of their weakness, the syndicats can start a large movement only by stirring up the country, by formulating some general demand which appeals to all workingmen. The same conditions explain in part the favor which the idea of the general strike has found in the syndicats.

Such forms of struggle must necessarily bring the syndicats into conflict with the State, particularly in France where the State is highly centralized and assumes so many functions. With a people so impulsive as the French, the intervention of the forces of the State in the economic struggles must inevitably lead to collisions of a more or less serious character. The result is a feeling of bitterness in the workingmen towards the army, the police and the government in general. The ground is thus prepared for anti-militaristic, anti-State and anti-patriotic ideas.

The organized workingmen are a minority of the working-class. Still they must act as if they were the majority or the entirety of the workingmen. The contradiction must be smoothed over by some explanation, and the theory of the "conscious minority" arises to meet the situation. The weaker the syndicats and the more often they are exposed to the danger of dissolution the greater the necessity of the theory. A disorganized syndicat generally leaves behind a handful of militant workingmen determined to keep up the organization. The theory of the "conscious minority" is both a stimulus to and a justification for the activities of these persistent "militants."

To the conditions described the French love of theory, of high-sounding phrases, and of idealistic formulas must be added. For a Frenchman it is not sufficient to act under necessity: the act must be generalized into a principle, the principles systematized, and the system of theory compressed into concise and catching formulas. And once abstracted, systematized and formulated, the ideas become a distinct force exerting an influence in the same direction as the conditions to which they correspond.

When all this is taken into account, it is easier to understand the influence of the revolutionary syndicalists. It is insufficient to explain their leadership by clever machinations of the Confederal Committee, as M. Mermeix and many others do. It is quite true that the Confederal Committee tries to maintain its power by all means possible. It sends out delegates to Federal Congresses, on conference tours over the country, to assist workingmen on strikes, etc. In most cases it sends only men who represent the revolutionary ideas of the Committee and who, therefore, strengthen the influence of the latter by word and deed. It is also true that in most _Bourses du Travail_ the secretaries are revolutionary and that they help to consolidate the influence of the Confederal Committee. But these secretaries have not usurped their power. They are elected because they have come to the front as speakers, writers, organizers, strike-leaders, etc. And they could come to the front only because conditions were such as to make their ideas and services helpful.

Whatever one's attitude to the Confederation, one must acknowledge the results it has achieved. The strike statistics of France, given in the following table, show the following facts:

_Per cent of _Per cent of _Period_ strikes which strikers who lost failed_ their strikes_

1890-1899 44.61 38.63 1891-1900 43.86 34.17 1892-1901 42.69 35.42 1893-1902 42.48 31.75 1894-1903 42.13 26.98 1895-1904 40.24 25.09 1896-1905 39.07 23.76 1897-1906 38.05 25.91 1898-1907 38.14 25.37 1899-1908 35.79 25.83

Of course, these results can not be attributed entirely to the action of the Confederation. On the other hand, the influence of the Confederation on the improvement of general conditions of employment, on social legislation, etc., is undeniable. "In all branches of human activity," says M. Pawlowski, "wages have risen with a disconcerting and disquieting rapidity."[225] The agitation for the eight-hour day and the rising of 1906 hastened the vote on the weekly rest, induced the government to consider the application of the ten-hour day, popularized the practice of the "English week," etc.[226]

[225] A. Pawlowski, _La Confédération Générale du Travail_, p. 130.

[226] _Ibid._, p. 123.

Whether the same or better results could have been obtained by "reformist" methods, is not a question to be considered, because in most cases the syndicats have no choice. A strike once begun, the character of the struggle is determined by conditions which exist and not by any that would be desirable. This is proved by the fact that very often the so-called "reformist" syndicats carry on their struggles in the same way and by the same methods as do the revolutionary ones.

The comparative influence of the Confederation explains the fact why the "reformists" do not leave the organization, though they are bitter in their opposition to the revolutionists. The "reformists" feel that they would thereby lose a support which is of value to them. Besides, in many cases such an act would lead to divisions within the reformist federations, all of which, as already indicated, contain considerable revolutionary minorities.

The revolutionary syndicalists, however, are in their turn compelled to make concessions to those exigences of the labor movement which have nothing to do with revolutionary ends. Of course, the revolutionary syndicalists are workingmen and they are interested in the immediate improvement of economic conditions. But there can be little doubt that the leaders and the more conscious and pronounced revolutionary syndicalists are mainly interested in their revolutionary ideal, in the abolition of capitalism and of the wage-system. The struggles for higher wages, shorter hours, etc., are a necessity which they must make a virtue of while awaiting the hoped-for final struggle. And when they theorize about the continuity of the struggles of to-day with the great struggles of to-morrow, when they interpret their every-day activities as part of a continuous social warfare, they are merely creating a theory which in its turn justifies their practice and preserves their revolutionary fire from extinction.

But theorizing does not essentially change the character of all syndicalist activities. The Confederal Committee must attend to the administrative and other questions, such as the questions of _viaticum_, of the label, etc. The necessities of the syndical movement often lead the members of the Confederal Committee into the antechambers of Parliament or into the private rooms of the Ministers whose assistance is solicited. The most revolutionary federations can not help entering into negotiations with employers for the settlement of strikes. In practice, therefore, the distinction between "revolutionary" and "reformist" syndicalists is often obscured, because both act as they must and not as they would.[227]

[227] This is admitted by both sides. See reports of last Congress held at Toulouse (1910), p. 111.

This must not be interpreted to mean that there is any conscious hypocrisy or undue personal interest on the part of the leaders of the revolutionary syndicalists. On the contrary, the most bitter opponents of the Confederation must admit that the reverse is true. "However one may judge their propaganda," says M. Mermeix, "he is obliged to acknowledge the disinterestedness of the libertarians who lead the syndicalist movement. They do not work for money...."[228] There is also no field in the Confederation for political ambition. Still the movement has its demands which require suppleness and pliability on the part of the leaders and which make impossible the rigid application of principles.

[228] Terrail-Mermeix, _La Syndicalisme contre le Socialisme_ (Paris, 1907), p. 231.

On the other hand, the revolutionary syndicalists have in the syndicats a tremendous force for their revolutionary ends. The close relation of syndical life to all political and economic problems gives the Confederal Committee the opportunity to participate in all questions of interest. The high cost of living, the danger of a war, the legislative policy of the government, troubles among the wine-growers, any public question, indeed, is the occasion for the intervention of the Confederal Committee. The latter appears, then, also as a revolutionary organization which is always ready to criticise, to discredit and to attack the government, and which is openly pursuing the overthrow of existing institutions in France. And when one keeps in mind the indefatigable anti-militaristic and anti-patriotic propaganda carried on by the _Bourses du Travail_ all over the country, the revolutionary character of the Confederation may be fully appreciated.

What is the future that may be predicted for the General Confederation of Labor? Will the synthesis of revolutionism and of unionism that has been achieved in it continue more or less stable until the "final" triumph of the revolutionary syndicalists? Or will the latter be overpowered by the "reformist" elements who will impress their ideas on the Confederation and who will change the character of French syndicalism?

These questions cannot at present be answered. The movement is so young that no clear tendencies either way can be discerned. The two possibilities, however, may be considered in connection with the conditions that would be required to transform them into realities.

Those who predict a change in the character of French syndicalism generally have the history of English Trades Unionism in mind. They compare revolutionary syndicalism to the revolutionary period of English Trades Unionism and think of the change that came about in the latter in the third quarter of the past century. But the comparison is of little value, because the conditions of France are different from those of England, and because the international economic situation to-day is very different from what it was fifty years ago.

It is probable that if the French syndicats should develop into large and strong unions, highly centralized and provided with large treasuries, other ideas and methods would prevail in the syndicalist movement. But this change is dependent on a change in the economic life of France. France must cease to be "the banker of Europe," must cease to let other countries use its piled-up millions[229] for the development of their natural resources and industry, and must devote itself to the intensification of its own industrial activities. Such a change could bring about greater productivity, higher wages, and a higher concentration of the workingmen of the country. This change in conditions of life might result in a modification of the psychology of the French workingmen, though how rapid and how thorough-going such a process could be is a matter of conjecture. But whether France will or can follow the example of England or of Germany, in view of its natural resources and of the situation of the international market, it does not seem possible to say.[230] Besides, to change completely the character of French syndicalism, it would be necessary to wipe out the political history of France and its revolutionary traditions.

[229] It is estimated that France has about 40,000,000,000 francs invested in foreign countries.

[230] See Preface to Second Edition.

On the other hand, the triumph of the revolutionary syndicalists presupposes a total readjustment of groups and of interests. The Confederation counts now about 600,000 members. Official statistics count over 1,000,000 organized workingmen in France. But it must be remembered that the federations underestimate their numbers for the Confederation in order to pay less, while they exaggerate their numbers for the _Annuaire Statistique_ in order to appear more formidable. The Confederation, besides, for various reasons rejects a number of organizations which desire to join it. It may be safe to say, therefore, that the Confederation brings under its influence the greater part of the organized workingmen of France.

But the total number of workingmen in France, according to the Census of 1906, is about 10,000,000, of which about 5,000,000 are employed in industry and in transportation. The numbers of independent producers in industry, commerce, and agriculture is about 9,000,000, of which about 2,000,000 are _petits patrons_. Over a million and a half persons are engaged in the liberal professions and in the public services.[231]

[231] The active population in 1906 was over 20,000,000, out of a total population of over 39,000,000. _Journal des Économistes_, Jan., 1911.

Among the latter the revolutionary syndicalists have met with success in recent years. The ideas of revolutionary syndicalism have gained adherents among the employees of the Post Office, Telegraph and Telephone, and among the teachers of the public schools. The recent Congresses of the teachers have declared themselves ready to collaborate with the workingmen for the realization of their ideal society. The following motion adopted by the recent Congress of Nantes, at which 500 delegates were present, is very characteristic: "The professional associations of teachers (men and women), employees of the State, of the Departments and of the Communes," reads the motion, "assembled in the _Bourses du Travail_, declare their sympathy for the working-class, declare that the best form of professional action is the syndical form; express their will to work together with the workingmen's organizations for the realization of the Social Republic."[232]

[232] _L'Humanité_, August 8, 1911.

Also among the industrial and commercial middle classes there are some who look with favor on syndicalism. The French middle classes have for the last quarter of a century tried to organize themselves for resistance against the "financial feudalism" from which they suffer. Several organizations have been formed among the small merchants and masters, and in 1908 the "Association for the Defense of the Middle Classes" was constituted. The president of this Association, M. Colrat, wrote: "The ideas of the bourgeois syndicalism on the future are the same as those of the workingmen's syndicalism.... Far from contradicting one another, the syndicalism of the middle classes and the syndicalism of the working-classes reinforce each other in many respects, and notwithstanding many vexations, they lead to a state of relative equilibrium by a certain equality of opposing forces."[233] In the struggle against the big capitalists the leaders of the middle classes appear to be ready to form an alliance with the working-class. There can be little doubt, however, that the middle classes in general are opposed to the revolutionary ideals of the syndicalists. To succeed, the revolutionary syndicalists must bring about a change in the attitude of these classes, for the history of France has shown that the fear of "Communism" may throw the middle classes into the arms of a Caesar.

[233] M. Colrat, _Vers l'équilibre social_, quoted by Mr. J. L. Puecht, "Le Mouvement des Classes Moyennes," in _La Grande Revue_, Dec., 1910.

Whatever possibility may become a reality, France seems destined to go through a series of more or less serious struggles. Hampered by the elements which hark back to the past and which have not yet lost all importance, disorganized by the revolutionists who look forward to the future for the realization of their ideal, the Republic of France is still lacking the stability which could save her from upheavals and from historical surprises. The highly centralized form of government and the dominating position which Paris still holds in the life of France make such surprises easier and more tempting than would otherwise be the case. The process of social readjustment which is going on all over the world at present, therefore, must lead in France to a more or less catastrophic collision of the discordant elements which her political and economic history have brought into existence.

The struggle has already begun. The government of the Republic is determined to put an end to the revolutionary activities of the syndicalists. It is urged on by all those who believe that only the weakness of the Government has been the cause of the strength of the Syndicalists. On the other hand, the Syndicalists are determined to fight their battle to the end. What the outcome may be is hidden in the mystery of the future. _Qui vivra--verra_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

_Action Directe_. Revue Révolutionnaire Syndicaliste. Paris, July, 1903-August, 1904.

_Annuaire Statistique_. Ministère du Travail et de la Prévoyance Sociale. Paris.

Antonelli, E. _La démocratie sociale devant les idées présentes_. Paris, 1911.

_Associations professionnelles ouvrières_; office du Travail. Paris, 1899-1904.

Barberet, J. _Monographies professionnelles_. 4 vols. Paris, 1886.

_Bataille Syndicaliste_. Daily.

Berth, Edouard. _Les nouveaux aspects du socialisme_. Paris, 1908.

Blum, Leon. _Les congrès ouvriers et socialistes français_. Paris, 1901.

Bouglé, E. _Syndicalisme et démocratie_. Paris, 1908.

Bourdeau, J. _Entre deux servitudes_. Paris, 1910.

Bourgin, H. _Le socialisme et la concentration industrielle_. Paris, 1911.

Boyle, James. _Minimum Wage and Syndicalism_. Cincinnati, 1913.

Bracq, J. Ch. _France under the Republic_. New York, 1910.

Brants, Victor. _La petite industrie contemporaine_. Paris, 1902.

Breton, J. L. _L'Unité Socialiste_. Vol. 7 of Histoire des partis socialistes, ed. by Zévaès. Paris, 1912.

Brooks, John Graham. _American Syndicalism_. New York, 1913.

Buisson, Etienne. _La grève générale_. Paris, 1905.

Chaboseau, A. _De Babeuf à la Commune_. Volume 1 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès.

Challaye, Félicien. _Syndicalisme révolutionnaire et syndicalisme réformiste_. Paris, 1909.

Chambre des Députés, Débats Parlementaires.

Charnay, Maurice. _Les Allemanistes_. Vol. 5 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès.

Clay, Sir Arthur. _Syndicalism and Labor_. London, 1912.

Cole, G. D. H. _The World of Labor_. London, 1913.

Commission Ouvrière de 1867, recueil des procés-verbaux. 2 vols. Paris, 1868-69.

Congrès national des syndicats ouvriers tenu à Lyon en Octobre, 1886, compte rendu Lyon, 1887.

Congrès général des organisations socialistes, compte rendu. Paris, 1899.

Congrès (deuxième) général des organisations socialistes françaises tenu à Paris de 28 au 30 Septembre, 1900, compte rendu. Paris, 1901.

Congrès (troisième) général des organisations socialistes françaises tenu à Lyon du 26 au 28 mar., 1901, compte rendu. Paris, 1901.

Congrès national des syndicats tenu à Marseilles du 19 au 22 Octobre, 1892, compte rendu. Paris, 1909.

Congrès national du Parti Ouvrier tenu à Paris du 11 au 14 Juillet, 1897, compte rendu.

Congrès national corporatif (IV^e de la Confédération Générale du Travail), tenu à Rennes, compte rendu. Rennes, 1898.

Congrès national corporatif (V^e de la Confédération), tenu à Paris, compte rendu. Paris, 1900.

Congrès national corporatif (VI^e de la Confédération), tenu à Lyon, compte rendu. Lyon, 1901.

Congrès national corporatif (VII^e de la Confédération), tenu à Montpellier, compte rendu. Montpellier, 1902.

Congrès national corporatif (VIII^e de la Confédération), tenu à Bourges, compte rendu. Bourges, 1904.

Congrès national corporatif (IX^e de la Confédération), tenu à Amiens, compte rendu. Amiens, 1906.

Congrès national corporatif (X^e de la Confédération), tenu à Marseille, compte rendu. Marseille, 1909.

Congrès national corporatif (XI^e de la Confédération), tenu à Toulouse, compte rendu. Paris, 1911.

Congrès national corporatif (XII^e de la Confédération), tenu à Havre, compte rendu. Paris, 1913.

Congrès socialiste international tenu à Paris du 23 au 27 septembre, 1900. Paris, 1901.

Connay, J. _Le Compagnonnage, son histoire, ses mystères_. Paris, 1909.

Cornélissen, Ch. "Ueber den internationalen Syndikalismus." _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_. Tübingen, 1910.

Crouzel, A. _Étude historique, économique et juridique sur les coalitions et les grèves_. Paris, 1887.

Da Costa, Charles. _Les Blanquistes_. Vol. 6 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès. Paris, 1912.

Delesalle, J. _Les Bourses du Travail et la C. G. T._ Paris.

Delesalle, P. _L'action syndicaliste et les anarchistes_. Paris, 1900.

Déville, G. _Principes socialistes_. Paris, 1896.

Dijol, M. _Situation économique de la France, sous le régime protectioniste de 1892_. Paris, 1911.

Diligent, Victor. _Les orientations syndicales_. Paris, 1910.

Dru, Gaston. _La Révolution qui vient_. Paris.

Dubois, F. _The Anarchist Peril_. Tr. by Ralph Derechef. London.

Dubreilh, L. _La Commune_. Paris, 1908.

Du-Cellier, M. _Histoire des classes laborieuses en France_. Paris, 1860.

Dufour. _Le Syndicalisme et la Prochaine Révolution_. Paris, 1913.

_Économiste Français_. Monthly.

_Égalité_. Periodical published from 1877 to 1881. Paris.

Ely, R. T. _French and German Socialism_. New York, 1898.

Estey, James Arthur. _Revolutionary Syndicalism_. London, 1913.

Faguet, E. _Le socialisme en 1907_. Paris, 1907.

Festy, Octave. _Le mouvement ouvrier au debut de la Monarchie de Juillet_. Paris.

_Forces productives de la France_. Conferences organisées a la Société des anciens élèves de l'École libre des Sciences politiques. Paris, 1909.

Franck, Charles. _Les Bourses du Travail et la Confédération Générale du Travail_. Paris, 1910.

Fribourg, E. E. _L'Association internationale des travailleurs_. Paris, 1871.

Garin, J. _L'anarchie et les anarchistes_. Paris. 1885.

Georgi, E. _Theorie und Praxis des Generalstreiks in der modernen Arbeiterbewegung_. Jena, 1908.

_Grande Revue_. Monthly.

Griffuelhes, V. _Voyage révolutionnaire; impressions d'un propagandiste_. Paris, 1910.

Griffuelhes, V. _L'action syndicaliste_. Paris, 1908.

Griffuelhes, V. et Niel, L. _Les objectifs de nos luttes de classes_. Paris, 1909.

_Guerre Sociale, La_, revolutionary weekly edited by Gustave Hervé.

Guesde, J. _Le Socialisme au jour le jour_. Paris, 1899.

Guesde, J. et Lafargue, P. _Le programme du parti ouvrier_. Paris, 1897. 4th edition.

Guillaume, James. _L'Internationale, documents et souvenirs_. 4 vols. Paris, 1905-10.

Hamon. A. _Le Socialisme et le congrès de Londres_. Paris, 1897.

Hanoteaux, G. _Modern France_. 4 vols. New York, 1903-09.

Harley, J. H. _Syndicalism_. London, 1912.

Hervé, Gustave. _My Country, Right or Wrong_. English translation by Guy Bowman. London, 1911.

Hubert-Valleroux, P. _La Co-opération en France_. Paris, 1904.

Humbert, Sylvain. _Le Mouvement Syndical_. Vol. 9 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès. Paris, 1912.

Humbert, Sylvain. _Les Possibilistes_. Vol. 4 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès. Paris, 1911.

_L'Humanité_. Socialist daily published since 1905. Contains many articles by revolutionary and reformist syndicalists.

Isambert, G. _Les idées socialistes en France de 1815 à 1848_. Paris, 1905.

Jouhaux, L. _Le Syndicalisme français_. Bruxelles, 1911.

_Journal des Débats_. Weekly.

_Journal des Économistes_. Monthly.

Kirkup, Th. _A History of Socialism_. Third edition. New York, 1906.

Kritsky. _L'Évolution du syndicalisme en France_. Paris, 1908.

Labusquière. _La Troisième République_. Paris, 1909.

Lagardelle, H. _L'Évolution des syndicats ouvriers en France_. Paris, 1901.

Lagardelle, H. _La grève générale et le socialisme_. Paris, 1905.

Lagardelle, H. _Le socialisme ouvrier_. Paris, 1911.

Lagardelle, H. "Die Syndikalistische Bewegung in Frankreich." _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_. Tübingen, 1908.

Laurin, M. T. _Les Instituteurs et le syndicalisme_. Paris, 1908.

Lavy, A. _L'Oeuvre de Millerand_. Paris, 1902.

Leroy, Maxime. _Syndicats et Services Publics_. Paris, 1909.

Levasseur, E. _Histoire des classes ouvrières et d'industrie en France avant 1789_. 2 vols. Second edition. Paris, 1900.

Levasseur, E. _Histoire des classes ouvrières et d'industrie en France de 1789 à 1870_. 2 vols. Second edition. Paris, 1903.

Levine, Louis. "The Development of Syndicalism in America." _Political Science Quarterly_, September, 1913.

Levine, Louis. "Direct Action." _Forum_. New York, May, 1912.

Levine, Louis. "Syndicalism." _North American Review_. July, 1912.

Levine, Louis. "The Standpoint of Syndicalism." _Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science_. 1912.

Lewis, Arthur D. _Syndicalism and the General Strike_. London, 1912.

_Libertaire, Le_. Anarchist weekly.

Lorulot, André. _Le Syndicalisme et la transformation sociale_. Arcueil, 1909.

Louis, Paul. _Histoire du socialisme français_. Paris, 1901.

Louis, P. _Histoire du mouvement syndical en France_. Paris, 1907.

Louis, P. _Le syndicalisme contre l'état_. Paris, 1910.

Louis, P. "Die Einheitsbestrebungen im französischen Sozialismus." _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_. Tübingen, 1909.

Macdonald, J. Ramsay. _Syndicalism_. 1912.

Méline, J. _The Return to the Land_. Tr. from the French. New York, 1907.

Milhaud, A. _La lutte des classes à travers l'histoire et la politique_. Paris.

Millerand, A. _Le socialisme réformiste français_. Paris, 1903.

Molinari, G. _Les Bourses du Travail_. Paris, 1893.

Molinari, G. _Le mouvement socialiste et les réunions publiques_. Paris, 1872.

_Mouvement Socialiste_. Published since 1899. Particularly valuable for students of revolutionary syndicalism.

Orry, Albert. _Les Socialistes Indépendant_. Vol. 8 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès. Paris, 1911.

Parti Socialiste. Proceedings of annual conventions (1904-1913).

Pataud, E. et Pouget, E. _Comment nous ferons la révolution_. Paris, 1909. Translated into English by Charlotte and Frederick Charles, under title: _Syndicalism and the Co-operative Commonwealth_. London, 1913.

Pawlowski, A. _La confédération générale du travail_. Paris, 1910.

Pelloutier, F. _Le congrès général du parti socialiste français_. Paris, 1900.

Pelloutier, F. _Histoire des bourses du travail_. Paris, 1902.

Pelloutier, Maurice. _Fernand Pelloutier, sa vie, son oeuvre_. Paris, 1911.

Pelloutier, F. et M. _La vie ouvrière_. Paris, 1900.

Perdiguier, Agricol. _Le livre du compagnonnage_. Second edition. Paris, 1841.

Pierrot. _Syndicalism et révolution_. Second edition. Paris, 1908.

Pouget, E. _Le sabotage_. Paris, 1910. English translation by Arturo M. Giovannitti.

Pouget, E. _Les bases du syndicalisme_. Paris.

Pouget, S. _Le syndicat_. Paris.

Pouget, E. _Le parti du travail_. Paris.

Pouget, E. _La confédération générale du travail_. Paris, 1908.

Prolo, Jacques. _Les Anarchistes_. Vol. 10 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès. Paris, 1912.

Proudhon, J. P. _De la capacité politique des classes ouvrières_. Paris, 1865.

Renard, Georges. _La république de 1848_. Paris, 1907.

Renard, G. _Syndicats, trades unions, et corporations_. Paris, 1909.

Rénault, Ch. _Histoire des grèves_. Paris, 1887.

_Revue Socialiste_. Monthly.

_Revue Syndicaliste_. Monthly published from May, 1905, to January, 1910.

Séances du Congrès Ouvrier de France. Session de 1876. Paris, 1877.

Seilhac, Leon de. _Syndicats ouvriers, fédérations, bourses du travail_. Paris, 1902.

Seilhac, Leon de. _Les congrès ouvriers en France_. Paris, 1899.

Seilhac, Leon de. _Le monde socialiste_. Paris, 1896.

Severac, G. _Guide pratique des syndicats professionnels_. Paris, 1908.

Smith, L. _Les coalitions et les grèves_. Paris, 1885.

_Socialiste, Le_. Organe central du Parti Socialiste Français.

Sombart, Werner. _Socialism and the Social Movement_. English tr. by M. Epstein. New York, 1909.

Sorel, G. _L'avenir socialiste des syndicats_. Revised edition. Paris, 1901.

Sorel, G. _La décomposition du marxisme_. Paris, 1908.

Sorel, G. _Illusions du progrès_. Paris, 1911. Second edition.

Sorel, G. _Réflexions sur la violence_. Paris, 1910. Second edition.

Sorel, G. _Introduction à l'économie moderne_. Second edition. Paris.

Sorel, G. _La révolution dreyfusienne_. Second edition. Paris, 1911.

Sorel, G. "La polémique pour l'interprétation du marxisme." _Revue internationale de sociologie_. Paris, 1900.

Sorel, G. "L'éthique du socialisme." _Morale Sociale_. Paris, 1900.

Spargo, John. _Syndicalism, Industrial Unionism, and Socialism_. New York, 1913.

Stoddart, J. T. _The New Socialism_. London, 1910.

St. Leon, E. Martin. _Le compagnnonnage_. Paris, 1901.

_Syndicalisme et socialisme_. Paris, 1908.

Syndicat et syndicalisme; opinions par Griffuelhes, Yvetot, Pouget, etc. Paris.

Terrail-Mermeix. _La France socialiste_. Paris, 1886.

Terrail-Mermeix. _Le syndicalisme contre le socialisme_. Paris, 1907.

_Terrassier, Le_. Published bi-weekly by some syndicats of the building-trades.

_Temps Nouveaux_. Anarchist weekly.

Thomas, Albert. _Le second empire_. Paris, 1907.

Tridon, André. _The New Unionism_. New York, 1913.

_Vie Ouvrière_. Revue Syndicaliste Bi-mensuelle. Paris.

Villetard, Edmond. _History of the International_. Tr. from the French, 1874.

_Voix du Peuple_. Organe de la Confédération Générale du Travail.

Warbasse, James Peter. _The Ethics of Sabotage_. Pamphlet. New York, 1913.

Ware, Fabian. _The Worker and his Country_. London, 1912.

Warin, Robert. _Les Syndicats Jaunes_. Paris, 1908.

Webb, Sydney and Beatrice. _An Examination of Syndicalism_. London, 1912.

Webb, B. and S. _History of Trade Unionism_.

Weill, George. _Histoire du mouvement social en France_. First edition, 1904. Second edition, 1910.

Weill, G. "Die Formen der Arbeiterbewegung in Frankreich." _Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_. Tübingen, 1909.

Yvetot, George. _A. B. C. syndicaliste_. Paris.

Yvetot, G. _Manuel du soldat_. Paris.

Zévaès, Alexandre. _Histoire des partis socialistes en France_. 11 volumes. Paris, 1911.

Zévaès, Alexandre. _Le Socialisme en France depuis 1871_. Paris, 1908.

Zévaès, Alexandre. _Le Syndicalisme Contemporain_. Paris, 1911.

Zévaès, Alexandre. _Le Socialisme en 1912_. Vol. 11 of Histoire des partis socialistes. Paris, 1912.

Zévaès, Alexandre. _De la semaine sanglante au Congrès de Marseille (1871-1879)_. Vol. 2 of Histoire des partis socialistes, edited by Zévaès. Paris, 1911.

Zévaès, Alexandre. _Les Guesdistes_. Vol. 3 of Histoire des partis socialistes. Paris, 1911.

[Transcriber's note:

List of corrected printers' errors:

pages 14, 15, 48, 132, 145, 183 and 189 "working class" changed to "working-class"

Page 5 "devolpment" changed to "development" ("it is also a development of the French Labor Movement.")

page 13 "coöperative" changed to "co-operative" ("Revolution of 1848 and the co-operative movement") and ("Failure of co-operative central bank in 1868")

page 13 "coöperation" changed to "co-operation" ("--Syndicats and co-operation--")

page 16 -- added ("French workingmen--Causes of the")

page 30 "Perdigiuer" changed to "Perdiguier" ("Agricol Perdiguier, _Le Livre du Compagnonnage_, 1841.")

page 32 "resistance" change to "résistance" ("was the _société de résistance_")

Page 32 "." replaced with "," ("_Les Associations Professionelles_, vol. i. pp. 201-203.")

page 35 "presecuted" changed to "persecuted" ("organizations were persecuted;")

page 40 "Cöopération" changed to "Co-opération" ("_La Co-opération_ (Paris, 1904)")

page 51 "bourgois" changed to "bourgeois" ("separation which existed between bourgeois and workingmen")

page 52 footnote reference altered, referred to wrong footnote

page 56 "hemmoroids" changed to "hemorrhoids" ("which it leaves to the hemorrhoids of bourgeois of every stamp")

page 62 "Counseil" changed to "Conseil" ("(the _Conseil fédéral national_)")

page 65 "Arbeiter-bewegung" changed to "Arbeiterbewegung" ("_Theorie und Praxis des Generalstreiks in der modernen Arbeiterbewegung_")

page 68 missing "not" added ("they argued that the general strike could not be successful")

page 71 "employes" changed to "employees" ("of workingmen and of employees of both sexes")

page 71 missing " added ("(_Parti syndical politicien_)."")

page 75 missing "(" added ("_Bourses du Travail_ (1896)")

page 80 "Nouveoux" changed to "Nouveaux" ("_Temps Nouveaux_, 23 Mars, 1901.")

page 93 "Alemanists" changed to "Allemanists" ("defended by Allemanists and anarchists,")

page 93 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("M. Guérard who defended the idea before the Congress. Said M. Guérard:")

page 94 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("And M. Guérard, applauded by the audience,")

page 96 "recomended" changed to "recommended" ("To this end the report recommended")

page 97 "sub-committes" changed to "sub-committees" ("Only twenty Bourses formed sub-committees.")

page 98 "Congès" changed to "Congrès" ("_X Congrès National Corporatif_")

page 101 removed " ("the completest possible emancipation.")

page 103 "posesses" changed to "possess" ("the workingmen who possess nothing.")

page 104 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("The secretary of the Confederation, M. Guérard,")

page 104 , removed "," from "complained that the _Voix du Peuple_"

page 109 "bourgeoise" changed to "bourgeoisie" ("alliance of the bourgeoisie and of the working-class")

page 111 footnote reference altered, referred to wrong footnote

page 113 removed " ("stop the offensive movement of the workingmen.")

page 114 missing " added (""independently of all parliamentarism"")

page 116 "Parlémentaires" changed to "Parlementaires" ("_Chambre des Deputés, Débats Parlementaires_")

page 117 "Francais" changed to "Français" ("_Parti Socialiste Français_")

page 117 "Jaures" changed to "Jaurès" ("and J. Jaurès outlined a plan according")

page 126 "," replaced with "." ("the strike, the boycott, the label, and _sabotage_.")

page 127 missing "." added ("It is a revolutionary fact of great value.")

page 129 "merchchandise" change to "merchandise" ("and of perishable merchandise.")

page 130 missing " added to end of phrase ("source of intrigues and of "wire-pulling."")

page 135 "counterbalance" changed to "counter-balance" ("will counter-balance the centralizing tendencies")

page 137 "particulary" changed to "particularly" ("Moreover, the syndicats, particularly")

page 137 "train" changed to "trains" ("The very struggle which the syndicats carry on trains the workingmen")

page 138 "workinmen" changed to "workingmen" ("The mass of workingmen")

page 138 "massess" changed to "masses" ("keep the masses as quiet,")

page 154 "Jaures" changed to "Jaurès" ("by M. Jaurès "the metaphysician of revolutionary syndicalism,"")

page 155 "Movement" changed to "Mouvement" ("_Mouvement Socialiste_")

page 155 "Sozialwissenchaft" changed to "Sozialwissenschaft" ("_Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik_")

page 156 "Les" changed "Le" ("_Le Mouvement Socialiste_ (May, 1908), p. 390.")

page 157 "Jaures" changed to "Jaurès" ("just as Kropotkin, Jaurès, Proudhon")

page 158 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard" ("General Confederation of Labor, M. Guérard, wrote,")

page 159 "approfundir" changed to "approfondir" ("his life in the deepening (_approfondir_)")

page 164 "," replaced with "." ("relations between the adhering federations.")

page 164 "it" replaced with "its" ("This section appoints its own secretary,")

page 169 "idemnity" changed to "indemnity" ("employment bureaus with indemnity in 1901-2.")

page 170 "Economistes" changed to "Économistes" ("_Journal des Économistes_")

page 172 "Guerard" changed to "Guérard"("and by M. Guérard, the delegate of the railway workers.")

page 177 "Debats" changed to "Débats" ("_Journal des Débats_ (27 April, 1906), p. 769.")

page 181 "economie" changed to "economic" ("it was an instrument in economic struggles")

page 182 "coöperation" changed to "co-operation" ("a co-operation of various political elements.")

page 187 "," replaced with "." ("of the government. The reports of the")

page 190 "Offie" changed to "Office" ("employees grievances of the Post Office employees")

page 190 missing " added (""revolutionaries"")

page 191 "coöperation" changed to "co-operation" ("soliciting the co-operation of the government.")

page 196 extra "the" removed ("the passage of the three years'")

page 200 missing " added ("" ... but particularly divergence of aims."")

page 200 "sydicalists" changed to "syndicalists" ("The third group of revolutionary syndicalists")

page 203 "Vivani" changed to "Viviani" ("(_e. g._, Millerand, Viviani, Briand)")

page 209 "Economistes" changed to "Économistes" ("_Journal des Économistes_")

page 211 extra "and" removed ("the strikers at home and creates")

page 211 "yeas" changed to "years" ("in recent years")

page 211 "Fèdèration" changed to "Fédération" ("_Fédération du Livre_")

page 214 "sytematized" changed to "systematized" ("the principles systematized,")

page 224 "Etude" changed to "Étude" ("_Étude historique, économique et juridique sur les coalitions et les grèves_")

page 225 "Ecole" changed to "École" ("Conferences organisées a la Société des anciens élèves de l'École libre des Sciences politiques.")

page 226 "Evolution" changed to "Évolution" ("Kritsky. _L'Évolution du syndicalisme en France_.")

page 226 "," replaced with "." ("Louis, Paul.")]