CHAPTER XXVII.

Complete the exploration of the Crow-Wing River of Minnesota--Indian council--Reach St. Anthony's Falls--Council with the Sioux--Ascent and exploration of the River St. Croix and Misakoda, or Broulé, of Lake Superior--Return of the party to St. Mary's Falls, Michigan.

At Illigan Lake, large oaks and elms appear in the forest; its banks are handsomely elevated, and the whole country puts on the appearance of being well adapted to cultivation. We landed to obtain a shot at some deer, which stood temptingly in sight, and were impressed with the sylvan aspect of the country. While in the act of passing out of the lake in our canoes, a small fire was observed on shore, with the usual signs of its having been abandoned in haste by Indians, who had been lying in ambush. Every appearance seemed to justify such a conclusion, and it was evident a party of Sioux had been concealed waiting the descent of Chippewas, but, on observing our flag, and the public character of the party, they hastily withdrew. Our men, knowing the perfidious and cruel character of this tribe, were evidently a good deal alarmed at these signs. We had been one hour in our canoes, descending the river with the double force of current and paddles, when the river was found again expanded, and for the eleventh and last time, in a lake, which the natives call _Kaitchebo Sagatowa_, meaning the lake through one end of which the river passes. As this is not a term, however graphic, which will pass into popular use, I named it Lake Douglas, in allusion to a former companion in explorations in the northwest.[184] Ten miles below this lake, the river receives its first considerable tributary in Shell River, the Aisisepi of the Chippewas, which flows in from the right, from the slope of the Hauteurs des Terres, near the Ottertail Lake. Below this tributary, the Crow-Wing is nearly doubled in width, and there is no further fear of shallow water. We held on our way for a distance of fourteen miles below the point of junction, and encamped on the right hand bank at eight o'clock P.M. It had rained copiously during the afternoon, and everything in the shape of kindling stuff had become so completely saturated with moisture, that it was quite an enterprise in the men to light a camp-fire. Lieut. Allen did not reach our encampment this night, having been misled in Allen's Lake, and, being driven ashore by the tempest, he encamped in that quarter. Presuming him to be in advance, I had pushed on, to a late hour, and encamped under this impression.

[184] Professor D. B. Douglas.

The next morning (20th), we set off from our camp betimes, and, having now a full flowing river, made good speed. The river passes for a dozen or more miles through a willowy low tract, on issuing from which there begins a series of strong rapids. Twenty-four of these rapids were counted, which were called the Metunna Rapids. Lieut. Allen estimates that they occupy thirty miles of the channel of the river. Below these rapids, the river extends to a mean width of three hundred feet. At this locality we were overtaken by Mr. Allen, at about two o'clock in the afternoon, and were thus first apprised of the fact that he had been all the while in our rear instead of in front.

Twenty miles below the Metunna Rapids, Leaf River flows in from the right, by a mouth of forty yards wide. This stream originates in Leaf Lake, and is navigable sixty miles in the largest craft used by the traders.[185] The volume of the Crow-Wing River is constantly increased in width and velocity by these accessions, which enabled us fearlessly to make a large day's journey. We encamped together after sunset, on an elevated pine bank, having descended ninety miles.

[185] The angle of country above Leaf River, on the Crow-Wing, has been proposed as a refuge for the Menomonee tribe, of Wisconsin, for whom temporary arrangements, at least, are now made, on the head of Fox River, of that State.

The 21st, we were early in motion, the river presenting a broad rushing mass of waters, every way resembling the Mississippi itself. On reaching within twenty miles of its mouth, we passed, on the right bank, the mouth of the Long Prairie River,[186] a prime tributary flowing from the great Ottertail slope, which has been, time out of mind, the war road between the Chippewas and Sioux; and between this point and the confluence coming in we passed, on the left bank, the confluence of the Kioshk, or Gull River, through which there is a communication, by a series of portages, with Leech Lake.[187]

[186] This river has been assigned as the residence of the Winnebago Indians. It is the present seat of the United States agency, and of the farming and mechanical establishment for that tribe.

[187] Mr. J. J. Nicolet pursued this route in 1836, on his visit to the sources of the Mississippi. _Vide_ Senate Doc. No. 237. Washington, D. C., 1843.

From head to foot, we had now passed through the valley of the De Corbeau River, without finding in it the permanent location of a single Indian. We had not, in fact, seen even a temporary wigwam upon its banks. The whole river lies, in fact, on the war road between the two large rival tribes of the Chippewas and Sioux. It is entered by war parties from either side, decked out in war-paints and feathers, who descend either of its tributaries, the Leaf and Long Prairie Rivers. The Mukundwa descends the main channel from the Kaginogumaug Lake in canoes. On reaching the field of ambush, these canoes are abandoned, and the parties, after an encounter, haste home on foot.

From this deserted and uninhabited state of the valley we were the more surprised, as noon drew on, to descry an Indian canoe ascending the river. It proved to be spies on the look-out, from the body of Chippewas encamped at the mouth of the river, agreeably to my invitation at Sandy Lake. After mutual recognitions, and learning that we were near the mouth of the river, we resumed our descent with renewed spirit, and soon reached its outflow into the Mississippi, and crossed it to the point at which the Indians had established their camp. We were received with yells of welcome. It occupied an eminence on the east bank of the Mississippi, directly opposite to the mouth of the De Corbeau.[188] The site was marked by a flag hoisted on a tall staff. The Indians fired a salute as we landed, and pressed down to the shore, with their chiefs, to greet us. They informed me that by their count of sticks, of the time appointed by me at Sandy Lake, to meet them at this spot, would be out this day, and I had the satisfaction of being told, within a short time of my arrival, that the canoe, with goods and supplies, from Sandy Lake, was in sight. The Indians were found encamped a short distance above the entrance of the Nokasippi[189] River, which is in the line of communication with the Mille Lac and Rum River Indians. I found the latter, together with the whole Sandy Lake Band, encamped here, awaiting my arrival. They numbered 280 souls, of whom 60 were warriors.

[188] CROW-WING RIVER.--This stream is the largest tributary of the Mississippi above the falls of St. Anthony. It enters the Mississippi in lat. 46° 15´ 50´´, 180 miles above the latter, and 145 miles below Sandy Lake. Government first explored it, in 1832, from its source in Lake Kaginogumaug to its mouth, and an accurate map of its channel, and its eleven lakes, was made by Lieut. Allen, U. S. A., who accompanied the party as topographer. It is 210 miles in length, to its source in Long Lake. The island, in its mouth, is about three miles long, and covered with hard-wood timber. The whole region is noted for its pine timber; the lands lie in gentle ridges, with much open country; a large part of it is adapted to agriculture, and there is much hydraulic power It is navigable at the lowest stages of water, about 80 miles, and by small boats to its very source.

[189] From _Noka_, a man's name, and _seebi_, a river.

A council was immediately summoned, to meet in front of my tent, at the appointed signal of the firing of the military; the business of my mission was at once explained, the presents distributed, and the vaccinations commenced. Replies were made at length, by the eldest chief, Gros Guelle, or Big Snout; by Soangekumig, or the Strong Echoing Ground; by Wabogeeg, or the White Fisher; and by Nitumegaubowee, or the First Standing Man. The business having been satisfactorily concluded, the vaccination finished, and having still a couple of hours of daylight, I embarked and went down the Mississippi some ten or fifteen miles, to a Mr. Baker's trading-house at Prairie Piercie.

At this place, I remained encamped, it being the Sabbath day, and rested on the 22d, which had a good effect on the whole party, engaged as it had been, night and day, in pushing its way to accomplish certain results, and it prepared them to spring to their paddles the more cheerfully on Monday morning. Indeed, it had been part of my plan of travel, from the outset, to give the men this rest and opportunity to recruit every seventh day, and I always found that they did more work in the long run, from it. I had also engaged them, originally, not to drink any ardent spirits, promising them, however, that their board and pot should be well supplied at all times. And, indeed, although I had frequently travelled with Canadian canoemen, I never knew a crew who worked so cheerfully, and travelled so far, per diem, on the mean of the week, as these six days' working canoemen.

At Mr. Baker's, 170 miles above St. Anthony's Falls, I found a stray number of a small newspaper, and first learned the state of the Sauc and Fox war. The chief, Blackhawk, had crossed the Mississippi, to enter the Rock River valley; had murdered Mr. St. Vrain, the United States agent, sustained a conflict with the Illinois militia, under Major Stillman, fled to Lake Gushkenong, on the head of Rock River, and drawn upon his movement the United States army, leaving, at last accounts, Generals Atkinson and Dodge in pursuit of him.

Having struck the Mississippi at the point where the prior narrative describes it (_vide_ Chap XII.), it becomes unnecessary to give details of my descent to St. Anthony's Falls. Leaving Prairie Piercie on the 23d, two days were employed in the descent to Fort Snelling. I found Captain Wm. R. Jouett in command, who received me with courtesy and kindness, and offered every facility, in the absence of Mr. Talliaferro, the United States Indian Agent, for laying the object of my mission before the Sioux. He had received no very recent intelligence of the progress of the Sauc war, in addition to that which I had learned at the mouth of the De Corbeau; although he was in the habit of sending a mail boat or canoe twice a month to Prairie du Chien.[190]

[190] It was not till some time after my return to St. Mary's that I learned of the overthrow of the chief and his army, and his being taken prisoner at the battle of the Badaxe, on the 14th of August, 1832.

On the 25th, being the day after my arrival, I met the assembled, Sioux, in council, at the Agency House, the commanding officer being present, and having finished that business, and finding the Sioux wholly unconnected with, and disapproving the proceedings of Blackhawk and his adherents, I embarked early the next morning on my return to Lake Superior. I reached the mouth of the River St. Croix, at three o'clock P. M. on the 26th, and having entered the sylvan sheet of Lake St. Croix, ascended it to within a few miles of its head, and encamped. Lieut. Allen did not reach my camp, but halted for the night some seven or eight miles short.[191] This lake is one of the most beautiful and picturesque sheets of water in the West, being from two to three miles wide, and some four-and-twenty or thirty in length.[192] The next morning I reached the head of the lake after a couple of hours of travel, and, by a diligent and hard day's work, during which we passed between perpendicular walls of sonorous trap-rock, reached and encamped at the falls of St. Croix, at eight o'clock in the evening.[193] We were now about fifty miles from the line of the Mississippi River. For the last few miles, there had been either a very strong current or severe eddies of water, around angular masses of trap-rock; and we were encamped at the precise foot of the falls, where the river, narrowed to some fifty feet, breaks its way through trap-rock, falling some fifty feet in the course of six hundred yards. We had been carried, at a tangent, from the great Mississippi series of the silurian period, beginning at St. Anthony's Falls, to the vitric formations of trap and greenstone of the Lake Superior system, and were now to ascend a valley, in which a heavy diluvial drift and boulder stratum rested on this broken and angular basis.[194] On reaching the summit of the St. Croix, there are found vast plateaux of sand, supporting pine forests; and on descending the Misakoda, or Brulé of Fond du Lac, the sandstone strata of that basin are again encountered. This ascent was rendered arduous, from the low state of the water. I reached Snake River on the 30th, had an interview with the Buffalo chief (Pezhikee) and his subordinates; finding the population 300, with thirty-eight half breeds. The men, while here, cut their feet, treading on the trap-rock debris, in the mouth of the river. The distance thence to Yellow River is about thirty-five miles, which we accomplished on the 31st, by eight o'clock in the morning, having found our greatest obstacle at the Kettle Rapids, which discloses sharp masses of the trap-rock. The river, in this distance, receives on its right, in the ascent, the Aisippi, or Shell River, which originates in a lake of that name, noted for its large unios and anadontas.

[191] United States soldiers are not adapted to travelling in Indian canoes. Comparatively clumsy, formal, and used to the comforts of good quarters and shelter, they flinch under the activities and fatigue of forest life, and particularly of that kind of life and toil, which consists in the management of canoes, and the carrying forward canoes and baggage over bad portages, and conducting these frail vessels over dangerous rapids and around falls. No amount of energy is sufficient on the part of the officers to make them keep up, on these trips, with the gay, light, and athletic _voyageur_, who unites the activity and expertness of the Indian with the power of endurance of the white man. Lieut. Allen deserves great credit, as an army officer, for urging his men forward as well as he did on this arduous journey, for they were a perpetual cause of delay and anxiety to me and to him. They were relieved and aided by my men at every practicable point; but, having the responsibility of performing a definite duty, on a fixed sum of money, with many men to feed in the wilderness, it was imperative in me to push on with energy, day in and day out, and to set a manful example of diligence, at every point; and, instead of carping at my rapidity of movement, as he does in his official report of the ascent of the St. Croix, he having every supply within himself, and being, moreover, in a friendly tribe, where there was no danger from Indian hostilities, he should not have evinced a desire to control my encampments, but rather given his men to understand that he could not countenance their dilatoriness.

[192] It is, at this time, a part of the boundary between the State of Wisconsin and the Territory of Minnesota, and is the site of several flourishing towns and villages. On its western head is the town of Stillwater, the seat of justice for Washington County, Minnesota. This town has a population of 1,500 inhabitants, containing a court house, several churches, schools, printing offices, a public land office, and territorial penitentiary, with stores, mills, &c. Hudson is a town seated on its east bank, at Willow River, being the seat of justice for St. Croix County, Wisconsin. It contains a United States land-office, two churches, and 94 dwellings, besides stores and mills. Steamboats freely navigate its waters from the Mississippi.

[193] FALLS OF ST. CROIX.--A thriving post town is now seated on the Wisconsin side of these falls in Polk County, Wisconsin, which contains several mills, at which it is estimated, four millions of feet of pine lumber are sawed annually. It is at the head of steamboat navigation of St. Croix River.

[194] _Vide_ Owen's Geological Report, for the first attempt to delineate the order of the various local and general formations. Philada., Lippincott & Co., 1852.

At Yellow River, I halted to confer with the Indians in front of a remarkable eminence called Pokunogun, or the Moose's Hip. This eminence is not, however, of artificial construction. This river, with its dependencies of Lac Vaseux, Rice Lake, and Yellow Lake, contains a Chippewa population of three hundred and eighty-two souls. We observed here the unio purpureus, which the Indians use for spoons, after rubbing off the alatæ and rounding the margin. We also examined the skin of the sciurus tredacem striatus of Mitchill.

We reached the forks of the St. Croix about two o'clock P. M. The distance from Yellow River is about thirteen miles; it required five and a half hours to accomplish this. The water was, indeed, so low, that the men had often to wade; and, on reaching this point, we were to lose half its volume, or more, for the Namakagun[195] fork, which enters here, carries in more than half the quantity of water.

[195] From _nama_, a sturgeon, and _kagun_, a yoke or wier. I explored this stream in 1831, having reached it after ascending the Mauvais or Maskigo of Lake Superior. _Vide_ Personal Memoirs: Lippincott, Grambo, & Co., 1851.

I found the chief Kabamappa and his followers encamped at the forks, awaiting my arrival, who received me with a salute. He disclaimed all connection with the movement of the Blackhawk. He stated facts, however, which showed him to be well acquainted with the means which that chief had used to bring the Indians into an extensive league against the United States. He readily assented to the measures proposed to the upper bands, for bringing the Sioux and Chippewas into more intimate and permanent relations of peace and friendship.

With respect to the ascent of the St. Croix, in the direction of the Brulé, his exclamation was _iskutta-iskutta_, meaning it is dried up, or there is no water. Dry the channel, indeed, looked, but by leading the canoes around the shoals, all the men walking in the water, and picking out channels, we advanced about seven miles before the time of encampment. The next morning (Aug. 1) a heavy fog detained us in our encampment, till five o'clock, when we recommenced the ascent of a similar series of embarrassments from very low water, rapid succeeding to rapid, till two o'clock P. M., when we reached the summit of a plateau, and found still water and comparatively good navigation. Five hours canoeing on this summit brought us to Kabamappa's village at the Namakowágon, or sturgeon's dam, where we encamped. The chief gave us his population at 88 souls, of whom 28 were men, including the minor chief, Mukudapenas,[196] and his men. We had now got above all the strong rapids, and proceeded from our encampment at four o'clock, A. M., on the 2d. The river receives two tributaries, from the right hand, on this summit, namely, the Buffalo and Clearwater, and, at the distance of about ten miles above the Namakowágon, is found to be expanded in a handsome lake of about six miles in extent, called Lake St. Croix. This is the source of the river. We were favored with a fair wind in passing over it, and having reached its head debarked on a marshy margin, and immediately commenced the portage to the Brulé, or Misakoda River.[197]

[196] From _mukuda_, black, and _penaisee_, a bird, the name of the rail.

[197] From _misk_, red or colored, _muscoda_, a plain, and _auk_, a dead standing tree, as a tree burned by fire or lightning. From the French translation of the word, by the phrase _Brulé_; the Indian meaning is clearly shown to be burnt, scorched, or parched--a term which is applied to metifs of the mixed race.

I had now reached the summit between the St. Croix and Lake Superior. The elevation of this summit has not been scientifically determined; but from the great fall of the Brulé, cannot be less than 600 feet. The length of the Brulé is about 100 miles, in which there are 240 distinct rapids. Some of these are from eight to ten feet each. Four of them require portages, at which all the canoes are discharged. The river itself, on looking down it, appears to be a perfect torrent, foaming and roaring; and it could never be used by the traders at all, were it not that it had abundance of water, being the off-drain for an extensive plateau of lakes and springs. To give an adequate idea of this foaming torrent, it is necessary to conceive of a river flowing down a pair of stairs, a hundred miles long.

The portage from the St. Croix to it begins on marsh, ascending in a hundred yards or so, to an elevated sandy plain, which has been covered, at former times, with a heavy forest of the pinus resinosa; that having been consumed, there is left here and there a dry trunk, or _auk_, as the Indians call it. The length of the portage path is 3,350 yards, or about two miles. At this distance, we reach a small, sandy-bottomed brook, of four feet wide and a foot deep, of most clear crystalline cold water, winding its way, in a most serpentine manner, through a boggy tract, and overhung with dense alder bushes. It is a good place to slake one's thirst, but appears like anything else than a stream to embark on, with canoes and baggage. Nobody but an Indian would seem to have ever dreamed of it. Yet on this brook we embarked. It was now six o'clock in the evening. By going a distance below, and damming up the stream, a sufficient depth of water was got to float the canoes. The axe was used to cut away the alders. The men walked, guiding the canoes, and carrying some of the baggage. In this way we moved slowly, about one mile, when it became quite dark, and threatened rain. The voyageurs then searched about for a place on the bog dry enough to sleep on, and came, with joy, and told me that they had found a kind of bog, with bunches of grassy tufts, which are called by them _tete de femme_. The very poetry of the idea was something, and I was really happy, amid the intense gloom, to rest my head, for the night, on these fair tufts. The next morning we were astir as soon as there was light enough to direct our steps. After a few miles of these intricacies, we found a brisk and full tributary, below which, the descent is at once free, and on crossing the first narrow geologic plateau, the rapids begin; the stream being constantly and often suddenly enlarged, by springs and tributaries from the right and left. To describe the descent of this stream, in detail, would require graphic powers to which I do not aspire, and time which I cannot command. We were two days and a part of a night in making the descent, with every appliance of voyageur craft. It was after darkness had cast her pall over us, on the evening of the 4th of August, before we reached still water. The river is then a deep and broad mass of water, into which coasting vessels from the Lake might enter. Some four miles from the foot of the last rapids, it enters the Fond du Lac of Lake Superior. Some time before reaching this point, we had been apprised of our contiguity to it, from hearing the monotonous thump of the Indian drum; and we were glad, on our arrival, to find the chief, Mongazid,[198] of Fond du Lac, with the military barge of Lieut. Allen, left at that place on our outward trip, which he had promised to bring down to this point.

[198] From _mong_, a loon, and _ozid_, his foot. The name is in allusion to the track of the bird on the sand.

Having thus accomplished the objects committed to my trust, and rejoined the track described in my prior narrative, I rested here on the next day (5th), being the Sabbath; and then proceeded through Lake Superior, to my starting-point at Sault de Ste Marie.[199]

[199] On passing through Lake Superior, I learned from an Indian the first breaking out of Asiatic cholera in the country, in 1832, and the wide alarm it had produced.

APPENDIX.

No. 1.

THE EXPEDITION TO THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI IN 1820.

I. OFFICIAL REPORTS OF THE EXPEDITION OF 1820.

1. DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS.

I. Announcement of the Return of the Expedition. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

II. General Report to the Department of War. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

III. Further Explorations of Western Geography recommended. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

IV. Personal Testimonial on the close of the Expedition. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

2. TOPOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.

V. Results of Observations for Latitudes and Longitudes during the Expedition of 1820. By DAVID B. DOUGLASS, Capt. Engineers, U. S. A.

3. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

VI. Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VII. Observations on the Mineralogy and Geology of the country embracing the sources of the Mississippi River and the Great Lake Basins. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VIII. Report in reply to a Resolution of the U. S. Senate on the Value and Extent of the Mineral Lands on Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

IX. Rapid Glances at the Geology of Western New York, beyond the Rome summit, in 1820. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

X. A Memoir on the Geological Position of a Fossil Tree in the secondary rocks of the Illinois. Albany: E. & E. Hosford, pp. 18, 1822. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

4. BOTANY.

XI. List of Plants collected by Capt. D. B. Douglass at the sources of the Mississippi River. This paper has been published in the 4th vol. p. 56 of Silliman's Journal of Science. By Dr. JOHN TORREY.

5. ZOOLOGY.

XII. A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest, addressed to Dr. Mitchell on the return of the Expedition. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

(1.) FRESH-WATER CONCHOLOGY.

XIII. Species of Bivalves collected by Mr. Schoolcraft and Capt. Douglass in the Northwest. Published in the 6th vol. Amer. Journ. of Science, pp. 120, 259. By D. H. BARNES.

XIV. Fresh-water Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft in the valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. American Philosophical Transactions, vol. 5. By Mr. ISAAC LEA.

(2.) FAUNA: ICHTHYOLOGY: REPTILIA.

XV. Summary Remarks respecting the Zoological Species noticed in the Expedition. By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

XVI. Mus Busarius. Medical Repository, vol. 21, p. 248. By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

XVII. Sciurus Tredecem Striatus. Med. Rep. vol. 21. By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

XVIII. Proteus of the Lakes. Am. Journ. Science, vol. 4. By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

6. METEOROLOGY.

XIX. Memoranda on Climatic Phenomena, and the distribution of Solar Heat, in 1820. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

7. INDIAN LANGUAGES AND HISTORY.

XX. A Pictographic mode of communicating ideas by the Northwestern Indians. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

XXI. Inquiries respecting the History, &c. of the Indians of the United States. Detroit, 1822. By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

XXII. A Letter on the Origin of the Indian Tribes of America, and the Principles of their Mode of uttering Ideas. By Dr. J. M'DONNELL, Belfast, Ireland.

XXIII. Difficulties of studying the Indian Tongues of the United States. Schoolcraft's Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley, p. 381. By Dr. ALEXANDER WOLCOTT, Jr.

XXIV. Examinations of the Elementary Structure of the Odjibwa-Algonquin Language. First paper. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

XXV. A Vocabulary of the Odjibwa-Algonquin. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

APPENDIX.

1. DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS.

I.

DETROIT, September 14, 1820.

SIR: I am happy to be enabled to state to you that I reached this place four days since, with some of the gentlemen who accompanied me on my late tour, after a very fortunate journey of four thousand miles, and an accomplishment, without any adverse accident, of every object intrusted to me. The party divided at Green Bay, with a view to circumnavigate Lake Michigan, and I trust they may all arrive here in the course of a week.

As soon as possible, I shall transmit to you a detailed report upon the subject.

Since my arrival, I have learned that Mr. Ellicott, professor of mathematics, at the military academy, is dead. I cannot but hope that the office will not be filled until the return of Captain Douglass. I do not know whether such an appointment would suit him; but from my knowledge of his views, feelings, and pursuits, I presume it would. And an intimate acquaintance with him during my tour enables me to say that in every requisite qualification, as far as I can judge, I have never found a man who is his superior. His zeal, talents, and acquirements are of the first order, and I am much deceived if he do not soon take a distinguished rank among the most scientific men in our country. His situation as an assistant professor to Colonel Mansfield, and his connection with the family of Mr. Ellicott, furnish additional reasons why he should receive this appointment.

Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, LEWIS CASS.

Hon. J. C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_.

II.

DETROIT, October 21, 1820.

SIR: I had the honor to inform you some time since that I had reached this place by land from Chicago, and that the residue of the party were daily expected. They arrived soon after, without accident, and this long and arduous journey has been accomplished without the occurrence of any unfavorable incident.

I shall submit to you, as soon as it can be prepared, a memoir respecting the Indians who occupy the country through which we passed; their numbers, disposition, wants, &c. It will be enough at present to say, that the whole frontier is in a state of profound peace, and that the remote Indians, more particularly, exhibit the most friendly feelings towards the United States. As we approach the points of contact between them and the British, the strength of this attachment evidently decreases, and about those points few traces of it remain. During our whole progress but two incidents occurred which evinced in the slightest degree, an unfriendly spirit. One of these was at St. Mary's, within forty-five miles of Drummond's Island, and the other within thirty miles of Malden. They passed off, however, without producing any serious result.

It is due to Colonel Leavenworth to say, that his measures upon the subject of the outrage committed by the Winnebago Indians, in the spring, were prompt, wise, and decisive. As you have long since learned, the murderers were soon surrendered; and so impressive has been the lesson upon the minds of the Indians, that the transaction has left us nothing to regret, but the untimely fall of the soldiers.

In my passage through the Winnebago country, I saw their principal chiefs, and stated to them the necessity of restraining their young men from the commission of acts similar in their character to those respecting which a report was made by Colonel Smith. I have reason to believe that similar complaints will not again be made, and I am certain that nothing but the intemperate passions of individuals will lead to the same conduct. Should it occur, the act will be disavowed by the chiefs, and the offenders surrendered with as much promptitude as the relapsed state of the government will permit.

The general route which we pursued was from this place to Michilimackinac by the southern shore of Lake Huron. From thence to Drummond's Island and by the River St. Mary's to the Sault. We there entered Lake Superior, coasted its southern shore to Point Kewena, ascended the small stream, which forms the water communication across the base of the point, and, after a portage of a mile and a half, struck the lake on the opposite side. Fifty miles from this place is the mouth of the Ontonagan, upon which have been found large specimens of copper.

We ascended that stream about thirty miles, to the great mass of that metal, whose existence has long been known. Common report has greatly magnified the quantity, although enough remains, even after a rigid examination, to render it a mineralogical curiosity. Instead of being a mass of pure copper, it is rather copper imbedded in a hard rock, and the weight does not probably exceed five tons, of which the rock is the much larger part. It was impossible to procure any specimens, for such was its hardness that our chisels broke like glass. I intend to send some Indians in the spring to procure the necessary specimens. As we understand the nature of the substance, we can now furnish them with such tools as will effect the object. I shall, on their return, send you such pieces as you may wish to retain for the Government, or to distribute as cabinet specimens to the various literary institutions of our country. Mr. Schoolcraft will make to you a detailed report upon this subject, in particular, and generally upon the various mineralogical and geological objects to which his inquiries were directed. Should he carry into effect the intention, which he now meditates, of publishing his journal of the tour, enriched with the history of the facts which have been collected, and with those scientific and practical reflections and observations, which few men are more competent to make, his work will rank among the most important accessions which have ever been made to our national literature.

From the Ontonagon we proceeded to the Fond du Lac, passing the mouths of the Montreal, Mauvais, and Brulé Rivers, and entered the mouth of the St. Louis, or Fond du Lac River, which forms the most considerable water communication between Lake Superior and the Mississippi.

The southern coast of the lake is sterile, cold, and unpromising. The timber is birch, pine, and trees of that description which characterize the nature of the country. The first part of the shore is moderately elevated, the next, hilly, and even mountainous, and the last a low, flat, sandy beach. Two of the most sublime natural objects in the United States, the Grand Sable and the pictured rocks, are to be found upon this coast. The former is an immense hill of sand, extending for some miles along the lake, of great elevation and precipitous ascent. The latter is an unbroken wall of rocks, rising perpendicularly from the lake to the height of 300 feet, assuming every grotesque and fanciful appearance, and presenting to the eye of the passenger a spectacle as tremendous as the imagination can conceive, or as reason itself can well sustain.

The emotions excited by these objects are fresh in the recollection of us all; and they will undoubtedly be described, so that the public can appreciate their character and appearance. The indications of copper upon the western part of the coast, are numerous; and there is reason to suppose that silver, in small quantities, has been found.

The communication by the Montreal with the Chippewa River, and by the Mauvais and Brulé Rivers with the St. Croix, is difficult and precarious. The routes are interrupted by long, numerous, and tedious portages, across which the boats and all their contents are transported by the men. It is doubtful whether their communication can ever be much used, except for the purposes to which they are now applied. In the present state of the Indian trade, human labor is nothing, because the number of men employed in transporting the property is necessary to conduct the trade, after the different parties have reached their destination, and the intermediate labor does not affect the aggregate amount of the expense. Under ordinary circumstances, and for those purposes to which water communication is applied in the common course of civilized trade, these routes would be abandoned. From the mouth of the Montreal River alone to its source, there are not less than forty-five miles of portage.

The St. Louis River is a considerable stream, and for twenty-five miles its navigation is uninterrupted. At this distance, near an establishment of the Southwest Company, commences the Grand Portage about six miles in length, across spurs of the Porcupine ridge of mountains. One other portage, one of a mile and a half, and a continued succession of falls, called the Grand Rapids, extending nine miles, and certainly unsurmountable except by the skill and perseverance of the Canadian boatmen, conduct us to a comparatively tranquil part of the river. From here to the head of the Savannah River, a small branch of the St. Louis, the navigation is uninterrupted, and after a portage of four miles, the descent is easy into Lake au Sable, whose outlet is within two miles of the Mississippi.

This was until 1816 the principal establishment of the British Northwest Company upon these waters, and is now applied to the same purpose by the American Fur Company.

From Lac au Sable, we ascended the Mississippi to the Upper Red Cedar Lake, which may be considered as the head of the navigation of that river. The whole distance, 350 miles, is almost uninhabitable. The first part of the route the country is generally somewhat elevated and interspersed with pine woods. The latter part is level wet prairie.

The sources of this river flow from a region filled with lakes and swamps, whose geological character indicates a recent formation, and which, although the highest table-land of this part of the Continent, is yet a dead level, presenting to the eye a succession of dreary uninteresting objects. Interminable marshes, numerous ponds, and a few low, naked, sterile plains, with a small stream, not exceeding sixty feet in width, meandering in a very crooked channel through them, are all the objects which are found to reward the traveller for the privations and difficulties which he must encounter in his ascent to this forbidding region.

The view on all sides is dull and monotonous. Scarcely a living being animates the prospect, and every circumstance recalled forcibly to our recollection that we were far removed from civilized life.

From Lac au Sable to the mouth of the St. Peter's, the distance by computation is six hundred miles. The first two hundred present no obstacles to navigation. The land along the river is of a better quality than above; the bottoms are more numerous, and the timber indicates a stronger and more productive soil. But near this point commence the great rapids of the Mississippi, which extend more than two hundred miles. The river flows over a rocky bed, which forms a continuous succession of rapids, all of which are difficult and some dangerous. The country, too, begins here to open, and the immense plains in which the buffaloes range approach the river. These plains continue to the Falls of St. Anthony.

They are elevated fifty or sixty feet above the Mississippi, are destitute of timber, and present to the eye a flat, uniform surface, bounded at the distance of eight or ten miles by high ground. The title of this land is in dispute between the Chippewas and Sioux, and their long hostilities have prevented either party from destroying the game in a manner as improvident as is customary among the Indians. It is consequently more abundant than in any other region through which we travelled.

From the post, at the mouth of the St. Peter's, to Prairie du Chien, and from that place to Green Bay, the route is too well-known to render it necessary that I should trouble you with any observations respecting it.

The whole distance travelled by the party between the 24th of May and the 24th of September exceeded 4,200 miles, and the journey was performed without the occurrence of a single untoward accident sufficiently important to deserve recollection.

These notices are so short and imperfect that I am unwilling to obtrude them upon your patience. But the demands upon your attention are so imperious, that to swell them into a geographical memoir would require more time for their examination than any interest which I am capable of giving the subject would justify.

I propose hereafter to submit some other observations to you in a different shape.

Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, LEWIS CASS.

Hon. J. C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_.

III.

Copy of a letter from Gov. Lewis Cass to Hon. John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, dated

DETROIT, September 20, 1820.

SIR: In examining the state of our topographical knowledge, respecting that portion of the Northwestern frontier over which we have recently passed, it occurs to me that there are several points which require further examination, and which might be explored without any additional expense to the United States.

The general result of the observations made by Capt. Douglass, will be submitted to you as soon as it can be prepared. And I believe he will also complete a map of the extensive route we have taken, and embracing the whole of the United States, bounded by the Upper Lakes and by the waters of the Mississippi, and extending as far south as Rock Island and the southern extremities of Lakes Michigan and Erie. The materials in his possession are sufficient for such an outline, and he is every way competent to complete it. But there are several important streams, respecting which it is desirable to procure more accurate information than can be obtained from the vague and contradictory relations of Indians and Indian traders. The progress of our geographical knowledge has not kept pace with the extension of our territory, nor with the enterprise of our traders. But I trust the accurate observations of Captain Douglass will render a resort to the old French maps for information respecting our own country entirely unnecessary.

I beg leave to propose to you, whether it would not be proper to direct exploring parties to proceed from several of our frontier posts into the interior of the country, and to make such observations as might lead to a correct topographical delineation of it. An intelligent officer, with eight or ten men, in a canoe, would be adequate to this object. He would require nothing more than a compass to ascertain his course, for it is not to be expected that correct astronomical observations could be taken. In ascending or descending streams, he should enter in a journal every course which he pursues, and the length of time observed by a watch. He should occasionally ascertain the velocity of his canoe, by measuring a short distance upon the bank, and should also enter in his journal his supposed rate of travelling. This, whenever it is possible, should be checked by the distance as estimated by traders and travellers. By a comparison of these data, and by a little experience, he would soon be enabled to ascertain with sufficient precision, the length of each course, and to furnish materials for combination, which would eventually exhibit a perfect view of the country. I do not know any additional expense which it would be necessary to encounter. An ordinary compass is not worth taking into consideration. A necessary supply of provisions, a small quantity of powder, lead, and tobacco, to present occasionally to the Indians, and a little medicine, are all the articles which would require particular attention. Officers employed upon such services should be directed to observe the natural appearances of the country; its soil, timber, and productions; its general face and character; the height, direction, and composition of its hills; the number, size, rapidity, &c., of its streams; its geological structure and mineralogical products; and any facts which may enable the public to appreciate its importance in the scale of territorial acquisitions, or which may serve to enlarge the sphere of national science.

It is not to be expected that officers detached upon the duties can enter into the detail of such subjects in a manner which their importance would render desirable. But the most superficial observer may add something to the general stock; and to point their inquiries to specific objects, may be the means of eliciting facts, which in other hands may lead to important results. The most important tributary stream of the Upper Mississippi is the Saint Peter's. The commanding officer at the mouth of that river might be directed to form an expedition for exploring it.

It is the opinion of Captain Douglass, and it is strongly fortified by my personal observation, and by the opinion of others, that Lieut. Talcott, of the Engineers, now at the Council Bluffs, would conduct a party upon this duty in a very satisfactory manner. He might ascend the St. Peter's to its source, and from thence cross over to the Red River, and descend the stream to the 49th parallel of latitude, with directions to take the necessary observations upon so important a point.[200] Thence up that branch of the Red River, interlocking with the nearest water of the Mississippi, and down this river to Leech Lake. From this lake, there is an easy communication to the River de Corbeau, which he could descend to the Mississippi, and thence to St. Peter's.[201]

[200] This is the origin of Major Long's second expedition.

[201] Explored by the preceding narrative in 1831-1833.

The St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, entering the Mississippi above and below the Falls of St. Anthony, might, in like manner, be explored by parties from the same post.[202] The former interlocks with the Mauvais and Brulé Rivers, but a descent into Lake Superior would not probably be considered expedient, so that the party would necessarily ascend and descend the same stream.[202]

[202] Explored by the preceding narrative in 1831-1833.

The Chippewa interlocks with the Montreal and Wisconsin Rivers, and consequently the same party could ascend the former and descend the latter stream.

A party from Green Bay might explore Rocky River from its source to its mouth.

A correct examination of Green Bay and of the Menomonie River might be made from the same post.

The St. Joseph and Grand River, of this peninsula, could be examined by parties detached from Chicago.

It is desirable, also, to explore the Grand Traverse Bay, about sixty miles south of Michilimackinac, on the east coast of Lake Michigan.

These are all the points which require particular examination. Observations made in the manner I have suggested, and connected with those already taken by Captain Douglass, would furnish ample materials for a correct chart of the country.

It is with this view that it might be proper, should you approve the plan I have submitted to you, to direct, that the reports of the officers should be transmitted to Captain Douglass, by whom they will be incorporated with his own observations, and will appear in a form best calculated to promote the views which you entertain upon the important subject of the internal geography of our country.

IV.

DETROIT, October 3, 1820.

SIR: On the eve of separating from my associates in our late tour, I owe it to them and to myself, that I should state to you my opinion respecting Captain Douglass and Mr. Schoolcraft.

I have found them, upon every occasion, zealous in promoting the objects of the Expedition, indefatigable in their inquiries and observations, and never withholding their personal exertions. Ardent in their pursuit after knowledge, with great attainments in the departments of literature to which they have respectively devoted themselves, and with powers which will enable them to explore the whole field of science, I look forward with confidence to the day when they will assume distinguished stations among our scientific men, and powerfully aid in establishing the literary fame of their country.

Should any object of a similar character again require similar talents, I earnestly recommend their employment. Whoever has the pleasure of being associated with them, will find how easily profound acquirements may be united with that urbanity of manners, and those qualities of the heart, which attach to each other those who have participated in the fatigues of a long and interesting tour.

Very respectfully, sir, I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, LEWIS CASS.

Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_.

2. TOPOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY.

Topographical materials were collected by Capt. Douglass, U.S.A., for a map of the northwestern portions of the United States, embracing the complete circumnavigation of the great lake basins, and accurate delineations of the sources of the Mississippi, as low down as the influx of the River Wisconsin. Being provided with instruments from the Military Academy of West Point, astronomical observations were made at every practical point over the vast panorama traversed by the Expedition. A line of some four thousand miles of previously unexplored country was visited; his notes and memoranda for a topographical memoir were full and exact; and they were left, I am informed, in a state of nearly perfect elaboration, accompanied by illustrations, and many drawings of scenery. Having written to his family recently, for the astronomical observations, they were transmitted by his son in a letter, of which the following is an extract:--

GENEVA, JUNE 23, 1854.

DEAR SIR: I inclose you herewith, on another page, the results of my father's observations of latitude and longitude, so far as I have been able to collect them. His calculations indicate great pains and labor to obtain accurate results. They are too voluminous to copy. I trust, however, that I have been as particular as was necessary in the inclosed memoranda. If anything else is wanting, I should like you to inform me.

I am, sir, with great respect, Your obedient servant, MALCOLM DOUGLASS.

V.

_Results of Observations for Latitude and Longitude during the Expedition of 1820._ By DAVID B. DOUGLASS, Capt. Engineers, U.S.A.

{By 3 sets of observations at Cunningham's } { Island, 1819, and reduced by } { exact measurement on the Boundary } { Bay } { } Mean {By 1 set of observations at Gibraltar } latitude { Island (Put-in Bay), taken, like the } of { preceding, in 1819, and reduced as } 42° 19´ 20´´ Detroit { before } { } {By 1 set of observations taken on } { Sugar Island, and reduced as before } { } {By mean results of 2 sets of observations--May} 17 and 21, 1820 } {By mean observation, Sept. 29, 1820 }

Mean longitude of Detroit, by 6 sets of observations, May 17 and 19, 1820 82 39 00

Latitude of Presque Isle, Lake Huron, June 5, 1820 45 19 45

Latitude of Mackinaw, by 4 sets of observations, June 7 and 11, 1820, by meridian observations, Sept. 12, 1820 45 50 54

Height of Fort Holmes. From the water to the brow of the hill near Robinson's Folly, nearly on a level with Fort Mackinaw 115.8

Thence to the top of the block H of Fort Holmes 260.9 ----- Total height, 376.7 feet

Longitude of Mackinaw, by several sets of observations, Sept. 12, 1820 84 28 40

Mean latitude of Sault de St. Marie, June 16, 1820 46 26 45

Latitude of Turtle Camp, on Lake Superior, June 22--primitive bluff (Granite Point.--S.) 46 41 15

Latitude of Keweena Camp 47 02 30

Mean latitude of Sandy River, July 4, 1820 46 55 24

Mean longitude (by 25 observations for degrees, and 25 observations for time). In time, 6 h. 3 m. 48 sec. In degrees 90 57 00

Latitude of the gallais[203] on the Grand Portage of St. Louis, July 6, 1820 46 39 34

Latitude of camp at head of Grand Portage, July 8, 1820 46 41 07

Latitude of camp at west end of Savanna Portage 46 51 47[204]

Mean latitude of Sandy Lake post, from observations, July 16 and 25 46 45 35

Mean longitude of Sandy Lake post, from 4 sets of observations, July 15 and 16 93 21 30

Latitude of Wolverine Camp, July 23, 1 day from Sandy Lake 47 4 15

Latitude of halting-place above forks of Leech River on the Mississippi, July 20 47 24 00[205]

Latitude of camp at Lake Winnipec, July 20 47 30 56

Latitude of halting-place near first return camp, July 21 47 27 10

Latitude of return camp; near the above, same day 47 26 40

Latitude of camp at Buffalo hunting-ground, above Pe-can-de-quaw Lake, July 28 and 29 46 00 00

Breadth of river at camp on the Buffalo Plain, 148 yards

Latitude of halting-place between the Great Falls and St. Francis River 45 25 43

Breadth of river at camp above Falls of St. Anthony, 200 yards

Mean latitude of Fort St. Anthony, new site, July 31, by 5 sets of observations 44 53 20

Mean longitude of Fort St. Anthony, new site, July 31, by 3 sets of observations 92 55 45

Latitude of Fort Prairie du Chien, Aug. 6 and 7. 43 03 19[206]

Latitude of Fox and Ouisconsin Portage, Aug. 14 and 15, 43° 42´ 36´´; say 43 42 00

Latitude of camp near mouth of River De Loup, Aug. 17 44 6 44

Latitude of Fort Howard, Green Bay, Aug. 21 44 31 38

Longitude of Fort Howard (some error), probably between 87° 45´ 30´´ and 87 46 00

Latitude of camp at Sturgeon Portage, Lake Michigan, Aug. 23 44 47 43

Latitude of camp 3 miles north of the Manetowag, Aug. 24 44 12 47

Latitude of camp south of the Sheboyegan, Aug. 25 43 41 26

Latitude of camp at Milwaukie, Aug. 26 43 01 35

Mean latitude of Fort Dearborn, Chicago, by 6 sets of equal altitudes, Aug. 31, and meridian altitude 41 54 06 Mean longitude of Fort Dearborn, 3 sets of observations. In time, 5 h. 50 m. 8 sec. In degrees 87 32 30

Longitude of Detroit, calculated from above 82 54 53

Latitude of camp near head of Lake Michigan, Aug. 31 and Sept. 1 41 38 48

Mean latitude of the extreme south point of Lake Michigan, 4 sets of observations and meridian observation 41 37 28

Latitude of camp next north of the St. Joseph's, near Kekalamazo, Sept. 3 42 32 16

Latitude of camp at Maskegon River, Sept. 4 43 13 41

Latitude of camp near Point aux Salles, Lake Michigan, Sept. 5 44 5 17

Latitude of camp at Grand Traverse Bay, Lake Michigan, Sept. 7 45 34 24

[203] _Galet_, in the Canadian patois, means a smooth, flat rock.--H. R. S.

[204] A little doubtful.

[205] A little doubtful.

[206] Or 20´´.

3. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

VI.

_Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

To the Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_.

VERNON (Oneida County, N. Y.), November 6, 1820.

SIR: I have now the honor to submit such observations as have occurred to me, during the recent expedition under GOV. Cass, in relation to the copper mines on Lake Superior; reserving, as the subject of a future communication, the facts I have collected on the mineralogy and geology of the country explored generally.

The first striking change in the mineral aspect of the country north of Lake Huron, is presented near the head of the Island of St. Joseph, in the River St. Mary, where the calcareous strata of secondary rocks are succeeded by a formation of red sandstone, which extends northward to the head of that river at Point Iroquois, producing the falls called the _Sault de Ste. Marie_, fifteen miles below; and thence stretching northwest, along the whole southern shore of Lake Superior, with the interruptions noted, to Fond du Lac.

This extensive stratum is perforated at various points by upheaved masses of sienitic granite and trap, which appear in elevated points on the margin of the lake at Dead River, Keweena Point, Presque Isle, and the Chegoimagon Mountains. It is overlaid, in other parts, by a stratum of gray or neutral-colored sandstone, of uncommon thickness, which appears in various promontories along the shore, and, at the distance of ninety miles from Point Iroquois, constitutes a lofty perpendicular and caverned wall, upon the water's edge, called the Pictured Rocks.

So obvious a change in the geological character of the rock strata, in passing from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, prepares the observer to expect a corresponding one in the imbedded minerals and other natural features--an expectation which is realized during the first eighty leagues, in the discovery of various minerals. The first appearances of copper are seen at Keweena Point, two hundred and seventy miles beyond the Sault de Ste. Marie, where the debris and pebbles along the shore of the lake contain native copper disseminated in particles varying in size from a grain of sand to a mass of two pounds' weight. Many of the detached stones of this Point are also colored green by the carbonate of copper, and the rock strata exhibit traces of the same ore. These indications continue to the River Ontonagon, which has long been noted for the large masses of native copper found upon its banks, and about the contiguous country.

This river is one of the largest of thirty tributaries, mostly small, which flow into the lake between Point Iroquois and Fond du Lac. It originates in a district of mountainous country intermediate between the Mississippi River and lakes Huron and Superior. After running in a northern direction for about one hundred and twenty miles, it enters the latter at the computed distance of fifty miles west of the portage of Keweena, in north latitude 46° 52´ 2´´, according to the observations of Capt. Douglass. It is connected, by portages, with the Monomonee River of Green Bay, and with the Chippewa River of the Mississippi. At its mouth there is a village of Chippewa Indians of sixteen families, who subsist chiefly on the fish taken in the river. Their location, independent of that circumstance, does not appear to unite the ordinary advantages of an Indian village of the region.

A strip of alluvial land of a sandy character extends from the lake up the river three or four leagues, where it is succeeded by hills of a broken, sterile aspect, covered, chiefly, with a growth of pine, hemlock, and spruce. Among these hills, which may be considered as lateral spurs of the Porcupine Mountains, the copper mines, so called, are situated, at the computed distance of thirty-two miles from the lake, and in the centre of a region characterized by its wild, rugged, and forbidding appearance. The large mass of native copper lies on the west bank of the river, at the water's edge, at the foot of an elevated bank, part of which appears to have slipped into the river, carrying with it the mass of copper, together with detached blocks of sienitic granite, trap-rock, and other species common to the soil at that place.

The copper, which is in a pure and malleable state, lies in connection with serpentine rock, one face of which it almost completely overlays. It is also disseminated in masses and grains throughout the substance of the rock. The surface of the metal, unlike most oxidable metals which have been long exposed to the atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy, which is probably attributable to the attrition of the semi-annual floods of the river.

The shape of the rock is very irregular; its greatest length is three feet eight inches; its greatest breadth, three feet four inches, with an average thickness of twelve inches. It may, altogether, contain eleven cubic feet.[207] It exceeds, in size, the great mass of native iron found some years ago on the banks of Red River, in Louisiana. I have computed the weight of metallic copper in the rock at twenty-two hundred pounds, which is about one-fifth of the lowest estimate made of it by former visitors. Henry, who visited it in 1766, estimated its weight at five tons. The quantity may, however, have been much diminished since its discovery, and the marks of chisels and axes upon it, with the discovery of broken tools, prove that portions have been cut off and carried away. Notwithstanding this reduction, it may still be considered one of the largest and most remarkable bodies of native copper on the globe, and is, so far as known, only exceeded in weight by a specimen found in a valley in Brazil, weighing twenty-six hundred and sixty-six Portuguese pounds. Viewed as a subject of scientific interest, it presents illustrative proofs of an important character. Its connection with a rock which is foreign to the immediate section of country where it lies,[208] indicates a removal from its original bed; while the intimate connection of the metal and matrix, and the complete envelopment of masses of the copper by the rock, point to a common and contemporaneous origin, whether that be referable to volcanic agency or water. This conclusion admits of an obvious application to the beds of serpentine and other magnesian rock found in other parts of the lake.

[207] This copper rock now (1854) lies in the yard of the War Office at Washington.

[208] A locality of serpentine rock has since been discovered at Presque Isle, on Lake Superior.

Several other large masses of native copper have been found, either on this river or within the basin of the lake, at various periods since the country has been known, and taken into different parts of the United States and of Europe. A recent analysis of one of these specimens, at the University of Leyden, proves it to be native copper in a state of uncommon purity, and uncombined with any notable portion of either gold or silver.

A mass of copper, weighing twenty-eight pounds, was discovered on an island in Lake Superior, eighty miles west of the Ontonagon. It was taken to Michilimackinac and disposed of. The War Department was formerly supplied with a specimen from this mass, and the analysis above alluded to is also understood to have been made from a portion of it. A piece weighing twelve pounds was found at Winnebago Lake. Other discoveries of this metal have been made, within the region, at various times and places.

The existence of copper in the region of Lake Superior appears to have been known to the earliest travellers and voyagers.

As early as 1689, the Baron La Hontan, in concluding a description of Lake Superior, adds: "That, upon it, we also find copper mines, the metal of which is so fine and plentiful that there is not a seventh part lost from the ore."--_New Voyages to North America_, London, 1703.

In 1721, Charlevoix passed through the lakes on his way to the Gulf of Mexico, and did not allow the mineralogy of the country to escape him.

"Large pieces of copper are found in some places on its banks [Lake Superior], and around some of the islands, which are still the objects of a superstitious worship among the Indians. They look upon them with veneration, as if they were the presents of those gods who dwell under the waters. They collect their smallest fragments, which they carefully preserve, without, however, making any use of them. They say that formerly a huge rock of this metal was to be seen elevated a considerable height above the surface of the water, and, as it has now disappeared, they pretend that the gods have carried it elsewhere; but there is great reason to believe that, in process of time, the waves of the lake have covered it entirely with sand and slime. And it is certain that in several places pretty large quantities of this metal have been discovered without being obliged to dig very deep. During the course of my first voyage to this country, I was acquainted with one of our order (Jesuits) who had been formerly a goldsmith, and who, while he was at the mission of Sault de Ste. Marie used to search for this metal, and made candlesticks, crosses, and censers of it, for this copper is often to be met with almost entirely pure."--_Journal of a Voyage to North America._

In 1766, Captain Carver procured several pieces of native copper on the shores of Lake Superior, or on the Chippewa and St. Croix Rivers, which are noticed in his travels, without much precision, however, as to locality, &c. He did not visit the southern shores of Lake Superior, east of the entrance of the Brulé, or Goddard's River, but states that virgin copper is found on the Ontonagon. Of the north and northeastern shores, he remarks: "That he observed that many of the small islands were covered with copper _ore_, which appeared like beds of copperas, of which many tons lay in a small space."--_Three Years' Travels, &c._

In 1771 (four years before the breaking out of the American Revolution), a considerable body of native copper was dug out of the alluvial earth on the banks of the Ontonagon River by two adventurers, of the names of Henry and Bostwick, and, together with a lump of silver ore of eight pounds' weight, it was transported to Montreal, and from thence shipped to England, where the silver ore was deposited in the British Museum, after an analysis had been made of a portion of it, by which it was determined to contain 60 per cent. of silver.

These individuals were members of a company which had been formed in England for the purpose of working the copper mines of Lake Superior. The Duke of Gloucester, Sir William Johnson, and other gentlemen of rank were members of this company. They built a vessel at Point aux Pins, six miles above the Sault Ste. Marie, to facilitate their operations on the lake. A considerable sum of money was expended in explorations and digging. Isle Maripeau and the Ontonagon were the principal scenes of their search. They found silver, in a detached form, at Point Iroquois, fifteen miles above the present site of Fort Brady.

"Hence," observes Henry, "we coasted westward, but found nothing till we reached the Ontonagon, where, besides the detached masses of copper formerly mentioned, _we saw much of the same metal imbedded in stone_.

"Proposing to ourselves to make a trial on the hill, till we were better able to go to work upon the solid rock, we built a house, and sent to the Sault de Ste. Marie for provisions. At the spot pitched upon for the commencement of our operations, a green-colored water, which tinges iron of a copper color, issued from the hill, and this the miners called a _leader_. In digging, they found frequent masses of copper, some of which were of three pounds' weight. Having arranged everything for the accommodation of the miners during the winter, we returned to the Sault.

"Early in the spring of 1772, we sent a boat-load of provisions, but it came back on the 20th day of June, bringing with it, to our surprise, the whole establishment of miners. They reported that, in the course of the winter, they had penetrated forty feet into the face of the hill, but, on the arrival of the thaw, the clay, on which, on account of its stiffness, they had relied, and neglected to secure it by supporters, had fallen in. That, from the detached masses of metal which, to the last, had daily presented themselves, they supposed there might be ultimately reached a body of the same, but could form no conjecture of its distance, except that it was probably so far off as not to be pursued without sinking an air shaft. And, lastly, that the work would require the hands of more men than could be fed in the actual situation of the country.

"Here our operations, in this quarter, ended. The metal was probably within our reach, but, if we had found it, the expense of carrying it to Montreal must have exceeded its marketable value. It was never for the exportation of copper that our company was formed, but always with a view to the silver, which it was hoped the ores, whether of copper or lead, might in sufficient quantity contain."--_Travels and Adventures of Alexander Henry._

[In the summer of 1832, being detained by head winds at the mouth of Miner's River, on Lake Superior, I observed the names of several persons engraved on the sand rock, but much obliterated by the water's dashing over the rock. Tradition represents that Henry's miners were detained there, and that they made explorations of the river, which is named from the circumstance. The stream is a mere brook, coming over the shelving sand rock, which is a part of the precipitous range of the Pictured Rocks.]

Sir A. Mackenzie passed through Lake Superior, on his first voyage of discovery, in 1789. He remarks: "At the River Tennagon (Ontonagon) is found a quantity of virgin copper. The Americans, soon after they got possession of the country, sent an agent thither; and I should not be surprised to hear of their employing people to work the mine. Indeed, it might be well worthy the attention of the British subjects to work the mines on the north coast, though they are not supposed to be so rich as those on the south."--_Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of North America._

It is difficult to conceive what, however, is apparent, from the references of Dr. Franklin to the subject, that the supposed mineral riches of Lake Superior had an important bearing on the discussions for settling the ultimate northern boundary of the United States. The British ambassadors had, it seems, from an old map which is before me, claimed a line through the Straits of Michilimackinac and the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, to the Gulf of Mexico.

The attention of the United States Government appears first to have been turned toward the subject during the administration of President John Adams, when the sudden augmentation of the navy rendered the employment of copper in the equipment of ships an object of moment. A mission was therefore authorized to proceed to Lake Superior, of the success of which, as it has not been communicated to the public, nothing can, with certainty, be stated; but from inquiries which have been made during the recent expedition, it is rendered probable that the actual state of our Indian relations, at the time, arrested the advance of the officer into the region where the most valuable beds of copper were supposed to exist, and that the specimens transmitted to Government were procured through the instrumentality of some friendly Indians, employed for the purpose.

Such are the lights which those who have preceded me in this inquiry have thrown upon the subject, all of which have operated in producing public belief in the existence of extensive copper mines on Lake Superior. Travellers have generally coincided that the southern shore of the lake is most metalliferous, and that the Ontonagon River may be considered as the seat of the principal mines. Mr. Gallatin, in his report on the state of American manufactures in 1810, countenances the prevalent opinion, while it has been reiterated in some of our literary journals, and in the numerous ephemeral publications of the times, until public expectation has been considerably raised in regard to them.

Under these circumstances, the recent expedition under Gov. Cass entered the mouth of the Ontonagon River on the 27th of June, having coasted along the southern shore of the lake from the head of the River St. Mary. We spent four days upon the banks of that stream, in the examination of its mineralogy, during which the principal part of our party was encamped at the mouth of the river. Gov. Cass, accompanied by such persons as were necessary in the exploration, proceeded, in two light canoes, to the large mass of copper which has already been described. We found the river broad, deep, and gentle for a distance, and serpentine in its course; then becoming narrower, with an increased velocity of current, and, before reaching the Copper Rock, full of rapids and difficult of ascent. We left our canoes at a point on the rapids, and proceeded on foot, across a rugged tract of country, around which the river formed an extensive semicircle. We came to the river again at the locality of copper. In the course of this curve the river is separated into two branches of nearly equal size. The copper lies on the right-hand fork, and it is subsequently ascertained that this branch is intercepted by three cataracts, at which the river descends over precipitous cliffs of sandstone. The aggregate fall of water at these cataracts has been estimated at seventy feet.

The channel of the river at the Copper Rock is rapid and shallow, and filled with detached masses of rock, which project above the water. The bed of the river is upon sandstone, similar to that under the Palisades on the Hudson. The waters are reddish, a color which they evidently owe to beds of ferruginous clay. The Copper Rock lies partly in the water. Other details in the geological structure and appearance of the country are interesting; but they do not appear to demand a more particular consideration in this report.

During our continuance upon this stream, we procured from an Indian a separate mass of copper weighing nearly nine pounds; which will be forwarded to the War Department. This specimen is partially enveloped with a crust of green carbonate of copper. Small fragments of quartz and sand adhere to the under side, upon which it would appear to have fallen in a liquid state. Several smaller pieces of this metal were procured during our excursion up the Ontonagon, or along the shores of the lake east of this stream.

It may be added that discoveries of masses of native copper, like those of gold and other metals, are generally considered indicative of the existence of mines in the neighborhood. The practical miner regards them as signs which point to larger bodies of the same metals, in the earth, and he is often determined by discoveries of this nature in the choice of the spot for commencing his labors. The predictions drawn from such evidence are more sanguine in proportion to the extent of the discovery. They are not, however, unerring indications, and appear liable to many exceptions. Metallic masses are sometimes found at great distances from their original repositories; and the latter, on the contrary, sometimes occur in the earth, or imbedded in rock strata, where there have been no great external discoveries.

From all the facts, which I have been able to collect on Lake Superior, and after a full deliberation upon them since my return, I have drawn the following conclusions:--

1. That the diluvial soil along the banks of the Ontonagon River, extending to its source, and embracing the contiguous region, which gives origin to the Monomonee River of Green Bay, and to the Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix Rivers of the Mississippi, contains very frequent, and several extraordinary masses of native, or metallic copper. But that no body of this metal, which is sufficiently extensive to become the object of profitable mining operations, has yet been found at any particular place. This conclusion is supported by the facts adduced, and, so far as theoretical aids can be relied upon, by an application of those facts to the theories of mining. A further extent of country might have been embraced, along the shores of Lake Superior, but the same remark appears applicable to it.

2. That a more intimate knowledge of the mineralogical resources of the country, may be expected to result in the discovery of valuable ores of copper, in the working of which occasional masses and veins of the native metal, may materially enhance the advantages of mining. This inference is rendered probable by the actual state of discoveries, and by the geological character of the country.

These deductions embrace all I have to submit on the mineral geography of the country, so far as regards the copper mines. Other considerations arise from the facilities which the country may present for mining--its adaptation to the purposes of agriculture--the state and disposition of the Indian tribes, and other topics which a design to commence metallurgical operations would suggest. But I have not considered it incumbent upon me to enter into details upon these subjects. It may, in brief, be remarked that the remote situation of the country does not favor the pursuit of mining. It would require the employment of a military force to protect such operations. For, whatever may be their professions, the Indian tribes of the north possess strong natural jealousies, and in situations so remote, are only to be restrained from an indulgence in malignant passions, by the fear of military chastisement.

In looking upon the southern shore of Lake Superior, the period appears distant, when the advantages flowing from a military post upon that frontier, will be produced by the ordinary progress of our settlements--for it presents but few enticements for the agriculturalist. A considerable portion of the shore is rocky, and its alluvions are, in general, of too sandy and light a character for profitable husbandry. With an elevation of six hundred and forty-one feet above the Atlantic, and drawing its waters from territories situated north of the forty-sixth degree of north latitude, Lake Superior cannot be represented as enjoying a climate favorable to the productions of the vegetable kingdom. Its forest trees are chiefly those of the fir kind, mixed with varieties of the betula, lynn, oak, and maple. Meteorological observations indicate, however, a warm summer, the average observed heat of the month of June being 69. But the climate is subject to a long and severe winter, and to sudden transitions of the summer temperature. We saw no Indian corn among the natives.

A country lacking a fertile soil, may still become a rich mining country, like the county of Cornwall in England, the Hartz Mountains in Germany, and a portion of Missouri, in our own country. But this deficiency must be compensated by the advantages of geographical position, a contiguous or redundant population, partial districts of good land, or a good market. To these, the mineral districts of Lake Superior can advance but a feeble claim, while it lies upwards of three hundred miles beyond the utmost point of our settlements, and in the occupation of savage tribes whose hostility has been so recently manifested.

Concerning the variety, importance, and extent of its latent mineral resources, I think little doubt can remain. Every fact which has been noticed tends to strengthen the belief that future observations will indicate extensive mines upon its shores, and render it an attractive field of mineralogical discovery. In the event of mining operations, the facilities of a ready transportation of the crude ores to the Sault de Ste. Marie, will point out that place as uniting, with a commanding geographical position, superior advantages for the reduction of the ores, and the general facilities of commerce. At this place, a fall of twenty-two feet, in the river, in the distance of half a mile, creates sufficient power to drive hydraulic works to any extent; while the surrounding country is such as to admit of an agricultural settlement.

I accompany this report with a geological sketch of a vertical section of the left bank of the Mississippi at St. Peter's, embracing a formation of native copper. This formation was first noticed by the officers of the garrison, who directed the quarrying of stone at this spot. The masses of copper found are small, none exceeding a pound in weight.

I have the honor to be, sir, With great respect, Your ob't servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VII.

_Observations on the Geology and Mineralogy of the Region embracing the Sources of the Mississippi River, and the Great Lake Basins, during the Expedition of 1820. Illustrated with Geological Profiles, and Numerous Diagrams and Views of Scenery._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, U. S. Geol. and Minera. Exp.

To the Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_.

WASHINGTON, April 2, 1822.

SIR: I have the honor, herewith, to submit the general report of my observations on the geology and mineralogy of the region visited by the recent expedition to the sources of the Mississippi River. I transmitted to the Department on the 6th of November, 1820, a report on the existence of Copper Mines in the Basin of Lake Superior, together with specimens of the native metal, which were politely taken charge of at Albany by General Stephen Van Rensselaer, M. C. Will it be consistent with the views of the Department to print these reports?

I have the honor to be, sir, Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

REPLY.

WAR DEPARTMENT, April 6, 1822.

SIR: I have received your interesting report on the geology and mineralogy of that section of the western country embraced by the late expedition of Gov. Cass; and, although I have not had it in my power, as yet, to peruse it with attention, I will see you, at any time you please, on the subject of your letter respecting it.

I am, sir, Respectfully, Your obedient servant, J. C. CALHOUN.

Mr. HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

ALBANY, March, 1822.

SIR: Agreeably to your appointment as a member of the expedition to explore the sources of the Mississippi, by the way of the Lakes, I proceeded to join the party organized for that purpose at Detroit, by His Excellency Lewis Cass. Diurnal notes were kept of the changes in the geological features of the regions visited; of the mineralogy of the country; and of such facts as could be ascertained, with the means at command, to determine its general physical character and value.[209]

[209] The two geological profiles of the Mississippi Valley and the Lake Basins accompanying the original are here omitted; as, also, most of the illustrative views of scenery which accompanied the original.

I have heretofore reported to you the facts and appearances which indicate the existence of the ores of copper, and of valuable deposits of copper in its native form, in the basin of Lake Superior--a point which constituted one of the primary objects to which my attention was called--and I now proceed to state such particulars in the topics confided to me as fell within my observation.

In generalizing the facts, it must be observed that the expedition had objects of a practical character relative to the number, disposition, and feelings to be learned respecting the Indian tribes; that the transit over large portions of the country was necessarily rapid; and that few opportunities of elaborate or long-continued observations occurred at any one point. The topography was committed to a gentleman who is every way qualified for that topic, who was well supplied with instruments, and who will do ample justice to that department. I make these remarks to prepare you for a class of observations which are necessarily technical, and quite imperfect, and to which it is felt that it will not be an easy task to impart a high degree of interest, whatever may have been the anticipations.

To prepare the mind to appreciate the account which I give of changes and developments in the physical structure of the country, it may be observed that the American continent has experienced some of the most striking mutations in its structure _at_ and _north_ of the great chain of lakes. That chain is itself rather the evidence of disruptions and upheavals of formations, which give its northern coasts, to some extent, the character of ancient--very ancient--volcanic areas of action. These lakes form--except Erie and Ontario--the general boundaries between the primitive and secondary strata. But, however striking this fact may, at particular localities, appear--such as at the Straits of St. Mary, of which the east and west shores are, geologically, of different construction--yet nothing in the grand phenomena of the whole region visited is so remarkable as the boulder stratum, which is spread, generally, from the north to the south. Some of the blocks of rock are enormous, and would seem to defy any known cause of removal from their parent beds; others are smaller, and have had their angles removed, and far the greater number of these transported boulders are quite smooth and rounded by the force of attrition. This drift stratum has been tossed and scattered from its northern latitudes over the surface of the limestones and sandstones of the south. It is mixed with the diluvial soils, in Michigan and elsewhere; but it is evident that, in its diffusion south, the heavier pieces have settled first, while comparatively minute boulders have been carried over or dropped in the plains and prairies of Ohio, Illinois, and more southerly regions. Nobody, with an eye to geology, can mistake the heavy boulder deposits which mark the southern shores of Huron, and become still more abundant on the St. Mary's, the shores of Lake Superior, and along the channels of the River St. Louis and the Upper Mississippi.

Lake Superior has been the central theatre of volcanic upheavals; but they must have operated at very remote periods, for there is not only no evidence of existing volcanic fires, but the heavy debris everywhere bespeaks long intervals of quietude, and slow elementary degradation. Some of the upheavals were made after the deposition of the sandstone rocks, which are, as at the foot of the Porcupine Mountains, raised up to stand nearly vertical; while other districts of the granitic rock, as at Granite Point, had been elevated before the deposition of the sandstone rock, which is accurately adjusted to its asperities, and remains quite horizontal.

The granitical series of strata, which is apparent in northern New York in the Kayaderasseras Mountains, and at the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence, reappear on the north shores of Huron and Superior, underlie the bed of the latter, and rise up in the rough coast between the Chocolate River and Kewaiwenon, cross the Mississippi at the Petite Roche, above the Falls of St. Anthony, and put out spurs as low down as the source of the Fox, the St. Croix, and the head of the St. Peter's Rivers.

These glimpses of some of the leading points in the geological structure of the regions visited, will enable you to follow my details more understandingly. These details begin at Detroit. From this place the expedition passed, by water, along the southern shores of Lakes St. Clair, Huron, and Superior, to the Fond du Lac; thence, up the River St. Louis, to the Savanne summit. Thence we proceeded across the portage to Sandy Lake, which has an outlet into the Mississippi, and followed up the latter, through the lesser Lake Winnipek, to the entrance of the Turtle River, in Cass, or upper, Red Cedar Lake, which is laid down by Pike in north latitude 47° 42´ 40´´.[210] The state of the water was unfavorable to going higher.

[210] Pike's Expedition. This observation is corrected by Capt. Douglass to 47° 27´ 10´´; the point of observation being, however, a few miles south.

From this point, which formed the terminus of the expedition, we descended the Mississippi, making portages around the Falls of Pekagama and St. Anthony, to Prairie du Chien. An excursion was made by me down the Mississippi to the mineral district of Dubuque. We ascended the Wisconsin, to the portage into the Fox River, and traced the latter down to its entrance into Green Bay. At this point, the expedition separated; a part proceeding north, through the bay, to Michilimackinac, and a part going south, along the west shores of Lake Michigan, to Chicago, the latitude of which is placed by Capt. Douglass in 41° 54´ 06´´. At this place, a further division took place. Dr. Wolcott, having reached his station, remained. Governor Cass proceeded across the peninsula of Michigan to Detroit on horseback, leaving Capt. Douglass and myself to complete the survey of Lake Michigan. We rejoined the northern party detached at Green Bay, under Mr. Trowbridge and Mr. Doty, at Michilimackinac; and, after repassing the southern coast of Lakes Huron and St. Clair, reached Detroit.

Topographically, a very wide expanse of wilderness country had been seen. The entire length of route computed to have been traversed, exceeds four thousand miles, in the course of which we had crossed nineteen portages, over which all the baggage and canoes were conveyed on the shoulders of men. We encountered actual resistance from the Indians at only one point.[211] I kept my journals continually before me, and had my pencil in hand every morning as soon as it was light enough to discern objects. I began my geological observations at Detroit.

[211] _Vide_ Narrative Journal.

This ancient city, founded by the French in 1701, stands upon an argillaceous stratum, which is divided, topographically, into an upper and lower bank. Wherever this clay has been examined by digging, it discloses pebbles of various species of rock, denoting it, as far as these extend at least, to be a part of the great drift stratum.

In digging a well near the old Council House, in the northeast part of the city, the top soil appeared to be less than two feet. The workmen then passed through a stratum of blue clay, of eight or ten feet, when they struck a vein of coarse sand, six or eight inches in thickness, through which the water entered profusely. The digging was carried through another bed of blue clay, twenty or twenty-two feet in depth, when the men reached a stratum of fine yellow sand, into which they dug three feet and stopped, having found sufficient water. The whole depth of the well is thirty-three feet. The water is clear and rapid. No vegetable or other remains were found, and but few primitive pebbles.

In another well, situated near the centre of the town, the depth of which is twelve feet, the top soil was found to be two feet and a half; then a bed of gravel, seven feet; a vein of blue clay, eight inches, and the residue a whitish-blue clay, very compact and hard; a copious supply of water having been found. The water is, however, slightly colored, and is of a quality called hard.

In some places, this clay drift yields balls of iron pyrites, which renders the water unpalatable. At what depth the rock would be struck, if the excavation were continued, can only be conjectured. A well has been dug, a short distance below the city, upwards of sixty feet, chiefly through clay and gravel, without reaching the rock; but abraded fragments of granite and hornblende rocks were thrown from the greatest depths.

The bed of the river opposite the city has been stated to consist of limestone rock, but without any proof or much probability. From the fact of its affording a good anchorage to vessels, I am inclined to think that it is wholly composed of clay and gravel.

DETROIT FLUVIATILE CLAY.--The argillaceous stratum of Detroit extends along both banks of the river to its head; passes around the shores of Lake St. Clair, and up the River St. Clair to Fort Gratiot--a distance of seventy miles. In this distance there are some moderate elevations and depressions in the surfaces of the soil, but no very striking changes in its general character and composition. The boulder stratum is prominent at Gros Point, at the foot of Lake St. Clair, where the shore exhibited some heavy blocks of granite, and other foreign rock.

ST. CLAIR FLATS OF PLASTIC CLAY.--At the mouth of the River St. Clair, the current is divided into several channels, and spread over a considerable tract of low ground, which is covered with grasses and aquatic plants. These channels have worn their way through beds of tough blue clay, called the flats, over which there is sometimes not over seven feet eight inches of water in the ship channel. They consequently form an impediment to commerce. The depth is, however, always increased in the spring season, when twelve inches more may be generally relied on. Frequently, during the droughts of summer, a change of wind, and its steady continuance for some time, will allow ships to pass without lighters. The permanent removal of this bar is, however, an object of national importance, which cannot but be felt, as the tonnage of the lakes increases.

ANCIENT DUNE; A BURIED FOREST.--The principal spot where the lands, in the immediate vicinity of the water, assume any considerable or abrupt elevation, is included between Black River of the St. Clair and Lake Huron. Here the outlet of the lake, which is rapid, washes the base of a ridge, or ancient dune, elevated fifty or sixty feet above the water. Fort Gratiot occupies the upper part of this elevation. The lower part consists of the blue clay stratum, corresponding in character with that found in the wells of Detroit. It is overlaid by a deposit of sand, forming two-thirds of the entire height. This elevation is crowned with a light forest of oak and other species. At the line of junction between the sand and clay, a number of trees are seen to be horizontally imbedded, projecting their roots and trunks in a striking manner above the water. These trees, on inspection, are merely preserved, not petrified. They appear to have been exposed to view, in modern times, by the wearing away of the bank. Certainly, none of the old travellers mention them.

The mode of this formation may be clearly seen. Winds, at some ancient period, have been the agent of blowing the sands, as they were washed up by the lake, and redepositing them on part of a prostrated forest, resting directly on the clay stratum. The trees, thus buried in dry sand, have been preserved. In process of time, the river encroached upon these antique beds, exposing them to view. There are also antique fresh-water shells found in similar positions near this spot. No rock is, thus far, found _in sitû_ in ascending the lakes. The old surface of the country is wholly of diluvial formation, except where it shows lake action.

HURON COAST FROM FORT GRATIOT TO MICHILIMACKINAC.--About two hundred and thirty miles lie stretched out between these two points. Lake Huron charms the eye, with the view of its freshness and oceanic expanse. But the entrance is without rock scenery, and the student of its geology must be a patient gleaner along its shores. Long coasts of sand and gravel extend before the eye, and they are surmounted, at a moderate elevation, with a dense foliage, which limits the view of its structure to a narrow line. Portions of this coast are heavily loaded with the primitive debris[212] from the North. These are found, in some places, in heavy masses, but all are more or less abraded, showing that they have been transported from their original beds. In one of these, I observed crystals of staurotide.

[212] In 1824, an Indian brought me a specimen of native silver found on this part of the coast. It was imbedded in a boulder of mixed granite and steatite.

The first section of this coast reaches from Fort Gratiot to Point aux Barques, a distance of about seventy-five miles. Nearly midway lies the White Rock, a very large boulder of whitish-gray semi-crystalline limestone, lying off the shore about half a mile, in water of about one and a half fathom's depth. It is the effect of gulls lighting upon this rock, and not the intensity of the color of the stone, that has originated the name--which is a translation of the _Roche Blanche_ of the older _voyageurs_. The Detroit clay-formation still characterizes the coast.

FIRST EMERGENCE OF ROCK, IN PLACE, ABOVE THE SURFACE.--We are passing, in this section, along and near to the outcrop of the secondary strata of the peninsula, but these strata are covered with a heavy deposit of diluvial clays, sands, and pebble drift. The first emergence of fixed rocks, above the line of the drift, occurs after passing Elm Creek in the advance to Ship Point (_Pointe aux Barques_). It is a species of coarse gray, loosely compacted sandstone, in horizontal layers. This rock continues to characterize the coast to and around the Ship Point promontory into Saganaw Bay. It possesses a few fossil remains of corallines; but the rock is not of sufficient compactness and durability for architectural purposes. It is conjectured to be one of the outlying series of the coal measures, of which this coast exhibits, further on, other evidences.

SAGANAW BAY.--The phenomena of this large body of water, which is some sixty miles long, appear to indicate an original rent in the stratification, having its centre of action very deep. If the peninsula of Michigan be likened to a huge fish's head, this bay may be considered as its open mouth. We crossed the inner bay from Point aux Chenes, where it is estimated to be twenty miles across.[213] The traverse is broken by an island, to which the Indians, with us, applied the name of Sha-wan-gunk.[214] It is composed of a dark-colored limestone, of dull and earthy fracture and compact structure. It presents broken and denuded edges at the water level. I observed in it nodular masses of chalcedony and calc. spar. The margin of the island bears fragments of the boulder stratum.

[213] Ships make the traverse where it is sixty miles wide.

[214] The reason of this name I did not learn. It is apparently the same name as that bestowed on a mountain range in Orange and Ulster Counties, New York, lying south of the Catskills, where it is sometimes called, for short, Shongum. The meaning is, evidently, something like South-land-place. The local _unk_ may be translated hill, island, continent, &c. &c.

HIGHLANDS OF SAUBLE.--On crossing the bay, these highlands present themselves to view in the distance. They are the north-eastern verge of the most elevated central strata of the peninsula. Their structure can only be inferred from the formations along the margin of the lake, extending by Thunder Bay and Presque Isle, and the Isles of Bois Blanc and Round Island to Michilimackinac. At Thunder Bay, the compact limestone of the Saganaw Islands reappears, and is constantly in sight from this point to Presque Isle. It exists in connection with bituminous shale, at an island in Thunder Bay. It is of a dark carbonaceous character on the main opposite Middle Island, at a point which is called by the Indians _Sho-sho-ná-bi-kó-king_, or Place of the Smooth Rock. I noticed at this point the cyathophyllum helianthoides in abundance, and easily detached them from the rock. The more compact portions of this formation in the approach to Presque Isle, disclosed the ammonite, two species of the gorgonia, and the fragment of a species of chambered shell, whose character is indeterminate.

Much of the coast was footed, as the winds were adverse, and its debris thus subjected to a careful scrutiny. Wherever the limestone was broken up or receded from the water, long lines of yellow beach-sand and lake-gravel, including members of the erratic block stratum, intervened. In some localities, local beds of iron sand occur.

MICHILIMACKINAC.[215]--The approach to this island was screened from our view by the woody shores and forests of Bois Blanc, an island of some twelve miles in length lying off the main land; and the view of it first burst upon us in the narrow channel between it and Round Island. It is a striking geological monument of mutations. Here the calcareous rock, which had before exhibited itself in low ledges along the shore is piled up in masses, which reach an extreme altitude of three hundred and twelve feet. About two hundred feet of this elevation is precipitous on its south, east, and west edge. A hundred feet or more is piled up on its centre, part rock and part soil, in a crowning shape. The highest part of this apex, which is surmounted by the ruins of Fort Holmes, consists of the drift stratum, among which are boulders of sienite, and other foreign rocks. A locality of these abraded boulder-rocks, near the Dousman farm, is worthy of a visit from all who take an interest in the phenomena of boulders dispersed over the continent. The fishermen represent the water around this island to be eighty fathoms in depth. Yet, across these waters, to the utmost altitude of the island, these blocks of foreign rock have been transported. No force capable of effecting this is now known. And the argument of their having been transported on cakes of ice, in the nascent periods of the globe, is rendered stronger by these appearances than any geological proofs which I have yet seen.

[215] The name, as pronounced by the Indians, is Mich-en-i-mack-in-ong, meaning Place of Turtle Spirits, a notion of their mythology. It was anciently deemed a sacred spot, or one where Monetoes revealed themselves.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE MACKINAC LIMESTONE.--Nothing appears so completely to puzzle the observer as the first glance at this rock. It is different in appearance from the calcareous rocks, to which my attention has heretofore been called in Western New York, and in Missouri and Illinois. The difficulty is to find a point of comparison. I walked entirely around the island, partly in water, the northern shores being comparatively low. There appeared to be three layers. The first, which rises up from the depths of the lake, scarcely, if at all, reaches the water level. Upon this is superimposed a vesicular rock, of which the vesicles are filled with carbonate of lime in the state of agaric mineral. By exposure to the air, this substance readily decomposes, and assumes an almost limey whiteness, and sometimes a complete pulverulent state. The reticular, or vesicular lines, by which the mass is held together, are thus weakened, and large masses of the craggy parts fall, and assume the condition of debris at the water's edge. Some conditions of the reticulated filaments are covered with minute crystals of cal. spar; others of minutely crystallized quartz. There appear, at other localities, in low positions, layers of quartz in the condition of a coarse bluish, flinty, striped agate. The entire stratum appears to be a reproduced mass, which is plainly denoted, if I mistake not, by some imbedded masses of an elder lime-rock. The whole stratum is too shelly and fissured to be of value for economical purposes. It yields neither quicklime nor building stone.

Fort Mackinac is erected on the summit of this stratum. The two objects of curiosity, called the Arched Rock, and the point called Robinson's Folly, are evidences of this tendency of the cliffs to disintegration. The superior stratum which constitutes the nucleus of the Fort Holmes' summit, contains more silex, diffused throughout its structure. It is, however, of a loose, though hard and shelly character; and has, in the geological mutations of the island been chiefly demolished and washed away. The monumental mass of this period of demolition, called the Sugar Loaf, is a proof that it contained, either by its shape, or otherwise, a superior power of resisting these means of ancient prostration. Striking as it now appears, this is the simple story which it tells. Its apex is probably level, or nearly so, with the Fort Holmes's summit. Over the whole island, after these demolitions, the drift stratum was deposited.

The German geognosts apply the term _mushelkalk_, to this species of calcareous rock. It is, apparently, the magnesian limestone of English writers.

ANCIENT WATER LINES.--Such marks appear on the most compact parts of the cliffs, denoting the water to have stood, during the ancient boundaries of the lake, at higher levels.

LAKE ACTION.--It is known that strong currents set into the Straits of Michilimackinac, and out of it, from Lake Michigan, at this point. The fishermen, who set their nets at four hundred feet in the waters, often bring up, entangled in their nets, large compact masses of limestone, which have been fretted into a kind of lacework, by the rotatory motion of little pebbles and grains of sand, kept in perpetual motion by the water at the bottom of the lake.

ORGANIC IMPRESSIONS.--There are cast up among the lake debris of this island, casts of some species of orthocaratites, ammonites, and madrepores, which appear to be derived from the calcareous rocks in place in the basin of Lake Huron. But the rock strata of the island itself appear to be singularly destitute of these remains. The only species which I have noticed, is one that was thrown up from a well attempted to be dug, on the apex of Fort Holmes, by the British troops, while they held possession of the island in 1813, 1814, and 1815. But this is uniformly fragmentary. It has the precise appearance of the head of a trilobite, but never reveals the whole of the lateral lobes, nor any of the essential connecting parts. It is silicious.

GYSEUS FORMATION.--Evidences of the extension of this formation to this vicinity were brought to my notice; in consequence of which I visited the St. Martin's Islands, which belong to the Mackinac group. Masses of gypsum were found imbedded in the soil, both of the fibrous and compact variety. These islands are low diluvial formations. Similar masses are found on Goose Island; and the mineral has been found at Point St. Ignace on the main land.

Taken in connection with the discovery of this mineral, at a subsequent part of the journey on Grand River, the indications of the series of the saline group of rocks, so prevalent in the Mississippi Valley, are quite clear up to this extreme point, which is, however, very near the northern verge of this group.

HONEYCOMBED ROCKS.--As evidences of existing lake action, it has already been mentioned that the fishermen bring up, from great depths in the straits, pieces of compact limestone, completely fretted and excavated by small pebbles, which are kept in motion by the strong currents which prevail at profound depths. The process of their formation by these currents is such, as in some instances to give the appearance of cellepores, and analogous forms of organic life. I have seen nothing in these carious forms which does not reveal the mechanical action of these waters.

PSEUDOMORPHIC FORMS.--Amongst the limestone debris, of recent date, found on these shores, are pieces of rock which have an appearance as if they had been punctured with a lancet, or blade of a penknife. These incisions are numerous, and from their regularity, appear to have been moulded on some crystals which have subsequently decayed. Yet, there are difficulties in supposing such to have been the origin of these small angular orifices.

Whenever these masses are examined by obtaining a fresh fracture, they are found to consist of the compact gray and semi-granular rock of the inferior Mackinac group, but in no instance of the vesicular or silicious varieties. These blocks appear to be identical in character with the White Rock, before noticed.

NORTH SHORE OF LAKE HURON.--The next portion of the country examined was that of the north shores of the lake, extending from Michilimackinac to Point Detour, the west Cape of the Straits of St. Mary's, a distance computed to be forty miles. The calcareous rock, such as it appears in the inferior stratum of Mackinac, extends along this coast. The first three leagues of it, consist of an open traverse across an arm of the lake. Goose Island offers a shelter to the voyager, which is generally embraced. It consists of an accumulation of pebbles and boulders on a reef, with a light soil, resting on the lower limestone. It does not, perhaps, at any point, rise to an elevation of more than eight or ten feet above the water. Outard Point, a short league, or rather three miles further, exhibits the same underlying formation of rock, which is found wherever solid points put out into the lake, during the entire distance. The chain of islands called Chenos, extends about twenty miles, and affords shelter during storms to boatmen and canoemen, who are compelled to pass this coast. Large masses of the rock, with its angles quite entire, lie along parts of the shore, and appear to have been but recently detached. The intervals between these blocks and points of coast, are formed of the loose sand and pebbles of the lake, which are more or less affected by every tempest. The only organic remains and impressions are drift-specimens, which have been driven about by the waves, and are abraded. Broken valves of the anadonta, occasionally found in similar positions, denote that this species exists in the region, but that the outer localities of the coast are entirely unfavorable to their growth.

DRUMMOND ISLAND.--This island, now in the possession of British troops, who removed from Michilimackinac in 1816, is the western terminus of the Manatouline chain. We did not visit it, but learn from authentic sources, that it is a continuation of the nether Mackinac limestone--and that the locality abounds in loose petrifactions, which appear to have belonged to an upper stratum of the rock, now disrupted.[216]

[216] Dr. John Bigsby, in a memoir read before the London Geological Society, has described and figured several of these. In a memoir by Charles Stokes, Esq., of London, read before this Society in June, 1837, some of its most striking fossils are figured and described, with references to the prior discoveries of Dr. Bigsby, Captain Bayfield, and Dr. Richardson. Six new species of the Arctinoceras, and five of the Huronia, Ormoceras, and Orthocerata, are figured and described in the most splendid manner. This memoir is essential to all who would understand its fossil history, and that of the North generally.

STRAITS OF ST. MARY'S.--These straits, and the river which falls into their head, connect Lakes Huron and Superior. They appear to occupy the ancient line of junction between the great calcareous and granitic series of rocks on the continent. The limestone, which has been noticed along the north shore of the Huron from Michilimackinac, and which continues, with interruptions of water only, from Detour to Drummond Island, and the Manatoulines, is to be noticed up the straits as high as Isle a la Crosse, where the last locality of a pure carbonate of lime appears to occur. The island of St. Joseph is chiefly primitive rock, and its south end is heavily loaded with granitic, porphyritic, and quartz boulders. The north shores of the river, opposite and above this island, are entirely of the granitic series, which continues to Gros Cape of Lake Superior. On reaching the _Nebeesh_,[217] or Sailor's Encampment Island, sandstone rocks of a red color present themselves, and are found also on the American side of the river, and continue to characterize it to the Falls, or Sault de Ste. Marie,[218] and to Point Iroquois and Isle Parisien in Lake Superior.

[217] Strong water.

[218] Reached somewhere about 1641, by the French missionaries.

The Sault of St. Mary's is _upon_ and _over_ this red sandstone. The river makes several successive leaps, of a few feet at a time, in its central channel, falling, altogether, about twenty-two feet in half a mile. This gives it a foaming appearance, and the volume pours a heavy murmur on the ear.[219] It is, of course, a complete interruption to the navigation of vessels, which can, however, come to anchor near its foot, while barges may be pushed up, empty, on the American shore. The water-power created by such a change of level, is such as must commend the spot, at a future period, to manufacturers, lumbermen, and miners. The foot of these falls is heavily incumbered, both with masses of the disrupted sand-rock[220] and granitic and conglomerate boulders.

[219] In 1825, Lieutenant Charles F. Morton, U. S. A., sent to my office a mass of this red sand rock, of about twelve inches diameter, perfectly round and ball-shaped, which he had directed one of the soldiers to pick up, in an excursion among the islands of the lower St. Mary's. This ball was a monument of that physical throe which had originally carried this river through the sandstone pass of St. Mary's, having been manifestly rounded in what geologists have called "a pocket hole" in the rock at the falls, and afterwards carried away, with the disrupted rocks, down the valley.

[220] The Indiana call it _Pauwateeg_ (water leaping on the rocks), when speaking of the phenomenon, and _Pawating_, when referring to the place of it.

RED SANDSTONE OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--That this is the old red sandstone, may be inferred simply from the fact that, although deposited originally in horizontal beds, its position has been disturbed in many localities.

PLASTIC CLAY STRATUM OF THE LAKES.--The northern extremity of Muddy Lake--a sheet of water some twenty miles in length--is the head of the straits, and the beginning of the River St. Mary's. This sheet of water has the property of being rendered slightly whitish, or turbid, by continuous winds. Its bottom appears to be formed of the same plastic blue clay which obstructs the passage of vessels of large draft on the St. Clair flats, and forms an impediment of a similar kind in this river in Lake George. This stratum seems to be the result of causes not now in operation. If dredged through, or excavated, there is no reason to suppose it would again accumulate; for the waters of the lake are clear and pure, and carry down no deposit of the kind. These clay deposits remain to attest physical changes which are past. They denote the demolition of formations of slate in the upper regions, which have been broken down and washed away when the dominion of the waters was far more potential than they now are.

This formation is favorable to the growth of some species of fresh-water shells. I observed several species of the anadonta and the plenorbis, and think, from the broken valves, that research would develop others.

PORPHYRY AND CONGLOMERATE BOULDERS.--A formation of red jasper, in common white quartz, exists, in the bed of intersection, on the southeastern foot of Sugar Island. The fragments of jasper are of a bright vermil red, quite opaque, and have preserved their angles. I had observed fragments of the formation along the shores of the lower part of the straits, and even picked up some specimens, entirely abraded, however, on the south shores of the Huron, between the White Rock and Michilimackinac--a proof of the course of the drift.

The granitic conglomerates appear quite conclusive, one would think, of the results of fusion. The attraction of aggregation would seem inadequate to hold together such diverse masses. In these curious and striking masses we see the red feldspathic granite, black and shining hornblende rock, white fatty quartz, and striped jasper, held together as firmly, and polished by attrition as completely, as if they were--what they are not--the results of crystallization in this aggregate form.

ERRATIC BLOCK GROUP.--Wherever, in fact, the geologist sets his foot, on the shores of the upper lakes, he finds himself on the great drift stratum, and cannot but revert to that era when waters, on a grander scale, swept over these plains, and the lakes played rampantly over wider areas.[221]

[221] During a subsequent residence of eleven years at this point, the excavations made on both sides of the river, in digging wells, canals made by the military, &c., fully demonstrated the truth of this general observation. In these positions, it was evident that some greatly superior force of watery removal, such as does not now exist, had heaped together particles of similar matters, according to laws which govern moving, compacted masses of water, leaving clay to settle according to the laws of diffused clay, sand of sand, and pebbles and boulders of pebbles and boulders. In their change and redeposit, gravity has evidently been the primary cause, modified by compressed currents, attraction, and probably those secret and still undeveloped magnetic and electric influences which exist in connection with astronomical phenomena. That the earth's surface, "standing out of the water and in the water," has been disrupted and preyed upon by oceanic power, no one, at this day of geological illumination, will deny.

BASIN OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--We entered this island sea as if by a kind of geological gate, in which the sandstone cliffs of Point Iroquois, on the one hand, stand opposite to the granitical hills of Gross Cape on the other.

In order to conceive of its geology, it may subserve the purposes of description to compare it to a vast basonic crater. The rim of this crater has been estimated, by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, at fifteen hundred miles. The primitive formations of Labrador and Hudson's Bay coasts come up, so as to form the eastern and northern sides of the rim, around which they stand in cliffs of sienitic greenstone and hornblendic rocks, in some places a thousand feet high. On its south and southwest shores, this formation of the elder class of rocks forms also a considerable portion of the coast; as in the rough tract of Granite Point, the Porcupine and Iron River Mountains, and the primitive tract west of Chegoimegon, or Lapointe. It will serve to denote the broken character of this rim, if we state that the entire plain of the lake, running against and fitting to this rim, was originally filled up with the red, gray, and mottled sandstone, which gave way and fell in at localities west of the great Keweena Peninsula, converting its bottom into an anteclinal axis.

Volcanic action, to which this disturbance in its westerly bearings may be attributed, appears to have thrown up the trap-rocks of the Pic, of the Porcupine chain, of the Isle Royal group, and other trap islands, and the long peninsula of Keweena. This system of forces appears to have spent itself from the northeast to the southwest. The shocks brought with them the elements of the copper and other metallic bodies which characterize the trap-rock. They exhausted their power, on the American side, west of the granitic tract of Chocolate and Dead Rivers, and the Totosh and Cradle-Top Mountains. The most violent disturbance took place at the west of the Keweena Peninsula, and thence it was propagated in the direction of the higher Ontonagon, the Iron, and the Montreal rivers.

This disturbance of the level of the sandstone produced undulations, which are observable on the St. Mary's, where the variation from a level is not more than eight or ten degrees. They left portions of it--as between Isle au Train and the Firesteel River--undisturbed; and they threw other portions of it--as between Iron and Montreal rivers--almost completely on their edges.

The entire north shore from Gargontwa to the old Grand Portage, inclusive of the Michepicotin and Pic regions, cannot be particularly alluded to, as that part of the coast was not visited; but the accounts of observers represent it as consisting of trap-rocks. Without the application of such forces, it appears impossible to understand the geology of this lake, or to account for the sectional and disturbed formations.

The lake itself, whose depth is great, and which has an extreme length of about 500 miles, by an extreme width of some 180, is endowed with powerful means of existing elemental action. This consists almost entirely of the force of its winds and long, sweeping waves. Its bottom may, in this light, be looked upon as an immense mortar or triturating apparatus, in which its sandstones, trap-boulders, and pebbles are driven about and comminuted. This power has greatly changed its configuration, and the process of these mutations is daily going on.

It is only by such a power of geological action that we can account for the powerful demolitions and inroads which it has made upon some parts of its southern borders. The coasts of the Pictured Rocks, which have a prominent development of about 12 to 15 miles, consist in horizontal strata of coarse gray sandstone, of little cohering power. The effect of waves beating upon rocks is to communicate a curved line. This has operated to excavate numerous and extensive caves into the coast. These, after reaching hundreds of feet, have in some cases united. The effect is to isolate portions of the coast, and to leave it in fearful pinnacles, having many of the architectural characters of Gothic or Doric ruins.

The portion of coast immediately west of Grand Marrais is scarcely less unique. It denotes the effect of the prostrating power of the lake in another way. The sandstone of parts of the coast, ground down into yellow sand by this vast machinery, is lifted up by the winds as soon as it reaches the point of dryness, and heaped up into vast dunes. Standing trees are buried in these tempests of sand, and its effect is, for about nine miles along the coast, to present, at an elevation of several hundred feet, a scene of arid desolation, which can only be equalled by the Arabic deserts.

A dyke of trap seems once to have extended from the north shore to Point Keweena; but, if so, it has been prostrated, and its contents--veins and deposits, silicious and metallic--scattered profusely around the shores of the lakes. A cause less general is hardly sufficient to account for the wide distribution of fragments of the copper veins and vein-stones which have so long been noticed as characters of this lake. The basal remains of this antique dyke form the peninsula of Keweena. The tempests beating against this barrier from the northwest, have ripped up terrific areas from the solid rock, and left its covering, amygdaloid and rubblestones, in fantastic patches upon the more solid parts, or constituting islands in front of them.

STRUCTURE OF ITS SOUTHERN COAST.--The estimated distance from Sault Ste. Marie to Fond du Lac is a fraction over 500 miles. The sandstone, as it appears in the Falls of the St. Mary's, does not appear to be entirely level. It exhibits an undulation of about 8° or 10°, dipping to west-northwest. Two instances of this waved stratification of the Lake Superior sandstone deserve notice. The first terminates at the intersection of red sand rock at la Point des Grande Sables with the beginning of the horizontal strata of the Pictured Rocks. We again observe an inclination of the strata of a few degrees at Grand Island, which is moreingfish River, and appears to dip at Isle aux Trains, about twenty miles northeast. The scenery is peculiarly soft and pleasing in passing the Huron Islands, a granitic group, and directing the view, as in the sketch, to the coast and the rough granitical hills rising behind Huron Bay. The strata are level, as shown above, around the Bay of Presque Isle and Granite Point, and continue so, resting on the roots of the granitical tract of the _Tötosh_, or Schoolcraft, and Cradletop Mountains, and at Point aux Beignes, and Keweena Bay. This level position of the rock is preserved to the south cape of the shallow bay of the Bete Gre, on the north, at which the trap-dykes of the peninsula first begin; and so continues after passing that rugged coast of the vitreous series of that remarkable point, to and beyond Eagle River and Sandy Bay, in the approach to the portage of the Keweena.

The same horizontality is observed on the headland west of it, and upon all the points and headlands to Misery and Firesteel Rivers and the mouth of the Ontonagon. The trap-dyke of Keweena crosses this river about ten miles, in a direct line, inland.

At Iron River, we observe a stratum of compact gray grauwacke, over the hackly bed of which that river forces its way during the spring months, and stands in tanks and pools during the summer. On reaching the foot of the Porcupine Mountains, the sandstone, which is here of a dark chocolate color, with quartz pebbles of the bigness of a pigeon's egg, and organic remains of paleozoic type, is found to be tilted up into nearly a vertical position, as shown in the sketch. The grauwacke reappears, in a most striking manner, at the Falls of Presque Isle River, where the whole mass of water precipitated from the highlands drops into a vast pot-hole, a hundred feet wide and perhaps twice that depth. The whole upper series of rocks, from the Porcupine Cliffs west to the Montreal River, is a conglomerate. At the Falls of the Montreal, the river drops over the vertical edges of the red sandstone. Beyond the Bay of St. Chares, at Lapointe Chegoimigon, masses of sienitic mountains arise, which have their apex near La Riviere de Fromboise.

The Islands of the Twelve Apostles, or Federation Group, appear to be all based on the sienitic or trap, with overlying red sandstone; which latter again reappears on the point of the entrance into Fond du Lac Bay, and marks its southern coast, till near the entrance of the Brulé, or Misakoda River, as seen in the illustration beneath. Shores of sand then intercept its view to the entrance of the River St. Louis, and up its channel to its first rapids, about eighteen miles, where the red sandstone again appears, as the first series of the Cabotian Mountains.

SERPENTINE ROCK.--At the nearest point north of Rivier du Mort is a headland of this rock, jutting out from the granitical formation. Lapping against it, at the mouth of the river, is a curious formation of magnesian breccia. The serpentine rock appears, in nearly every locality examined, to be highly charged with particles of chromate of iron. It may be expected to yield the usual magnesian minerals.[222] Its position is between the Carp River and Granite Point, in the Bay of Presque Isle, or rather Chocolate River, for that river pours into this bay by far the largest quantity of water.[223]

[222] In 1831, in making some explorations of this rock with gunpowder, I found the serpentine in a crystalline state, of a beautiful deep-green color, but appearing as if the crystallization was pseudomorphous.

[223] The extensive iron mines of Marquette County, Upper Michigan, are now worked in this vicinity.

ANCIENT DRIFT-STRATUM.--In the intervals between the points and headlands, where the rock formation is exposed by streams or gorges, the drift, or erratic boulder stratum, is found. Such is its position beneath the sand-dunes of the Grandes Sables, and in the elder plains and uplands, stretching with interruptions on the coast from the head of the Mary's valley to that of the St. Louis. The edge of this formation is composed of the sand and loose pebbles and boulders of the lake. Mighty as are the existing causes of action of the lake in beating down and disrupting strata of every kind, and in reproducing alluvial lands and dunes, they are weak and local when compared to the causes which have spread these ponderous boulders, and drift masses over latitudes and longitudes which appear to be limited only by the leading elevations of the continent. That oceanic torrents of water, suddenly heaped on the land, and wedged into compactness and power now unknown to it, is after all, the most plausible theory of the dispersion of this formation, and this theory avoids the necessary local one of the glacial dispersion which presupposes a very low temperature over the whole surface of the globe.

KAUGWUDJU.[224]--This imposing mass of the trap-rocks is the highest on the southern shores of Lake Superior. The following outlines of it are taken from a point on the approach to the Ontonagon River, about forty miles distant.

[224] Porcupine Mountains. From _kaug_, a porcupine, and _wudju_, mountain.

They rise to their apex about thirty miles west of that stream, in north lat. 46° 52´ 2´´, as observed by Captain Douglass. They are distant three hundred and fifty miles from St. Mary's. In a serene day they present a lofty outline, and were seen by us from the east, at the distance of about eighty miles. The Indians represent them to have a deep tarn, with very imposing perpendicular walls, at one of the highest points. If Lake Superior be estimated at six hundred and forty feet above the Atlantic, as my notes indicate, its peaks are higher than any estimates we have of the source of the Mississippi, and are, at least, the highest elevations on this part of the continent. The granitical tract of the St. Francis, Missouri,[225] and of the quartz high lands of Wachita, Arkansas, the only two known primitive elevations between the Rocky and Alleghany chains, are far less elevated.

[225] _Vide_ my view of the lead mines, in the Appendix to "Scenes and Adventures in the Ozark Mountains."

I have now taken a rapid glance at the formations along the southern shore of the lake between St. Mary's and Fond du Lac; but have passed by some features which may be thought to merit attention.

EXISTING LAKE DRIFT.--The gleaner among the rock debris of this lake has a field of labor which is not dissimilar to that of the fossilist. If he has not, so to say, to put joint to joint, to establish his conclusions, he has a mineralogical adjustment to make every way as obscure. A boulder of sienite, or a mass of sandstone, or grauwacke, may be easily referred to a contiguous rock. But when the observer meets with species which are apparently foreign to the region, he is placed in a dilemma between the toil of an impossible scrutiny and the danger of an unlicensed conjecture.

Among the more common masses which may be assigned a locality within the compass of the lake, are granites, sienites, hornblendes, greenstones, schists, traps, grauwackes, sandstones, porphyries, quartz rocks, serpentines, breccias, amygdaloids, amphiboles, and a variety of masses in which epidote and hornblende are essential constituents. With these, the coast mineralogist must associate, in place or out of place, agates, chalcedonies, carnelians, zeolite, prehnite, calcareous spar, crystalline quartz, amethystine quartz, coarse jaspers, noble serpentine, iron-sand, iron-glance, sulphate of lead, chromate of iron, native copper, carbonate of copper, and various species of pyrites. These were, at least, my principal rewards for about eighteen days' labor, in scrutinizing, at every possible point, its lengthened and varied coasts.

CUPREOUS FORMATION.--The whole region, above Grand Island at least, appears to have been the theatre of trap-dykes, and an extensive action from beneath, which brought to the surface the elements of the formation of copper veins. These have not been much explored; but, so far as observation goes, there are evidences which cannot be resisted, that the region contains this metal in various shapes and great abundance. I refer to my report of the 6th of November, 1820, for evidences of a valuable deposit of this metal in the valley of the Ontonagon River, and at other points. I found the metal in its native state at various other localities, and always under physical evidences which denoted its existence, in the geological column of the lake, in quantity. These indications were confined almost exclusively to the area intervening between the peninsula of Keweena, and La Pointe Chegoimegon, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles. Of this district, the two extremities would make the Ontonagon Valley about the centre.[226] A profile of one of the detached pieces, found in the Ontonagon Valley, and forwarded to you by Mr. Van Rensselaer, is herewith given.

[226] I would also refer, for subsequent information, to my report of the 1st of October, 1822, made in compliance to a resolution of the Senate, and printed in the Executive Documents of that year, No. 365, 17th Congress, 2d session.

VITRIC BOULDERS.--Among the debris of Lake Superior are masses of trachyte, and also small pieces of the sienitic series, in which the red feldspar has a calcined appearance, the quartz being, at the same time, converted into a perfectly vitreous texture. Similar productions, but not of the same exact character, exist on the sandy summits of the Grande Sable. These exhibit an exterior of glistening cells or orifices: it may be possible that they have been produced by fusion; but I think not. The smooth cells appear like grains of sand hurled by the winds over these bleak dunes. I have brought from that locality a single specimen of pitchstone, perfectly resinous, bleak and shining.

LA POINTE CHEGOIMEGON.--A sketch of these islands, as given in the Narrative, denotes that their number is greatly underrated, and will serve to show the configuration of a very marked part of the Superior coast. It must, hereafter, become one of the principal harbors and anchoring-ground for vessels of the lake.

VALLEY OF THE ST. LOUIS RIVER.--The St. Louis River takes its rise on the southern side of the Hauteur des Terres, being the same formation of the drift and erratic block stratum which gives origin, at a more westerly point, to the Mississippi. Its tributaries lie northwest of the Rainy Lakes. Vermilion Lake, a well-known point of Indian trade, is a tributary to its volume, which is large, and its outlet rushes with a great impetus to the lake. At what height its sources lie above Lake Superior, we can only conjecture. It was estimated to have a fall of two hundred and nine feet to the head of the Portage aux Coteaux, and may have a similar rise above.

By far its most distinguishing feature is its passage at the Grand Portage through the Cabotian Mountains. We entered it at Fond du Lac and pursued up its channel through alluvial grounds, in which it winds with a deep channel about nineteen or twenty miles to the foot of its first rapids. This point was found one mile above the station of the American Fur Company's trading-house. Here we encountered the first rock stratum, in the shape of our old geological acquaintance, the old red sandstone of Lake Superior. It was succeeded in the first sixteen miles, in the course of which the river is estimated to fall two hundred feet--most of it in the first twenty-nine miles--by trap, argillite, and grauwacke. Through these barriers the water forces its way, producing a series of rapids and falls which the observer often beholds with amazement. The river is continually in a foam for nine miles, and the wonder is that such a furious and heavy volume of water should not have prostrated everything before it. The sandstone, grauwacke, and the argillite, the latter of which stands on its edges, have opposed but a feeble barrier; but the trap species, resisting with the firmness, as it has the color of cast-iron, stand in masses which threaten the life and safety of everything which may be hurled against them. I found a loose specimen of sulphuret of lead and some common quartz in place in the slate rock, a vein of clorite slate, and a locality of coarse graphite, to reward my search.

The Portage aux Coteaux, which is over the basetting edges of the argillite, will give a lively idea of the effects of this rock upon the feet of the loaded voyageurs.

The sandstone is last seen near the Galley on the Nine Mile Portage. Above the Knife Portage, some eight miles higher, vast black boulders of hornblendic and basaltic blocks, are more frequent; and these masses are observed to be more angular in their shapes than the boulders and blocks of kindred character encountered on the shores of Lakes Superior and Huron. There is a vast sphagnous formation, which spreads westwardly from the head of the Coteau Portage, and gives rise to the remote tributaries of Milles lac and Rum River. Much of this consists of what the Indians term _muskeeg_, or elastic bog. Hurricanes and tempests have made fearful inroads upon areas of its timber, and it is seldom crossed, even by the Indians. This tract lies east of the summit of sand-hills and drift, which environ Sandy Lake, the _Komtaguma_ of the Chippewas. The portage of the Savanna River, a tributary of the St. Louis, is the route pursued by persons with canoes; there is no other species of water craft adapted to this navigation. But wherever crossed, this swamp-land tract imposes labor and toil which are of no ordinary cast. It is the equivalent of the argillite which has been broken down and disintegrated, forming beds of clay soil which are impervious to the water, and we way regard this ancient slate formation of the true source of the St. Lawrence tributaries, as the remote origin of those extensive beds of an argillaceous kind, which exist at many places in the lower lakes and plains.

Immediately west of the Savanna Portage, the Komtaguma summit is reached. This summit consists wholly of arid pebble and boulder drift of the elder period. It exhibits evidences of broken-down amygdaloids, which not only furnish a part of its pebbles, but also of the contents of this stratum, in numerous agates and other subspecies of the quartz family which are found scattered over the surface. This is, in fact, the origin of that extensive diffusion of these species, which is found in the valley of the Upper Mississippi, as at Lake Pepin, &c., and which has even been traced, in small pieces, as low as St. Louis and Herculaneum in Missouri.[227] We may conclude that the ancient sandstones, slates, and rubblestone, and amygdaloids, of which traces still remain, were swept from the summit of the Mississippi by those ancient floods which appear to have diffused the boulder drift from the North.

[227] _Vide_ View of the lead mines.

SANDY LAKE.--The first view of this body of water was obtained from one of those eminences situated at the influx of the west Savanna River.

This lake is bounded, on its western borders, by the delta of the Mississippi; its outlet is about two miles in length. We here first beheld the object of our search. The soil on its banks is of the richest alluvial character. From this point, dense forests and a moderately elevated soil, varying from three or four to fifteen feet, confined the view, on either side, during more than two days' march. On the third day after leaving Sandy Lake, at an early hour, we reached the Falls of Pakágama. Here the rock strata show themselves for the first time on the Mississippi, in a prominent ledge of quartz rock of a gray color. Through this formation the Mississippi, here narrowed to less than half its width, forces a passage. The fall of its level in about fifty rods may be sixteen or eighteen feet. There is no cascade or leap, properly so called, but a foaming channel of extraordinary velocity, which it is alike impossible to ascend or descend with any species of water craft. It lies in the shape of an elbow. We made the portage on the north side.

PAKÁGAMA SUMMIT.--The observer, when he has surmounted the summit, immediately enters on a theatre of savannas, level to the eye, and elevated but little above the water. Vistas of grass, reeds, and aquatic plants spread in every direction. On these grassy plains the river winds about, doubling and redoubling on itself, and increasing its cord of distance in a ratio which, by the most moderate computation, would seem extravagant. On those plateaux, and the small rivers and lakes connected with them, the wild rice reaches the highest state of perfection.

Our men toiled with their paddles till the third day, through this unparalleled maze of water and plants, when we reached the summit of the Upper Red Cedar or Cass Lake, where we encamped. In this distance no rock strata appeared, nor any formation other than a jutting ridge of sand, or an alluvial plain. Plateau on plateau had, indeed, carried us from one level or basin to another, like a pair of steps, till we had reached our extreme height.

CASS LAKE BASIN.--From estimates made, this lake is shown to lie at thirteen hundred and thirty feet above the Atlantic.[228] This is a small elevation, when we consider it as lying on the southern flank of the transverse formation which forms the connecting link with the Rocky Mountains. A rise or a subsidence of this part of the continent to this amount, would throw the Hudson's Bay and Arctic waters down the Mississippi valley. The scenery of its coasts is in part arenaceous plains, and in part arable land, yielding corn to the Indians.

[228] Agreeable to barometric observations made in 1836, by Mr. Nicollet, its true altitude is found to be 1,402 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. Its latitude, by the same authority, is 47° 25´ 23´´.

SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI.--In order to understand the geology of this region, it is necessary to premise, that the St. Lawrence, the Hudson's Bay, and the Mexican Gulf waters are separated by a ridge or watershed of diluvial hills, called the Hauteur des Terres, which begins immediately west of the basin of the Rainy Lakes and Rainy Lake River. This high ground subtends the utmost sources of the Mississippi, and reaches to the summit of Ottertail Lake, where it divides the tributaries of the Red River of Lake Winnepec from those of the Des Corbeau, or Great Crow-Wing River.

Within this basin, which circumscribes a sweep of several hundred miles, there appears to have been deposited, upon the trap and primary rocks which form its nucleus, a sedimentary argillaceous deposit, capable of containing water. Upon this, the sand and pebble drift reposes in strata of unequal thickness, and the sand is often developed in ridges and plains, bearing species of the pine. The effect has been, that the immense amount of vapor condensed upon these summits, and falling in dews, rains, and snows, being arrested by the impervious subsoil of clay, has concentrated itself in innumerable lakes, of all imaginable forms, from half a mile to thirty miles long. These are connected by a network of rivers, which pour their redundancy into the Mississippi, and keep up a circulation over the whole vast area. The sand plains often resting around the shores of these lakes create the impression of bodies of water resting on sand, which is a fallacy. Some of these bodies of water are choked up, or not well drained, and overflow their borders, forming sphagnous tracts. Hence the frequent succession of arid sand plains, impassable muskeegs, and arable areas on the same plateaux. Every system of the latter, of the same altitude, constitutes a plateau. The highest of these is the absolute source of the Mississippi waters. The next descending series forms another plateau, and so on, till the river finally plunges over St. Anthony's Falls.

In this descending series of plateaux, the Cass, Leech Lake, and Little Lake Winnipec form the third and fourth levels.

In descending the Mississippi below the Pakágama, the first stratum of rock, which rises through the delta of the river, occurs between the mouth of the Nokasippi and Elm Rivers, below the influx of the Great De Corbeau. This rock, which is greenstone trap, rises conspicuously in the bed of the stream, in a rocky isle seated in the rapid called--I know not with what propriety--the BIG FALLS, or _Grande Chute_. The precipitous and angular falls of this striking object decide that the bed of the stream is at this point on the igneous granitical and greenstone series. This formation is seen at a few points above the water, until we pass some bold and striking eminences of shining and highly crystalline hornblendic sienite, which rises in the elevation called by us Peace Rock, on the left bank, near the Osaukis Rapids. This rock lies directly opposite to the principal encampment on the 27th of July, which was on an elevated prairie on the west bank. To this point a delegation of Sioux had ascended on an embassy of peace from Fort Snelling to the Chippewas, having affixed on a pole what the exploring party called a bark letter, the ideas being represented symbolically by a species of picture writing, or hieroglyphics. In allusion to this embassy, this locality was called the Peace Rock. This rock is sienite. It is highly crystalline, and extends several miles. Its position must be, from the best accounts, in north latitude about 44° 30´. From this point to Rum River, a distance of seventy miles, no other point of the intrusion of this formation above the prairie soil was observed.

INTRODUCTION OF THE PALÆONTOLOGICAL ROCKS.--After passing some fifty miles below this locality there are evidences that the river, in its progress south, has now reached the vicinity of the great carboniferous and metalliferous formations, which, for so great a length, and in so striking a manner, characterize both banks of the Mississippi below St. Anthony's Falls. About nine or ten miles before reaching these Falls, this change of geological character is developed; and on reaching the Falls the river is found to be precipitated, at one leap, over strata of white sandstone, overlaid by the metalliferous limestone. The channel is divided by an island, and drops in single sheets, about sixteen to eighteen feet, exclusive of the swift water above the brink, or of the rapids for several hundred yards below. This sandstone is composed of grains of pure and nearly limpid quartz, held together by the cohesion of aggregation. If my observations were well taken it embraces, sparingly, orbicular masses of hornblende. It is horizontal, and constitutes, in some places, walls of stratification, which are remarkable for their whiteness and purity. This sandstone is overlaid by the cliff limestone, the same in character, which assumes at some points a silicious, and at others, a magnesian character. It is manifestly the same great metalliferous rock which accompanies the lead ore of Missouri and mines of Peosta or Dubuque. There rests upon it the elder drift stratum of boulders, pebble, and loam, which marks the entire valley. This latter embraces boulders of quartz and hornblende rock, along with limestones and sandstones. It is overlaid by about eighteen inches of black alluvial carbonaceous mould.

From St. Anthony's Falls the river is perpetually walled on either side with those high and picturesque cliffs which give it so imposing and varied an appearance, and its current flows on with a majesty which seems to the imagination to make it rejoice in its might, confident of a power which will enable it to reach and carry its name to the ocean in its unchanged integrity.

ST. PETER'S RIVER AND VALLEY.--The importance, fertility, and value of this tributary have particularly impressed every member of the party. Its position as the central point of the Sioux power, and its border position to the Chippewas, the representative tribe of the great Algonquin family, render it now a place of note, which fully justifies the policy of the department in establishing a military post at the confluence of the river; and the importance cannot soon pass away, in the progress of the settlement of the Mississippi Valley.[229] It is the great route of communication with the valley of the Red River of the North, and the agricultural and trading settlements of Lord Selkirk in that fertile valley, and its complete exploration by a public officer is desirable, if not demanded.[230]

[229] Thirty years has made it the centre of the new territory of Minnesota, which has now entered on the career of nations.

[230] This object was accomplished by an expedition by Major L. Long, in 1823.

Of its geological character but little is known, and that connects it with both the great formations which have been noticed as succeeding each other at the great Peace Rock. That the granitical formation reaches it at a high point is probable, from the large reported boulders. The Indians bring from the blue earth fork of it, one of their most esteemed green and blue argillaceous pigments, of which the coloring matter appears to be carbonate of copper. They also bring from the Coteau des Prairie, probably Carver's "shining mountains," specimens of that fine and beautiful red pipe stone, which has so long been known to be used by them for that purpose. This mineral is fissile, and moderately hard, which renders it fit for their peculiar ripe sculptures. I found small masses of native copper in the drift stratum at the mouth of this stream, on the top of the cliffs on the Mississippi, opposite the mouth of the St. Peter's.

CRYSTALLINE SAND ROCK.--This stratum reveals the same crystalline structure which is so remarkable in the sandstone caves, near the Potosi road, in the county of St. Genevieve, Missouri; and the sand obtained from it, like that mineral, would probably fuse, with alkali, in a moderate heat, and constitute an excellent material for the manufacture of glass. It is also, like the Missouri sandstone, cavernous. In both situations, these caves appear to be due to water escaping through fissures of the rock, where its cohesion is feeble, carrying it away grain by grain.

In stopping at one of these caves, about twelve miles below St. Peter's, we found this cause of structure verified by a lively spring and pond of limpid water flowing out of it.

VALLEY OF THE ST. CROIX.--This river originates in an elevated range of the elder sand and pebble drift, which lies on the summit between the Mississippi system of formations, and the Lake Superior basin. It communicates with the Brulé, which is "Goddard's River" of Carver, and with the Mauvaise or Bad River of that basin. Specimens of native copper have been found on Snake River, one of its tributaries.[231]

[231] This river was explored by me in 1831 and 1832, in two separate expeditions in the public service, accounts of which have been published in 1831 and 1832, of which abstracts are given in the preceding pages.

GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS.--In descending the river for the distance of about one hundred miles below St. Anthony's Falls, my attention was arrested, on visiting the high grounds, by a species of natural monuments, which appear as if made by human hands seen at a distance, but appear to be the results of the degradation and wasting away, on the Huttonian theory, of all but these, probably harder, portions of the strata.

LAKE PEPIN.--This sheet commends itself to notice by its extent and picturesque features. It is an expansion of the river, about twenty-four miles long, and two or three wide. Both its borders and bed reveal the drift stratum, and the observer recognizes here, boulders of the peculiar stratification which has, in ancient periods, characterized the high plateaux about the sources of the river. Such are its hornblendic, sienite, quartz, trap, and amygdaloid pebbles, and that variety of the quartz family which assumes the form of the agate and other kindred species. Moved as these materials are annually, lower and lower, by the impetus of the stream, other supplies, it may be inferred, are still furnished by the shifting sand and gravel bars from above. The mass must submit to considerable abrasion by this change, and the diminished size of the drifted masses become a sort of measure of the distance at which they are found from their parent beds.

CHIPPEWA RIVER.--This stream is the first to bring in a vast mass of moving sand. Its volume of water is large, which it gathers from the high diluvial plains that spread southwest of the Porcupine Mountains, and about the sources of the Wisconsin, the Montreal, and the St. Croix Rivers, with which it originates.

TROMPELDO (_Le Montaine des Tromps d'Eaux_).--This island mountain stands as if to dispute the passage of the Mississippi, whose channel it divides into two portions. Distinct from its height, which appears to correspond with the contiguous cliffs, and in the large amount of fresh debris at its base, it presents nothing peculiar in its geology.

PAINTED ROCK.--This vicinity is chiefly noted for its large and fine specimens of fresh-water shells.

WISCONSIN.--Like the Chippewa, this stream brings down in its floods, vast quantities of loose sand, which tend to the formation of bars and temporary islands. It originates in the same elevated plains, and bespeaks a considerable area at its sources, which must be arid. It is a region, however, in which lakes and rice lands abound, and it may, in this respect, be geologically of the same formation as the higher plateaux of the Mississippi, above the Sandy Lake summit. Its sides produce many species to enrich our fresh-water Conchology.

LEAD MINES OF PEOSTA AND DUBUQUE.--In my researches into the mineral geography of Missouri, in 1818 and 1819, I had explored a district of country between the rivers Merrimak and St. Francis, and on the Ozarks, which revealed many traits which it has in common with the Upper Mississippi. There, as here, the mineral deposits appear to be, in many cases, in a red marly clay, whether the clay is overlaid by the calcareous rock or not. There, as here, also, the limestone and sandstone strata are perfectly horizontal. The leads of ore appear, in this section, to be followed with more certainty, agreeable to the points of the compass; but this may happen, to some extent, because the practice of mining on individual account, with windlass and buckets, in the Missouri district, has led common observers to be more indifferent to exact scientific methods. To say that the digging, at these mines, is equally, or more productive, is perhaps just. Capital and labor have been rewarded in both sections of the country, in proportion as they have been perseveringly and judiciously expended.

I found much of the ore, which is a sulphuret, at Dubuque's Mines, lying in east and west leads. These leads were generally pursued in caves, or, more properly, fissures in the rock. In one of the excavations which I visited, the digging was continued horizontally under the first stratum of rock, after an excavation had been made perpendicularly, through the top soil and calcareous rock, perhaps thirty feet. The ore is a broad-grained cubical galena, easily reduced, and bids fair very greatly to enhance the value and resources of this section of the West.

Similar mines exist at Mississinawa, and the River Au Fevé,[232] both on the eastern or left bank of the Mississippi. And a system of leasing or management, such as I have suggested for the Missouri mines, appears equally desirable.

[232] GALENA has subsequently been made the capital of these mines.

QUARTZ GEODES.--The amount of silex in the cliff limestone is such, in some conditions of it, as to justify the term silico-calcareous. This condition of the rock at the passage of the Mississippi through the Rock River and Des Moines Rapids, is such as to produce a very striking locality of highly crystalline quartz geodes, which accumulates in the bed of the stream. Many of these geodes are from a foot to twenty-two inches in diameter, and on breaking them they exhibit resplendent crystals of limpid quartz. Sometimes these are amethystine; in other cases they present surfaces of chalcedony or cacholong. The latter minerals, if obtained from the rock, and before unduly hardening by exposure, would probably furnish a suitable basis for lapidaries.

INTERMEDIATE COUNTRY IN THE DIRECTION TO GREEN BAY.--There is a line which separates, on the north, the granitical and trap region from the metal-bearing limestone, and its supporting sandstone. This formation of the elder series of rocks, having been traced to the south shore of Lake Superior, and having been seen to constitute the supporting bed of the alluviums and diluviums of the Upper Mississippi, above the Peace Rock, it may subserve the purpose of inquiry to trace this line of junction by its probable and observed boundaries.

The line may be commenced where it crosses the Mississippi, at the Peace Rock, and extended to the St. Croix, the falls of which are on the trap-rock, to the sources of the Chippewa at Lac du Flambeau, and the Wisconsin near Plover Portage. The source of Fox River runs amid uprising masses of sienite, and this formation appears to pass thence northeasterly, across the Upper Menominee, to the district of the Totosh and Cradle-Top Mountains, west of Chocolate River, on the shores of Lake Superior.

I observed the crystalline sandstone and its overlying cliff limestone, along the valley of the Wisconsin, where ancient excavations for lead ore have been made. There is an entire preservation of its characters, and no reason occurs why its mineralogical contents should not prove, in some positions, as valuable as they have been found in Missouri, or in the Dubuque district west of the Mississippi.

On reaching the Wisconsin Portage, the limestone is found to have been swept by diluvial action, from its supporting sand rock. Such is its position not far north of the highest of the four lakes, and again at Lake Puckway, in descending the Fox River; consequently, there are no lead discoveries in this region. On coming to the calcareous rock, which is developed along the channel of the river, below Winnebago Lake, it appears rather to belong to the lake system of deposits. Its superior stratum lies in patches, or limited districts, which appear to have been left by drift action. Petrefactions are found in these districts, and the character of the rock is dark, compact, or shelly. The lower series of deposits, such as they appear at the Kakala Rapids, at Washington Harbor, in the entrance to Green Bay, and in the cliffs north of Sturgeon Bay and Portage, are manifestly of the same age and general character as the inferior stratum of Michilimackinac and the Manatouline chain.

BASIN OF LAKE MICHIGAN.--This basin, stretching from the north to the south nearly four hundred miles, lies deeply in the series of formation of limestones, sandstone, and schists, to which we apply the term of the Michilimackinac system. Its north and west shores are skirted from Green Bay to a point north of the Sheboygan, with the calcareous stratum. At this point, the ancient drift, the lacustrine clay of Milwaukie and the prairie diluvium of Chicago, constitute a succession, of which the surface is a slightly waving line of the most fertile soils.

Among the pebbles cast ashore at the southern head of this lake I observed slaty coal. It seems, indeed, the only one of the lakes which reaches south into the coal basin of Illinois. If the level at which coal is found on the Illinois were followed through, it would issue in the basin of the lake below low-water mark. Digging for this mineral on the Chicago summit, promises indeed not to be unsupported by sound hypothesis.

After passing Chicago, of which a sketch is added, the sands which begin to accumulate at the Konamik, the River du Chemin, and the St. Joseph's River,[233] appear in still more prominent ridges, skirting the eastern coasts to and beyond Grand River. These sands, which are the accumulations of winds, are cast on the arable land, much in the manner that has been noticed at the Grand Sable on Lake Superior, and reach the character of striking dunes at the coast denominated the Sleeping Bear. The winds which periodically set from the western shore, produce continual abrasions of its softer materials, and are the sole cause of these intrusive sand-hills. Pent up behind them, the water is a cause of malaria to local districts of country, and many of the small rivers upon this side are periodically choked with sand. The sketch transmitted of this bleak dune-coast (omitted here), as it is seen at the mouth of Maskigon Lake, will convey a false idea of the value of this coast, even half a mile from the spot where the surf beats. It is designed to show the air of aridity which the mere coast line presents. The stratification regains its ordinary level and appearance before reaching the Plate or Omicomico River, and the peninsula of the Grand Traverse Bay, and the settlements of the Ottawa Indians on Little Traverse Bay, afford tracts of fertile lands. Point Wagonshonce consists of a stratum of limestone of little elevation, which constitutes the southeast cape of the strait. Here a lighthouse is needed to direct the mariner.

[233] The subjoined petrifaction of a leaf, apparently a species of betula, was obtained on this river. See _ante_, p. 206.

LAKE HURON.--Notices of this sheet of water have been given in our outward voyage. It appears rather as the junction of separate lakes which have had their basins fretted into one another, than as one original lake. Michigan is connected with it through the Straits of Michilimackinac. The Georgian Bay, north of the Manatouline chain, seems quite distinct. The Saganaw Bay is an element of another kind. The Manitouline chain separates the calcareous and granitic region, and its numerous trap and basaltic islands towards the north shore, of which there are many thousands, denote that it has been the scene of geological disturbance of an extraordinary kind.

ULTERIOR CONCLUSIONS.--In taking these several views of the geological structure of the Northwest--of the Lake Superior basin, and of the valleys of the St. Louis River--the region about the Upper Mississippi, its striking change at the Falls of St. Anthony--and the valleys of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, and the basins of Lakes Michigan and Huron, I am aware of the temerity of my task. Allowance must, however, be made for the rapidity of my transit over regions where the question was often the safety and personal subsistence of the party. A very large and diversified area was passed over in a short time. At no place was it possible to make elaborate observations. A thousand inconveniences were felt, but they were felt as the pressure of so many small causes impeding the execution of a great enterprise. A sketch has been made, which, it is hoped, will reveal something of the physical history and lineaments of the country. These glimpses at wild scenes, heretofore hid from the curious eye of man, have been made, at all points, with the utmost avidity. I have courted every opportunity to accumulate facts, and I owe much to the distinguished civilian who has led the party so successfully through scenes of toil and danger, not always unexpected, but always met in a calm, bold, and proper spirit, which has served to inspire confidence in all; to him, and to each one of my associates, I owe much on the score of comity and personal amenity and forbearance; and I have been made to feel, in the remotest solitudes, how easy it is to execute a duty when all conspire to facilitate it.

The views herein expressed are generalized in two geological maps (hereto prefixed), which, it is believed, will help to fix the facts in the mind. They exhibit the facts noticed, in connection with the theory established by them, and by all my observations, of the construction of this part of the continent.

The mineralogy of the regions visited is condensed in the following summary, drawn from my notes, which, it is believed, constitutes an appropriate conclusion to this report.

With the exception of one species, namely, the ores of copper, the region has not proved as attractive in this department as I found the metalliferous surface of Missouri. There are but few traces of mining, and those of an exceedingly ancient character, in the copper region of Lake Superior. The excavations in search of lead ore on the Upper Mississippi do not date back many years, but the indications are such as to show that few countries, even Missouri, exceed them in promises of mineral wealth.

I have employed the lapse of time between the termination of the exploration and the present moment, to extend my mineralogical observations to some parts of the Mississippi Valley which were not included in the line of the expedition, but which were visited in the following year, in the service of the Government, namely, the Miami of the Lakes, and Wabash Valleys, the Cave in Rock Region in Lower Illinois, and the Valley of the River Illinois. The whole is concentrated in the following notices:--

_Tabular View of Minerals observed in the Northwest._

I. ORES.

_Genera._ _Species._ _Subspecies._ _Varieties._ { Copper { Native copper. { Fibrous. { { Green carbonate of copper { Compact. { Lead Sulphuret of lead Common. { Zinc Sulphuret of zinc Blende. { { { Common. { { { Radiated. METALLIC { { Sulphuret of iron { Spheroidal. MINERALS { { { Cellular. { { { Hepatic. { Iron { Magnetic oxide of iron Iron sand. { { Specular oxide of iron. Micaceous. { { { Ochrey. { { Red oxide of iron { Scaly. { { { Compact. { { Brown oxide of iron Ochrey. { Silver.

II. EARTHS AND STONES.

_Genus._ _Species._ _Varieties._

{ { { Milky. { { { Radiated. { { { Tabular. { { Common { Greasy. { { quartz { Granular. { { { Arenaceous. { { { Pseudomorphous. { { { Amethystine. { { Amethyst { { { { Ferruginous { { { quartz { Yellow. { { { Red. { Quartz { Prase { { { Common. { { { Cacholong. { { Chalcedony { Carnelian. { { { Sardonyx. { { { Agate. { { Hornstone { { { Common. { { Jasper { Striped. { { { Red. { { Heliotrope SILICIOUS { { OPAL COMMON. MINERALS { { Silicious { Common. { slate { Basanite. { { Petrosilex { { Common. { Mica { Gold yellow. { { { Common. { Schorl { Indicolite. { { Feldspar Common. { Prehnite Radiated. { { Hornblende { Common. { { Actynolite. { { Woodstone { Mineralized wood. { { Agatized wood.

{ { Calcareous { { { spar { Crystallized. { { { Lamellar. { { Granular { { limestone { { { { Compact { Common. { { limestone { Earthy. { { { { Agaric { { { mineral { Common. { Carbonate { { Fossil farina. { of lime { { { { Oolite. { { Concreted { { { carbonate { Calcareous { Stalactite. { { of lime { sinter { Stalagmite. { { { { { { Calcareous tufa. CALCAREOUS { { Pseudomorphous carbonate MINERALS { { of lime. { { Marl Ludus helmontii. { { Fibrous. { Sulphate { Granular. { of lime Gypsum { Granularly foliated. { { Earthy. { Fluate of { lime Fluorspar

_Genus._ _Varieties._ { { Argillite. { Argillaceous slate { Bituminous shale. { { Chlorite Chlorite slate. { Stautoride. ALUMINOUS MINERALS { { Potters' clay. { { Pipe clay. { { Variegated clay. { Clay { Blue sulphated clay. { { Green sulphated clay. { Opwagunite.

{ Serpentine Common serpentine MAGNESIAN MINERALS { Steatite Steatite. { Asbestus Com. asbestus.

BARYTIC MINERALS Sulphate of barytes Lamellar. STRONTIAN Sulphate of strontian Foliated.

III. COMBUSTIBLES.

{ { Petroleum. { Bitumen { Maltha. BITUMINOUS MINERALS { { Asphaltum. { { Graphite Granular graphite. { Coal Slate coal.

IV. SALTS.

{ { Native salt. Soda { Muriate of soda ..... { Salt springs. { { Alkaline sulphate of Alum. { alumina

a. _Metallic Minerals._

1. COPPER.

This metal is frequently found, in detached masses, in the diluvial soil along the southern shore of Lake Superior, and in the high and barren tract included between Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, and the Mississippi River, as general boundaries. Thus, it has been found upon the sources of the Menomonie, Wisconsin, Chippewa, St. Croix, and Ontonagon Rivers, but most constantly, and in the greatest quantity, upon the latter. There are many localities known only to the aborigines, who appear to set some value upon it, and have been in the habit of employing the most malleable pieces in several ways from the earliest times. It occurs mostly in detached masses, resting upon, or imbedded in, diluvial soil. These masses, which vary in size, are sometimes connected with isolated fragments of rock. Such is the geognostic position of the great mass of native copper upon the banks of the Ontonagon, which has been variously estimated to weigh from two to five tons. This extraordinary mass is situated at the base of a diluvial precipice composed of reddish loam and mixed boulders and pebbles of granite, greenstone, quartz, and sandstone and diallage rocks. The nearest strata, in situ, are red sandstone, grauwacke, and greenstone trap. A company of miners was formerly employed in searching for copper mines upon the banks of this river. They dug down about forty feet into the diluvial soil, at a spot where a green-colored water issued from the hill. In sinking this pit, several masses of native copper were found, and they discovered, as their report indicates, the same metal "imbedded in stone." But the enterprise was abandoned, in consequence of the falling in of the pit.

At Keweena Point, on Lake Superior, I found native copper along the shore of the lake, constituting small masses in pebbles, and, in one instance, in a mass of several pounds' weight, which was found in the Ontonagon Valley. I also observed the green carbonate of copper, in several places, in the detritus. The strata of this point appear to be charged with this mineral, particularly in its native forms. Hardly a mass of the loose rock is without some trace of the metal, or its oxides or salts. It would be difficult, on any known principles, to resist the testimony which is offered, by every observer, to favor the idea that extensive and very valuable mines exist. The whole lake shore, from this peninsula to the Montreal River, is replete with these evidences.

There are indications that this mineral pervades the rocks and soils, in a radius of one hundred and fifty miles or more, south and west of this central point. It has been discovered at the sources of the Menominee, Chippewa, Montreal, and St. Croix, and even at more distant points.

At St. Peter's, in digging down for the purpose of quarrying the rock, about eighteen inches depth of dark alluvium was passed; then a deposit of diluvial soil, with large fragments of limestone, greenstone, quartz rock, &c., about six feet; and, lastly, one foot of small pebbles, &c., constituting the copper diluvium. No large mass was found; nor any veins in the rock.

2. LEAD.

The only ore of lead known to exist within the limits to which these remarks are confined, is the sulphuret. In the year 1780, Peosta, a woman of the Misquakee, or Fox tribe of Indians, discovered a lead mine upon the west banks of the Mississippi, at the computed distance of twenty-five leagues below Prairie du Chien, which the Indians, in 1788, gave Julian Dubuque a right to work. This permission was partially confirmed by the Baron de Carondelet, Governor of Louisiana, in 1796. No patent was, however, issued; but Dubuque continued to prosecute the mining business to the period of his death, which happened in 1810, when the mines were again claimed by the original proprietors.

The ore is the common sulphuret of lead, or galena, which Dubuque stated to have yielded him seventy-five per cent. in smelting in the large way. He usually made from 20,000 to 40,000 pounds per annum.

I made a cursory visit to these mines, and found them worked by the Fox Indians, but in a very imperfect manner. They cover a considerable area, commencing at the mouth of the Makokketa River, sixty miles below Prairie du Chien. Traces of the ore are found, also, on the east bank of the Mississippi at several points. It occurs disseminated in a reddish loam, resting upon limestone rock, and is sometimes seen in small veins pervading the rock; but it has been chiefly explored in diluvial soil. It generally occurs in beds having little width, and runs in a direct course towards the cardinal points. They are sometimes traced into a crevice of the rock. At this stage of the pursuit, most of the diggings have been abandoned. Little spar or crystalline matrix is found in connection with the ore. It is generally enveloped by a reddish, compact earth, or marly clay. Occasionally, masses of calcareous spar occur; less frequently, sulphate of barytes, green iron earth, and ochrey brown oxide of iron. I did not observe any masses of radiated quartz, which form so conspicuous a trait in the surface of the metalliferous diluvion of the mining district of Missouri.

Sufficient attention does not appear to have been bestowed, by mineralogists, upon the metalliferous soil of the Mississippi Valley. It is certainly very remarkable that such vast deposits of lead ore, accompanied by veins of sulphate of barytes, calc spar, and other crystallized bodies, should be found in alluvial beds; and it would be very interesting to ascertain whether any analogous formations exist in Europe, or in any other part of the earth's surface. It is one of the most striking features of this deposit, that the ore, spars, &c., do not appear as the debris of older formations, and have no marks of having been worn or abraded, like those extraneous masses of rock which are very common in the alluvial soil of our continent. The lead ore and accompanying minerals appear to have been crystallized in the situations where they are now found. We should, perhaps, except from this remark the species of lead called _gravel ore_ by the miners, which is in rounded lumps, and is never accompanied by spars.

Sulphuret of lead is also found near the spot where the small River Sissinaway enters the Mississippi, and two leagues south of it, upon the banks of the River Aux Fevre, at both of which places considerable quantities have been raised, and continue to be raised, for the purposes of smelting, by the Fox and Sac tribes of Indians. At these places, it is most frequently connected with a gangue of heavy spar and calcareous spar, with pyrites of iron. I procured from a trader, at Dubuque, several masses of galena crystallized in cubes and octahedrons.

In descending the Upper Mississippi, a specimen of galena was exhibited to me, by a Sioux Indian, at the village of the Red Wing, six miles above Lake Pepin, said to have been procured in that vicinity. Galena is also reported to have been discovered in several places on the south side of the Wisconsin River, and these localities may be entitled to future notice, as furnishing important hints.

3. ZINC.

The sulphuret of zinc (black blende) is found disseminated in limestone rock along the banks of Fox River, between the post of Green Bay and Winnebago Lake. Although frequently seen in small masses, no body of it is known to exist. I also found blende, in small, orbicular masses of calcareous marl, along the east shore of Lake Michigan, between the Rivers St. Joseph and Kikalemazo.

4. IRON.

This mineral is distributed, in several of its forms, throughout the region visited, although but little attention has yet been directed to its exploration. In the basin of Lake Superior it exists, in valuable masses, in the form of a magnetic oxide, on the coasts of the lake between Gitchi Sebing (Great River), called by the French Chocolate River, and Granite Point. Specimens from Dead River (Riviere du Morts) and Carp River, the Namabin of the Indians, in this district, denote the latter to be the chief locality. It is the iron glance, and occurs in mountain masses.

_Sulphuret of Iron._--This variety is found, in limited quantities, in a state of crystallization, in clay beds, on the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago. It is frequently in the form of a cube or an octahedron. Some of the crystals are in lumps of several pounds' weight, with a metallic lustre. Often the masses, on being broken, are found radiated, sometimes cellular, and occasionally irised.

_Iron Sand._--The breaking-up and prostration of the sandstone and other sedimentary formations, along the shores of lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior, liberates this ore in considerable quantities. It arranges itself, on the principle of its specific gravities, in separate strata along the sandy shores, where it invariably occupies the lowest position at and below the water's edge. The shores of Fond du Lac, on Lake Superior, may be particularly mentioned as an abundant locality.

_Micaceous Oxide of Iron._--In detached mass, among the debris of the River St. Louis and of Fond du Lac. It exists in veins in the clay slate which characterizes the banks of this river.

_Ochrey Red Oxide of Iron._ (Red ochre)--Is produced near a spot called the Big Stone, on the head of the River St. Peter's. It is said to occur in a loose form, in a stratum of several inches thick, lying below the soil of a level dry prairie or plain. The Sioux Indians, who employ it as a paint, make this statement. The color of a portion given to me by them is of a bright red; and a considerable proportion of the mass is in a state of minute division. Particles of quartz are occasionally mixed with it. This ore of iron is also represented to be found in the prairies north of Gros Point, along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago.

Ochrey red oxide of iron occurs on the shores of Big Stone Lake, at the source of the St. Peter's River. A large spring rises from a level, dry plain, a few feet beyond which the mineral occurs. The Indians, who employ it as a pigment, take it up with their knives. The stratum is about eight inches thick, but just below the surface it is mixed with common earth. The spring of water is pure and unadulterated.

5. SILVER.

The belief in the existence of silver ore in the region of the lakes, and particularly on Lake Superior, seems to have early prevailed. So much confidence was placed in the reports of its existence, that Henry tells when a company was formed in England for exploring the copper mines of Lake Superior (A. D. 1771), they were impelled to the search more from an expectation of the silver, which it was hoped would be found in connection with it, than from the copper.[234]

[234] This metal has subsequently (namely, in 1844) been found to constitute a percentage in the native copper of the Eagle River mines of Lake Superior. Traces of it were found in a mass of native copper found on the shores of Keweena Lake, by Mr. Moliday, in 1826. A mass of pure silver was discovered in a boulder in the drift of Lake Huron, west of White Rock, in 1824. These discoveries induce the belief that this element will be found to be extensively present in the eventual metallurgic operations of the Lake Superior basin.

b. _Silicious Minerals._

1. QUARTZ.

This interesting species being distributed in its numerous varieties throughout the region visited, I shall confine my notices to a few localities.

Subs. 1.--_Common Quartz._

Occurs in the form of large water-worn masses along the shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Also, in veins in the granite of Lake Superior, and in the argillite of St. Louis River. These localities all consist of the opaque varieties, with a slight degree of translucence in some places. It exists in mass at Huron Bay, Lake Superior, and in fragments of red jasper on Sugar Island, St. Mary's River.

1. _Radiated Quartz._--In detached masses on the Grange, and also at the rapids of the River Desmoines, on the Upper Mississippi. At the Grange, the crystals, which are usually minute, sometimes possess a cinnamon color, or pass into a variety of crystallized ferruginous quartz.

2. _Tabular Quartz._--In small, flattened masses along the shores of Lake Pepin. These masses are transparent, or only translucent. Their color is generally white, but sometimes yellow. They appear to be closely allied to chalcedony.

3. _Greasy Quartz._--In detached masses along the shores of Lake Superior.

4. _Granular Quartz._--At the Falls of Puckaiguma, on the Upper Mississippi, in large, compact beds rising through the soil. Also, in some conditions of the cliffs commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony, Carrer's Cave, &c.

5. _Arenaceous Quartz._--This is sometimes the condition of fine, even-grained, translucent sand rock of the preceding localities. Valuable as an ingredient of glass.

6. _Pseudomorphous Quartz._--On the shores of Lake Pepin, occasionally. These masses appear to have taken their crystalline _impress_ from rhomboidal crystals of carbonate of lime.

7. _Amethystine Quartz._--In the trap-rock of Lake Superior.

Subs. 2.--_Amethyst._

This mineral occurs most frequently in the condition of amethystine quartz, in hexahedral prisms, lining the interior of geodes, in the bed of the River Desmoines, and on the Rock Rapids, in the channel of the Mississippi. The crystals which I have examined are generally limpid, with a high lustre, and of a pale violet color. Sometimes the tinge of color approaches to a full red, or is only apparent in the summit of the crystal. These geodes are sometimes eight or ten inches in diameter, with a rough and dark-colored exterior, often so nearly spherical as to resemble cannon _balls_. Some of the finest specimens I have observed from this locality are preserved in the museum of Gov. Clarke, at St. Louis, Missouri.

Subs. 3.--_Ferruginous Quartz._

In amorphous masses, of a deep-red, brown, or yellowish-red color, along the southern shore of Lake Superior. Likewise, crystallized, in very minute hexagonal prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids, of a reddish color, on the summit and declivities of the Grange de Terre.

Subs. 4.--_Prase._

In the drift of Lake Superior. Its color is a light green and not fully translucent. It possesses a hardness and a lustre intermediate between waxy and resinous.

Subs. 5.--_Chalcedony._

1. _Common Chalcedony._--In globular or reniform masses imbedded in trap-rock, on the Peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior. It is found sometimes in association with other quartz minerals. Its color is white or gray, sometimes veined or spotted with red. Also, constituting the interior lining of geodes at the rapids of Rock Island and the River Desmoines. These geodes, on breaking, often present a mammillary surface. In the form of translucent fragments, with a highly conchoidal fracture, among the debris of the shores of Lake Pepin. These fragments possess an extremely delicate texture, color, and lustre.

2. _Cacholong._--Some loose fragments of this mineral exist along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Green Bay and Chicago. These fragments possess small cavities studded over with very minute and perfect crystals of quartz.

3. _Carnelian._--This mineral occurs in fragments in the debris of Lake Superior; also, in the amygdaloid; also, around the shores of the Upper Mississippi. Its color is various shades of red, or yellowish red, sometimes spotted or clouded, fully translucent, and occasionally presenting a considerable richness and beauty. Most commonly, the fragments are too small to be applied to the purposes of jewelry. Sometimes it is seen in very regular spheroidal masses, which contain a nucleus of radiated quartz. Some of the specimens would be considered as sardonyx.

4. _Agate._--Is found with the preceding. It is more frequently found in larger masses, in the rock, which are sometimes spheroidal, reniform, or globular. These agates are chiefly arranged in concentric layers, which are white, red, yellow, &c., according to the colors of the different varieties of chalcedonies, carnelians, &c., of which they are composed. A close inspection would also separate them into several varieties--as onyx, agate, dotted agate, &c.

Subs. 6.--_Hornstone._

In nodular or angular masses, imbedded in the secondary limestone of the west shores of Green Bay; and in the beds of argillaceous white clay strata of Cape Girardeau, of Missouri. Also, on the hills of White River, Arkansas.

Subs. 7.--_Jasper._

1. _Common Jasper._--In detached fragments, yellow, in the drift of Lake Superior.

2. _Striped Jasper._--With the preceding. Most commonly, these specimens consist of alternate bands of red and black, or brown.

3. _Red Jasper._--In quartz rock, Sugar Island, River St. Mary's, Michigan. Masses of this mineral have been met in situ.

Subs. 8.--_Heliotrope._

A fine specimen of this mineral, now before me, was procured at the mouth of the Columbia River, Oregon. It is in the form of an Indian dart. Its color is a deep uniform green, variegated with small spots of red; those parts which are green being fully translucent, the others less so, or nearly opaque. This beautiful mineral is represented to have been in common use by the Indian tribes of the Northwest Coast, for pointing their arrows, previous to the introduction of iron among them. It differs chiefly from the dotted jaspers of Lake Michigan, in its translucence and green color.

Subs. 9.--_Opal._

Common opal occurs as a constituent of agate, along with chalcedony rarely, in the drift on the south shore of Lake Superior.

2. SILICIOUS SLATE.

1. _Common._--In subordinate beds, in the argillite of the River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior.

2. _Basanite_ (_Touchstone_).--In detached fragments in the drift on Lake Superior, and along the banks of the Upper Mississippi generally.

3. PETROSILEX.

In large isolated masses in the bed of the Illinois River, on the shallow rapids between the junction of the Fox and Vermilion Rivers. It is mostly arranged in stripes or circles of white, gray, yellow, &c., resembling certain jaspers, or approaching sometimes to hornstone. The bed of the Illinois River, at this place, is a species of gray sandstone. Also, in detached fragments, on the south shore of Lake Superior, intimately mixed with prehnite. In regard to the latter, Professor Dewey, of Williamstown College, writes me: "I have received from Dr. Torrey, a curious mixture of petrosilex and prehnite, in imperfect radiating crystals, which was sent him by you and collected at the West. He did not tell me the name, but examination showed what it was. The association is singularly curious." The locality of this mineral is Keweena Point, Lake Superior.

4. MICA.

Occurs rarely in the granite of Lake Superior. It is found in place on the Huron Islands. Also, in minute folia, in the alluvial soil of the Upper Mississippi. A beautiful aggregate, consisting of plates of gold-yellow mica, connected with very black and shining crystals of schorl, has been dug up from the alluvial soil of the Island of Michilimackinac.

5. SCHORL.

1. _Common Schorl._--In crystals, in boulders of granite, at Green Bay.

2. _Tourmaline._--With the preceding.

6. FELDSPAR.

As an ingredient in the granite of Huron Islands, Lake Superior. Also, in detached masses of granite along the west shores of Lake Michigan. Also, in the form of prismatic crystals of a light-green color, in the rolled masses of hornblende, porphyry, greenstone, and epidotic boulders of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior.

7. PREHNITE.

This mineral occurs at Keweena Point, on Lake Superior. It is found in connection with isolated blocks of amygdaloid, of primitive greenstone, and of petrosilex. Sometimes native copper, and carbonate of copper, are also present in the same specimen. In some instances, a partial decomposition has taken place, converting its green color into greenish-white, or perfect white, and rendering it so soft as to be cut with a knife. Sometimes the grains or masses of native copper are interspersed among the prehnite, and slender threads of this metal occasionally pass through the aggregated mass of greenstone, prehnite, &c., so that, on breaking it, the fragments are still held together by these metallic fibres.

8. HORNBLENDE.

1. _Common Hornblende._--Occurs as a constituent of the hornblende rocks near Point Chegoimegon, Lake Superior. Also, at the Peace Rock, on the Upper Mississippi, and in certain granite aggregates, and rolled masses of porphyries, &c., around the shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior.

2. _Actynolite._--In slender, translucent, greenish crystals, pervading rolled masses of serpentine, on the west shores of Lake Michigan.

9. WOODSTONE.

1. _Mineralized Wood._--In bed of the River Des Plaines, Illinois.

2. _Agatized Wood._--This variety of fossil wood is found along the alluvial shores of the Mississippi and of the Missouri.

c. _Calcareous Minerals._

1. CARBONATE OF LIME.

Of a substance so universally distributed throughout the western country, it will not be necessary to give many localities, and these will be principally confined to its crystalline forms.

Subs. 1.--_Calcareous Spar._

_Crystallized Calcareous Spar._--This mineral occurs, in minute rhomboidal crystals, in the calcareous rock of the Island of Michilimackinac. Sometimes these crystals fill cavities or seams of the rock, or are studded over the angular surfaces of masses of vesicular limestone of that island. I also found this mineral at Dubuque's mines, and in small crystals in the metalliferous limestone bordering the Fox River, between the post of Green Bay and Winnebago Lake, where it is associated with iron pyrites and blende.

Subs. 2.--_Compact Limestone._

In proceeding northwest of Detroit, this mineral is first observed, in situ, on an island in Lake Huron. It is afterwards found to be the prevailing rock along the south and southwest shores of Lake Huron. In many places, it incloses fossil remains. Sometimes it is _earthy_, as at Bay De Noquet, a part of Green Bay, on Lake Michigan, where it contains very perfect remains of the terrebratula. (Parkinson.) In other places, no remains whatever are visible, and the structure is firm and compact; or even passes, by a further graduation, into transition-granular, of which, it is believed, the west shores of Lake Michigan afford an instance. It is most commonly based upon sandstone, which also contains, in many places, the fossil organized remains of various species of crustaceous animals, and of vegetables, sometimes, coal, &c.

Subs. 3.--_Agaric Mineral._

This mineral substance occurs in crevices and cavities in the calcareous rock of the Island of Michilimackinac, Michigan.

Subs. 4.--_Concrete Carbonate of Lime._

1. _Calcareous Sinter._--In the form of _stalactites_ and _stalagmites_, in a cave situated near Prairie du Chien, on the Upper Mississippi.

2. _Calcareous Tufa._--A remarkable formation of tufa is seen on the east banks of the Wabash River, near Wynemac's Village, about ten miles above the junction of the Tippecanoe. It extends for several miles, and is deposited to the thickness of thirty or forty feet above the water, forming cliffs which are covered with alluvial soil and sustain a growth of forest trees. The precise points of its commencement and disappearance were not observed. The structure is cellular or vesicular, and resembles, in some places, a coarse dried mortar. It is very light, and possesses a white color in inferior situations, but the surface is somewhat colored by fallen leaves and other decaying vegetation. It imbeds fluvatile shells and some vegetable remains, the species of which have not been ascertained. The opposite, or west side of the river consists of a kind of puddingstone, or caschalo, made up of pebbles of quartz, &c., cemented by carbonate of lime, of a yellow color and translucent. This beautiful aggregate is overlayed by a stratum, of fifteen or twenty feet in thickness, of diluvial soil. These localities fall within the limits of the State of Indiana; but on territories still occupied, if not owned, by the aborigines.

3. _Pseudomorphous Carbonate of Lime._--This form of carbonate of lime occurs in Pope County, Illinois, a district celebrated for its fluorspar, lead, crystallized quartz, &c., and bearing the unequivocal marks of a secondary formation. Scattered in large masses over the soil, we observe compact limestone, with very perfect cubical, octahedral, or other regular cavities, which have manifestly originated from crystals of fluorspar. The most common _impress_ of this kind appears to have resulted from two cubes variously joined--a form of appearance very common to the Illinois fluates. Some of these cubical cavities exceed three inches square; but in no case is any remaining portion of the spar in these cavities, or anywise connected with the fragments of limestone thus impressed, although, at the same time, the spar is very abundant in the alluvial soil where these curious limestones are found.

2. SULPHATE OF LIME.

Subs. _Gypsum._

1. _Fibrous Gypsum._--In the alluvial soil of the St. Martin's Islands, Lake Huron. The fibres are sometimes five or six inches in length, of a white color and delicate crystalline lustre. Sometimes these fibrous masses are partially colored yellow or brown, apparently from the clay, or mixed alluvion, in which they are imbedded.

2. _Granular Gypsum._ } 3. _Granularly-Foliated Gypsum._ } With the preceding. 4. _Earthy Gypsum._ }

3. FLUATE OF LIME.

_Fluor-Spar._--On the United States Mineral Reserve, Pope County, Illinois. This locality is abundant, and the mineral readily and constantly to be obtained. I first obtained specimens in June, 1818, and afterwards visited it in July, 1821. It is disseminated in loose masses throughout the soil, and in veins in the calcareous rocks. The spot most noted and resorted to, and where the original discovery was made, is four miles west of Barker's Ferry, at Cave-in-Rock, on the banks of the Ohio, and about twenty-six miles, by the course of the river, below Shawneetown. It is situated in the midst of a hilly, broken region, called _the Knobs_, a tract of highlands intervening between the banks of the Ohio and the Saline. The distance of this range from north to south, or parallel with the course of the Ohio, cannot be stated. It probably extends from near the banks of the Wabash River to the Little Chain of Rocks. Its breadth--from Barker's Ferry, west, to Ensminger's, at the Saline, is about twenty miles. It thus separates, by a rocky border, the prairies of the Illinois from the current of the Ohio River. These knobs, wherever observed, bear the indubitable marks of secondary formation, and may be stated to consist, essentially, of compact limestone resting on sandstone. The sandstone is sometimes so much colored by iron, and by globular or irregular masses of iron stone, as to give that rock a very singular aspect. This may be particularly instanced in the mural front of the Battery rocks on the banks of the Ohio. Every part of this formation has more or less the appearance of a mineral country; and it is already known as the locality of ores of lead, iron, and zinc, of crystallized quartz, of opal, heavy spar, crystallized pyrites, and of very perfect fossil madrepores. In one place (near the head of Hurricane Island) this spar forms a very large and compact vein, dipping under the bed of the Ohio. Where the rock has been explored, it is found in connection with sulphuret of lead, but it has been mostly procured, because most easy of access, in the alluvial soil. I went out about half a mile west of the Ohio, where a new locality has been opened, and, in removing about five or six solid feet of earth, procured as many specimens as filled a box of fourteen inches square. None of these were more than two feet below the surface. One of these specimens is an irregular octahedral crystal, eight inches in diameter. The color of these masses is various shades of blue, violet, or red, sometimes perfectly white or yellow; and the form most commonly assumed is a cube, sometimes truncated at two or more angles, or variously clustered. The external lustre of the crystals, raised from alluvial soil, is feeble, but quite brilliant when taken from veins and cavities in the rock. These spars from the alluvion do not appear to exist as rock debris, or fragments worn off from other formations, but as original deposits. There are no marks of attrition. They appear as much in place as the limestone rocks below. It should also be recollected that this mineral tract is terminated by one of the greatest and most valuable salt formations in the western country--that of the Illinois Saline.

_Septaria: Ludus Helmontii._--This variety of calcareous marl is found, in orbicular or flattened masses, along the eastern shores of Lake Michigan, between the rivers St. Joseph's and Kalemazo. Its original situation appears to be the beds of marly clay which form the banks of Lake Michigan at these places, from which these masses have been disengaged by the waves, and left promiscuously among the washed and eroded debris of the shore. These masses are penetrated by numerous seams and lines of calcareous spar, sometimes radiating star-like, or intersecting each other irregularly. Occasionally, these seams are filled with sulphuret of zinc, and in these cases the spar, if any be present, is rose-colored.

d. _Aluminous Minerals._

1. ARGILLACEOUS SLATE.

1. _Argillite_, or _Common Argillaceous Slate_.--Along the banks of the River St. Louis, at the Grand Portage, &c. It occurs in a vertical position, embracing veins, or subordinate beds, of grauwakke, milky quartz, chlorite slate, and silicious slate, &c. It is bounded on one side by red sandstone, and on the other by an extensive tract of diluvial soil.

2. _Bituminous Shale._--In detached masses, along the shores of Lake Huron, between Fort Gratiot and Thunder Bay. It contains amorphous masses of iron pyrites, of a yellow color and metallic brilliancy, which soon tarnishes on exposure to the air.

2. CHLORITE.

_Chlorite Slate._--In subordinate strata in the argillite of the River St. Louis.

3. STAUROTIDE.

In garnet-colored crystals, in detached blocks of mica-slate, in the drift of Lake Huron. These crystals consist of two intersecting six-sided prisms, truncated at both ends, forming the cross. They are nearly opaque, or feebly translucent on the fractured edge.

4. CLAY.

1. _Plastic Clay._--Very extensive beds of this clay are seen along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Sturgeon Bay Portage and Chicago. Its color is generally a light blue, verging sometimes into deep blue or grayish-white. It is plastic in water, adheres strongly to the tongue, takes a polish from the nail, and emits an argillaceous odor when moistened or breathed upon. These beds of clay frequently contain iron pyrites, both in the crystallized and amorphous state.

2. _Pipe Clay._--In the flats of the St. Clair and Lake George, Michigan. A bed of clay, apparently answering to this description, exists at White River, Lake Michigan. Its color is a grayish-white, verging to blue. It is very unctuous and adhesive when first raised, but acquires more or less of a meagre feel as it parts with its moisture, drying in firm and compact masses.

3. _Variegated Clay._--On the banks of the River St. Peter's, Upper Mississippi. Neither the quantity in which it exists, nor the precise locality is known. Its color is white, variegated with stripes, spots, or clouds of red or yellow.

4. _Azure Blue Clay of St. Peter's._--The locality of this substance, as communicated by the Indians, is the declivity of a hill, in the rear of the village of Sessitongs, one mile above the confluence of the Terre Blue River with the St. Peter's. It is found near the foot of this hill, between two layers of sandstone rock, in a vein about fifteen inches in thickness. This vein is elevated about twenty feet above the waters of the Terre Bleu, and does not extend far in the direction of the river. Having been resorted to by the Sioux Indians a long time, a considerable excavation has been made, but the supply is constant. The color of this mineral substance (its distinguishing character) is an azure copper blue of more or less intensity. It is ductile and moderately adhesive, when first taken up, or when moistened with water, but acquires an almost stony solidity on drying. It is considerably adulterated with sand or particles of quartz. It parts with its moisture rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, and dries without much apparent diminution of volume.

5. _Green Clay of St. Peter's._--This differs little from the preceding, except in its color, which is a deep or verdigris green, admitting some diversity of shades. Its composition appears to be, essentially, alumina, silica, carbonate of copper, water, and iron.

6. _Opwagunite_; _Calamet Stone_; _Pipe Stone._--The last of these terms is a translation of the first, which is Algonquin. Under these names, a peculiar kind of stone, which is much employed by the Indians for pipes, has been alluded to by travellers and geographers from the earliest times. It appears to be a variety of argillaceous wacke. Its color is most commonly a uniform dull red, resembling that of red chalk. Sometimes it is spotted with brown or yellow, but these spots are very minute, and the colors usually faint. It is perfectly opaque, very compact in its structure, and possessing that degree of hardness which admits its being cut or scraped with a knife, or sawed without injury to a common hand-saw, when first raised from the quarry; but it acquires hardness by exposure, and even takes a polish. But it is not capable of receiving a polish by the usual process of rubbing with grit-stone and pumice, these substances being too harsh for it. The Indian process is to scrape or file it smooth, and give it a polish by rubbing with the scouring rush. Its powder is a light red, and emits an argillaceous odor when wetted. This substance is procured at the Coteau des Prairie, intermediate between the sources of the St. Peter's and the Great Sioux Rivers. Some other places have been mentioned as affording this mineral, particularly a locality on the waters of Chippewa River; but the mineral procured here is chocolate-colored.

e. _Magnesian Minerals._

1. SERPENTINE.

At Presque Isle Point, Lake Superior, common and precious, in isolated masses; also, in connection with, and imbedding native copper, along the southern shore of Lake Superior, at Ontonagon River, &c.

2. STEATITE.

At Presque Isle, near River au Mort, Lake Superior, in connection with the serpentine formation. Also, at the Lake of the Woods, of a black or very dark color, where it is employed by the Indians in carving pipes.

3. ASBESTOS.

_Common Asbestos._--In serpentine and steatite, at Presque Isle Point, Lake Superior. Also, in minute veins, in detached masses of diallage and serpentine rocks, on the west shore of Lake Michigan. These veins are no more than a fourth of an inch in width; and the fibres of asbestos occur transversely. They are very flexible, and easily reducible into a flocculent mass.

f. _Barytic Minerals._

SULPHATE OF BARYTES.

_Lamellar Sulphate of Barytes._--In detached masses, imbedded in diluvial soil, at the mines of Peosta, or Dubuque, on the Upper Mississippi, where it is accompanied by sulphuret of lead, calcareous spar, &c. Also, at the Mine au Fevre (now Galena), and at the mouth of the Sissinaway River, on the east banks of the Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Fort Armstrong. Its colors are white or yellow, and it is frequently incrusted with a thin coat of yellow oxide of iron. It is most commonly opaque. The only translucent specimen seen was procured at Dubuque's mines.

g. _Strontian Minerals._

SULPHATE OF STRONTIAN.

_Foliated Sulphate of Strontian._--At Presque Isle (Wayne's Battle Ground), on the Maumee River, Wood County, Ohio. It occurs in veins and cavities, in compact limestone, most commonly in the form of flattened prisms. Its color is blue, frequently a very light or sky-blue, and the crystals are fully translucent, or even transparent. In some instances, they appear to have suffered a partial decomposition, and fall into fragments in the act of raising, or are covered with a white powdery crust, frequently visible only on the summits or terminating points of the prisms. The same limestone yields crystallized calcareous spar. Both these substances are abundant in the rocky banks and in the bed of the Maumee. Also, on Grosse Isle, Detroit River, Michigan.

h. _Bituminous Minerals._

1. BITUMEN.

_Petroleum._--Occurs in cavities, in loose fragments of limestone rock, along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago. These masses of rock lie promiscuously among fragments of quartz, granite, sandstone, fossil madrepores, &c., along the alluvial shore of the lake, and appear to have been washed up from its bed. The petroleum is in a free and liquid state; but, where it has suffered an exposure to the atmosphere, it has acquired a stiff and tar-like consistence passing into _maltha_. Not unfrequently, fragments of mineral coal are also found scattered along these shores, and there is reason to conclude that a bituminous formation exists in the contiguous inferior strata forming the basin of the lake.

2. GRAPHITE.

_Granular Graphite._--In a small vein, in the clay-slate of the River St. Louis, at the head of the nine-mile portage. It is coarse-grained and _gritty_.

3. COAL.

_Slaty Coal._--The only spot where this mineral has been observed, in situ, is at La Charbonniére, on the west banks of the Illinois River, at the computed distance of one hundred and twenty miles south of the post of Chicago. It is here seen in horizontal strata, not exceeding two or three inches in thickness, interposed between layers of sandstone and shale. Breaking out on the declivity of the bank of the river, where the overlaying strata are constantly crumbling down, and thus obscuring the seams, no very satisfactory examination could be made in a hasty visit; but the nature and position of the rock strata and soils, and the general aspect of the country, do not justify the conclusion that the bed is of much thickness or extent. Valuable beds may be discovered, however, by exploring this formation. This coal has a shining black color, a slaty structure, inflames readily, burning with a bright flame. It is very fragile where exposed to the weather, falling into fine fragments. Hence, a very black color has been communicated to the contiguous and overlaying soil, which is manifestly more or less the result of disintegrated coal.

Detached fragments of coal, corresponding in mineral characters with the above, are occasionally found around the southern shores of Lake Michigan. The inference, as to the existence of coal around the shores of this lake, is obvious. And we are led to inquire: Does the La Charbonniére formation of coal exist in the sandstone and limestone strata forming the table-land between the Illinois River and Lake Michigan, and reappearing around the basin of the latter, but at such a depression below its surface as to elude observation? And, if so, does not this coal formation extend quite across the southern portion of the peninsula of Michigan? The secondary character of the region alluded to, so far as observed, the horizontal and relative position of the strata, and the general uniformity which is generally observed in the species and order of the coal measures, favor this suggestion.

i. _Soda._

1. MURIATE OF SODA.

No traces of salt are known to have been discovered in those parts of the territory of the United States situated north of latitude 46° 31´ (which is that of the Sault Ste. Marie) and _east_ of the Mississippi River. The great secondary formations which pervade the western country cease south of this general limit, and with them terminate the salt springs, the gypsum beds, the coal measures, and other connected minerals which are generally found in association. It is one of the most important facts which the science of geology has contributed to the stock of useful information, that, in the natural order of the rocky and earthy deposits, muriate of soda always occupies a position contiguous to that of gypsum. This intimate connection between the sulphate of lime and the muriate of soda, enables us, by the discovery of the one, to predict, with considerable but not unerring certainty, the presence of the other. It adds weight to an observation first made among the salt formations of Europe, to find its general correctness corroborated by the relative position of these substances in the United States. These remarks will apply particularly to the salt formations of New York, and to some portions of the muriatiferous region of Virginia and the Arkansas.

There appears to be a salt formation extending from the northwest angle of the Ohio through Michigan, for a distance of two hundred to three hundred miles. It commences in the Seweekly country, passing around the Sandusky River of Lake Erie, where an extensive bed of granular gypsum has recently been discovered, and continues, probably, northwest, so as to embrace the Saganaw basin, and reach quite to the end of the peninsula, and embracing, perhaps, the Gypsum Islands of Lake Huron, ten miles northeast of Michilimackinac. All the brine springs and gypsum beds noticed in the region are situated in the line of this formation.

During the fall of 1821, a number of gentlemen at the Island of Michilimackinac united in the expenses of a tour for exploring the Skeboigon River, a stream which originates in the peninsula of Michigan, and flows into Lake Huron opposite the Island of Bois Blanc. The particular object of this party was to ascertain the precise locality of certain salt springs reported to exist upon that stream. They proceeded to the places indicated, and examined several springs more or less impregnated with salt, but reported that, owing to the jealousy and hostility of those bands of Indians who were found upon that stream, they were not enabled fully to accomplish the object in view.

There are several salt springs reported to exist near the Indian village of Wendagon, on the Sciawassa River, and others on the Titabawassa River, the principal tributaries of the Sagana. Little is, however, known respecting these springs, but the water is represented to be so strongly impregnated, that the Indians manufacture from it all the salt necessary for their villages.

Grand River Valley has also been mentioned among the localities of salt water and gypsum rocks.

Hints may thus be derived of value to the future commerce of the country. Scarcely any of the new states are without indications of the existence of salt. Every day is adding to the number of localities.

In the region _west_ of the Mississippi, I was informed that salt occurs, in the crystallized form, in the territories of the Yanktons, who inhabit the flat country at the sources of the River St. Peter's. In certain parts of these plains, the salt exists on the surface. It is mixed with earth, in specimens brought to me, but crystallized in cubes, very imperfect, of a gray or grayish-white color. The Indians scrape it up from certain parts of the prairies or plains, where the salt water is prevented from draining off.

2. ALKALINE SULPHATE OF ALUMINA.

This salt exists, in the form of efflorescences, in the cavities and fissures of rocks along the southeast parts of the shores of Sagana Bay, Lake Huron, and in the argillaceous formations at Erie, on Lake Erie, Pennsylvania.

* * * * *

These positions embrace the principal localities of minerals noticed. In travelling rapidly through a remote wilderness, there was but little opportunity to explore off the track; and the whole observation was confined to the mere surface of the country, which is much obscured by diluvial and alluvial formations.

It will be seen that the region of Lake Superior has been a fruitful field for mineralogical inquiry, and it is one which invites further exploration. Its mineralogy affords a variety of interesting substances which are objects of scientific research, and it may be anticipated to be the future theatre of extensive mining operations. The country northwest of Lake Superior, and the Upper Mississippi north of the Falls of St. Anthony--consisting mostly of upheaved primitive rocks and the pebble-drift, or diluvial, formations--has furnished but few subjects of mineralogical remark.

The district of country between the Falls of St. Anthony and Prairie du Chien, in common with the more southern portions of the Mississippi Valley, partakes of all the interest which the mineral kingdom presents in a calcareous and metalliferous country of secondary formation. It has added considerably to my collection. It is probable the Rivers St. Peter's, St. Croix, and Chippeway would well reward exploration; but the mines of Dubuque particularly invite a mineralogical survey. Their future importance cannot fail to be duly appreciated.

If the country has put on an aspect unfavorable to mineralogy, its geological features have been observed to sustain its interest.

Much of the interest growing out of the examination, for the first time, of the mineralogy and natural history of the country, is such as to commend itself, in an especial manner, to the consideration of men of science, and of associations devoted to scientific details, rather than the department of a government. To these former, nature is a storehouse of facts, and a perpetual anxiety is felt by this class of observers to know the range, not only of our rock formations, but of our plants, shells, fossils, and other classes of objects in our physical geography. Such desires I have endeavored, as far as my means permitted, to gratify. The fresh-water conchology of the lakes and rivers visited was often attractive, when other objects excited little interest. The species collected in this department have been referred to the New York Lyceum of Natural History.

With these remarks, the result of an arduous and interesting journey through a part of the continent hitherto unexplored, I have the honor to conclude my report, and to terminate the trust confided to me.

I am, sir, with respect, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, _Geologist, &c. of the Ex. Exp._

VIII.

(A.)

_A Report to the Senate of the United States, in Answer to a Resolution passed by this Body, respecting the Value and Extent of the Mineral Lands on Lake Superior._[235] By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

[235] _To the Senate of the United States:_--

In compliance with a resolution of the Senate of the 8th May last, requesting "information relative to the copper mines on the southern shore of Lake Superior, their number, value, and position, the names of the Indian tribes who claim them, the practicability of extinguishing their titles, and the probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the acquisition and working these mines," I herewith transmit a report from the Secretary of War, which comprises the information desired in the resolution referred to.

JAMES MONROE.

WASHINGTON, 7th December, 1822.

DEPARTMENT OF WAR, 3d December, 1822.

The Secretary of War, to whom was referred the resolution of the Senate of the 8th May last, requesting the President of the United States "to communicate to the Senate, at the commencement of the next session of Congress, any information which may be in the possession of the Government, derived from special agents or otherwise, showing the number, value, and position of the copper mines on the south shore of Lake Superior, the names of the Indian tribes who claim them, the practicability of extinguishing their title, and the probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the acquisition and working these mines," has the honor to transmit a report of Henry R. Schoolcraft, Indian agent at the Sault of Ste. Marie, on the copper mines in the region of Lake Superior, which contains all the information in relation to the subject in this department.

All which is respectfully submitted.

J. C. CALHOUN.

To the PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.

SAULT STE. MARIE, October 1, 1822.

SIR: In reply to the inquiries, contained in a resolution of the Senate of the United States, respecting the existence of copper mines in the region of Lake Superior, inclosed to me in a note from the War Department, dated 8th May, 1822, I have the honor to submit to you the following facts and remarks:--

1. In relation to "_the number, value, and position of the copper mines on the south shore of Lake Superior_." The remote position of the country alluded to, the infrequency of communication, and the little reliance to be placed on information derived through the medium of the aborigines or of traders, who are wholly engrossed with other objects, presents an embarrassment at the threshold of this inquiry, which must be felt by every person who turns his attention to the subject. The information sought for demands a minute acquaintance with the natural features and mineral structure of the country, which can only be acquired by personal examination; and it is a species of research requiring more leisure, better opportunities, and a freer participation in personal fatigue, than usually falls to the share of tourists and travellers. Not only are those difficulties to be encountered which are inseparable from the collection of isolated facts in a new and unsettled country, but those, also, which are peculiar to the subject, connected as it is, at every stage of the inquiry, with the prejudices and superstitions of the Indian tribes. [B.] It can, therefore, excite little surprise that, after having been the theme of speculation for more than a century, and obtained the notice of several works of merit in Europe,[236] both the position and value of these mineral beds have continued to the present times to be but partially known. To ascertain more clearly their value and importance to the Republic were objects more particularly confided to me as a member of the expedition sent by the Indian Department, in the year 1820, to traverse and explore those regions. My report of the 6th of November of that year--a copy of which, marked A, is herewith transmitted--gives the result of that inquiry. After a lapse of two years, little can be added. Reflection and subsequent inquiry convince me that the facts advanced in that report will be corroborated by future observation. No circumstance has transpired which is calculated to prove that my suggestions with regard to the fertility and future importance of those mines are fallacious; on the contrary, all information tends to strengthen and confirm those suggestions. Specimens of pure and malleable copper continue to be brought in to me by the aborigines from that region, but it is not deemed necessary to particularize in this place the additional localities. It will be sufficient to observe, that the number of these new discoveries justifies the expectations that have been created respecting the metalliferous character of the region of the Ontonagon, and the south shore of Lake Superior. [C.]

[236] _Vide_ Jameson's Mineralogy, Parkes's Chemical Catechism, Phillips's Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy.

I shall here add the result of an accurate analysis made upon a specimen of this copper at the mint of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, at the request of Mr. Eustis, minister plenipotentiary from the United States, who carried samples of the American copper to that country. The report of the inspector of the mint, which communicates the result of this analysis, has the following remarks upon the natural properties of this species of copper, and the mode of its production: "From every appearance, the piece of copper seems to have been taken from a mass that has undergone fusion. The melting was, however, not an operation of art, but a natural effect caused by a volcanic eruption. The stream of lava probably carried along in its course the aforesaid body of copper, that had formed into one collection, as fast as it was heated enough to run, from all parts of the mine. The united mass was probably borne in this manner to the place where it now rests in the soil. The crystallized form, observable everywhere on the original surface of the metal that has been left untouched or undisturbed, leads me to presume that the fusion it has sustained was by a process of nature; since this crystallized surface can only be supposed to have been produced by a slow and gradual cooling, whereby the copper assumed regular figures as its heat passed into other substances, and the metal itself lay exposed to the air.

"As to the properties of the copper itself, it may be observed that its color is a clear red; that it is peculiarly qualified for rolling and forging; and that its excellence is indicated by its resemblance to the copper usually employed by the English for plating. The dealers in copper call this sort _Peruvian copper_ to distinguish it from that of _Sweden_, which is much less malleable. The specimen under consideration is incomparably better than Swedish copper, as well on account of its brilliant color as for the fineness of its pores and its extreme ductility. Notwithstanding, before it is used in manufactures, or for the coining of money, it ought to be melted anew, for the purpose of purifying it from such earthy particles as it may contain. The examination of the North American copper, in the sample received from his excellency the minister, by the operation of the cupel and test by fire, has proved that it does not contain the smallest particle of silver, gold, or any other metal." It is a coincidence worthy of remark, that the suggestions offered by the assayer respecting the volcanic origin of these masses of copper, are justified by the leading features of the Porcupine Mountains, and by the melted granites found upon the heights called Grande Sables and Ishpotonga.

2. The second and third inquiries of the resolution relate to "_the names of the Indian tribes who claim the mines, and the practicability of extinguishing their title_." By the treaty concluded at this post on the 16th of June, 1820, the Ojibwai[237] Indians cede to the United States four miles square of territory, bounded by the River St. Mary's, and including the portage around the falls.[238] This is the most northerly point to which the Indian title has been extinguished in the United States. The different bands of Ojibwais possess all the country northwest of this post, extending through Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi, where they are bounded by the Assennaboins, the Crees, and the Chippewyans of the Hudson Bay colony. Their lands extend down the Mississippi to the Sioux boundary, an unsettled line between the junction of the River De Corbeau and the Falls of St. Anthony. South of Lake Superior, they claim to the possessions of the Winnebagoes, on the Ouisconsin and Fox Rivers, and to those of the Pottawatamies and Ottoways, on Lake Michigan. The Wild Rice, or Monomonee Indians, are an integral part of the Ojibwai nation, deriving their name from the great reliance they place on the zizania aquatica as an article of food. They live in small, dispersed bands between the Ojibwais of the lake, and the Winnebagoes of Fox River. Those residing among the Ojibwais speak the same language, but with many peculiarities and corruptions on the waters of Green Bay. They claim the respective tracts upon which they are located. These are, principally, the valleys of the Fox and Monomonee Rivers, and the rice lands contiguous to the Fol. Avoine, Clam Lake, and Lac de Flambeau, which lie on the table-lands between Lake Superior and the Mississippi.

[237] For the different names applied to this tribe of Indians, see Appendix H.

[238] _Vide_ acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress of the United States, page 88.

The right of soil to all that part of the Peninsula of Michigan not purchased by the United States is divided between the Ojibwais and the Ottoways. The former claim all the shores and islands of Lake Huron situated north of the Saganaw purchase, except those in the vicinity of Michilimackinac and the St. Martin, or Gypsum Islands, which were ceded by treaty on the 6th of July, 1820.[239] Their territories continue north, through the River St. Mary's, embracing the country on both banks, and the islands in the river, saving Drummond's Island, which is garrisoned by the British, and the Four Mile concession at the Sault or Falls, now occupied by a detachment of the United States' army. It is not deemed necessary to point out the limits of their territories with more precision, or to pursue them into the Canadas, where they are also very extensive. It will sufficiently appear, from this outline, that the discoveries of copper on the south shore of Lake Superior are upon their lands. That some of these discoveries have been made upon, or will be traced to, the possessions of the North Monomonees, is also probable.

[239] _Vide_ acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress, p. 91.

With respect to the practicability of extinguishing the Indian title, no difficulty is to be apprehended. Living in small villages, or tribes of the same mark, scattered over an immense territory, and often reduced to great poverty by the failure of game and fish, it is presumed there would be a disposition among their chiefs and head men to dispose of portions of it. Those districts which most abound in minerals, presenting a rough and rocky surface, are the least valuable to them as hunting-grounds; and the goods and annuities which they would receive in exchange must be vastly more important to them than any game which these mineral lands now afford.

3. "_The probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the acquisition and working of these mines._" How far metallic mines, situated upon the public domain, may be considered as a source of national wealth, and what system of management is best calculated to produce the greatest advantages to the public revenue, are inquiries which are not conceived to be presented for consideration in this place; nor should I presume to offer any speculations upon topics which have been so often discussed, and so fully settled. In applying axioms, however, to a species of productive industry, the results of which are so very various under various situations, great caution is undoubtedly necessary; and it must appear manifest, on the slightest reflection, how much the comparative value of metallic mines, equally fertile and productive, ever depends upon situation and local advantages. Dismissing, therefore, all questions of abstract policy, I shall here adduce a few facts in relation to the fertility of these mineral beds, and their position with respect to a market--points upon which their value to the nation must ultimately turn.

That copper is abundantly found on the south shore of Lake Superior has been shown. It is unnecessary here to add to, or repeat the instances of its occurrence, or to urge, from an inspection of the surface, the fertility of subterranean beds. All the facts which I possess in relation to this subject are before you, and you will assign to them such importance as they merit. It is a subject upon which I have bestowed some reflection and much inquiry, superadded to limited opportunities of personal observation, and the result has led me to form a favorable estimate of their value and importance. It is not only certain that a prodigious number of masses of metallic copper are found along the borders of the lake, but every appearance authorizes a conclusion that they are only the indications of near and continuous veins. Some of these masses are of unexampled size, and all present metallic copper in a state of great purity and fineness. Of its ductile and excellent qualities for the purposes of coinage and sheathing, the analysis of Utrecht leaves no doubt. It is true that a mistaken idea has prevailed among travellers and geographers respecting the weight of the great mass of copper on the Ontonagon River; but it is, nevertheless, of extraordinary dimensions, and I have endeavored to show, from their works, how these errors have originated, and that the metal is disseminated throughout a much greater extent of country, and in masses of every possible form and size. Until my facts and data can, therefore, be proved to be fallacious, I must be permitted to consider these mines not only fertile in native copper and its congenerous species, but unparalleled in extent, and to recommend them as such to the notice of the Government.

But, whatever degree of incertitude may exist respecting the riches of these mines, their situation with respect to a market can admit of no dispute. As little can there be concerning the advantages which this situation presents for the purposes of mining and commerce. Let us compare it with that of other mines, and appeal to acknowledged facts for the decision. The value of a coal mine, a stone quarry, or a gypsum bed, often arises as much from its situation as its fertility. But the proposition may be reversed with respect to a metallic mine, the value of which to the proprietor arises more from its fertility and less from its situation. Gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, &c., when separated from the matrix of the mine, are so valuable that they can bear to be transported a long journey over land, and the most distant voyage by water. Their worth in coined money, produce, or manufactures, is not fixed in the particular circles of country where they are dug up, but depends upon the seaboard market, and embraces all countries. The silver of Mexico and Peru circulates throughout Europe, and is carried to China. It is no objection to those mines that they are situated in the Cordilleras, or upon the high table-lands of the American continent, and must be carried a thousand miles upon the backs of mules to the seaside. The very discovery of those mines has rendered many poor silver mines of Europe of no value, although possibly situated in the environs of the best silver markets in the world. It is the fertility, and not the situation of such mines, that constitutes their chief value; and it is so with many of the coarser metals.

The tin of the Island of Banka, and the Peninsula of Siam in Asia, and the copper of Japan, find their way to Europe, and are articles of commerce in the United States. The cobalt of Saxony is sent to Pekin, and the platina of Choco, to all parts of the world. In all these instances, the fertility of the mines compensates for every disadvantage of situation. But this principle is not alone confined to mines of tin, copper, &c.; it even holds true of the heavy and bulky articles of iron, lead, and salt. The lead of Missouri finds a market at New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, and will be carried to Europe. It is no objection that it must be conveyed in wagons forty miles from the interior, and sent a voyage of 3,000 miles in steamboats and merchant ships. The great fertility of the mines counterbalances the disadvantages of its remote position from the market, and it is the price of the metal in the market which always regulates its price at the mines. The malleable iron of Sweden is consumed on the summits of the Alleghany, although its strata are replete with iron ore, which is worked at numerous forges along the rivers which proceed from each side of it. It is believed that the salt springs of Onondaga, from their copiousness alone, would supply a vast portion of the interior and seaboard of the United States with salt, even if the facilities of water carriage had not been presented by the Erie Canal. The value of such mines and minerals ever depends as much upon the abundance as upon the favorable position of them. It is far otherwise with quarries of stone, gypsum, marl, fossil coal, &c., whose contiguity to a good market establishes their value. No abundance of these articles would justify a land carriage of one hundred miles. They constitute a species of mining, the profits and value of which increases in the ratio of the surrounding population, and as the country advances in improvements. But this advantage is far less sensibly felt, and cannot be considered essential to the successful working of mines of silver, copper, &c. Neither the remote position, therefore, of the Lake Superior copper mines, nor the want of a surrounding population, present objections of that force which would at first seem to exist; and it is confidently believed that, if their fertility is such as facts indicate, they may be opened and wrought with eminent advantage to the Republic. But let us examine their situation with respect to a market, and compare it with that of other mines of the same metal, and of some of the coarser metals, which bear a considerable land, and the most distant water carriage. To favor the inquiry, let it be granted for the moment that proximity of situation to a market, or free water carriage, are indispensable to the success and value of the most fertile mines.

Assuming the confluence of the Ontonagon River with Lake Superior (which is apparently the centre of the mine district) as the place where the metal is first to be embarked for market, it must be carried down the lake 300 miles to the Sault or rapids of St. Mary's. Here, if it is in barges, it may descend the rapids in perfect safety, as is the invariable practice of the traders on arriving with their annual returns of furs and skins from the north. If in vessels, it must be transferred either into boats or carts, and carried half a mile to the foot of the rapids, where it will again be embarked in vessels, and transported through the Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, and their connecting straits, to Buffalo, a distance of 650 miles. The progress made in the construction of the great canal which is to connect the lakes and Atlantic, is such as to leave no doubt upon any reasonable mind of the full completion of that work with the close of the year 1824. Through this channel, the transportation is to be continued in boats or barges, by a voyage of 353 miles, to the Hudson at Albany; thence a sloop navigation of 144 miles, which, for speed and freedom from risk, is perhaps unequalled in all America, takes it into the harbor of New York, making the entire distance, from the mouth of the Ontonagon, 1,447 miles. From New York it is distributed to our naval depots, and to the markets of Europe. It is exchanged for the lead of Missouri, the iron of Sweden, or the silver of Mexico; and the same ready communication transports the return cargo to Buffalo, from whence the commerce is extended, by means of the lakes, throughout western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and the interminable regions of the north. Thus it is seen that, when the Erie Canal is completed, a free and direct water communication, from the mines to one of the best markets in America, will exist, in which the rapids of St. Mary's are the only interruption, and this is only an interruption to large vessels. Not only so, but the Ontonagon River may be ascended many miles with vessels of light burden, and thus the copper of Lake Superior, wafted from the heart of the interior, and from the base of the Porcupine Mountains, into the harbors of New York, Philadelphia, &c. Of this whole distance, 1,047 miles are now navigated by the largest class of river craft and lake schooners; the balance of the distance is the length of the Erie Canal. (See Note D.)

Let it be recollected that there are no mines of copper situated upon the margin of the sea, and that every quintal of sheet copper, bolts, nails, &c., which we receive from Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, or Japan, is transported a greater or less distance on turnpikes or canals, before it reaches the place of shipment. The richest copper mines of the Russian empire are seated on the summits of the Uralian Mountains; those of Fahlun, in Sweden, and Cornwall, in England, are scarcely more favored as to position; and, owing to a want of coal, all the ores raised at the latter are transported into Wales to be smelted.[240] But we need not resort to Europe for instances. All the lead raised at the fertile mines in Missouri is transported an average distance of forty miles in carts and wagons before it reaches the banks of the Mississippi. Steamboats take it to New Orleans, a distance, by the shortest computation, of 1,000 miles. But it must still pass through the Gulf of Mexico, and encounter the perils of the Capes of Florida, and a voyage of 2,000 miles along the coast of the United States, before it reaches its principal marts. The average cost of transporting a hundredweight of lead from Mine au Breton and Potosi to the banks of the Mississippi, during the year 1818, was seventy-five cents. The distance is thirty-six miles. The price of conveying the same quantity from the storehouses at Herculaneum and St. Genevieve to New Orleans, by steamboats, was seventy cents. The distance exceeds 1,000 miles. Hence, it costs more to transport a given quantity thirty-six miles by land than to convey it 1,000 by water. These rates have probably varied since, but the proportionate expense of land carriage, compared to that of water, will remain the same. A quintal of copper may, therefore, be transported from the mines of Superior to Buffalo or Lockport, in New York, for the same sum required to convey an equal quantity of lead from Potosi to St. Genevieve. If we consider the city of New York as the market of both, no hesitancy or doubt can be experienced as to the decided and palpable advantages possessed by the northern mines. It is only necessary to adduce these facts; the conclusions are inevitable. In every point of view, the distance of these mines from the market presents no solid objection to their being explored with profit to the nation.

[240] Silliman.

Pig copper, which is the least valuable form in which this metal is carried to market, is now quoted in the Atlantic cities at 19 cents per pound; sheathing, at 27; brazier's, at 32. I have no data at hand to show the amount of these articles consumed in the United States, and for which we are annually transmitting immense sums to enrich foreign States. But those who best appreciate the advantages of commerce will readily supply the estimate. It would be an interesting inquiry to ascertain how much of the sums yearly paid for sheathing copper, bolts, nails, engravers' plates, &c., is contributed to the wealth of the respective foreign States who possess mines of this metal. We can look back to a period in the history of Great Britain, when that power did not contribute one pound of copper to the commerce of Europe. During a period of nine years, closing with the memorable year (in American history) of 1775, the produce of the copper mines of Cornwall was 2,650 tons of fine copper. (See Note E.) Since that time, the yearly returns of those mines exhibit a constant increase; and the copper mines of Great Britain are now the most valuable in the world. The amount produced by the mines of Cornwall and Devon, after deducting the charges of smelting, for the single year of 1810, was 969,376 pounds sterling. (See Note F.) The clear profits of the Dolgoath mine, one of the richest in Cornwall, for a period of five months, during the year 1805, was £18,000, which is at the rate of £43,200, or $192,000, per annum. Next to Great Britain, the most considerable mines of Europe are those of Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Westphalia, as it was in 1808. Of less importance are those of Denmark, France, Saxony, Prussia, and Spain. The proportion in which the British mines exceed those of the most favored European nation is as 200,000 x 67,000. (See Note G.)

There is another consideration connected with this subject which is worthy of remark. Should it be inquired what would be the effects of the purchase of these mines upon the condition of the Indian tribes, the reply is obvious. It would have the most beneficial tendency. They would not only profit by an exchange of their waste lands for goods, implements of husbandry, the stipulated services of blacksmiths, teachers, &c., but the intercourse would have a happy tendency to allay those bitter feelings which, through the instigation of the British authorities in the Canadas, they have manifested, and still continue to feel, in degree, towards the United States. The measures which the President has recently directed to be pursued to assuage these feelings of hostility, and to induce them to cherish proper sentiments of friendship and respect, are already in a train of execution that bids fair for success. Continued exertions, and the necessary and proper means, are all that seem necessary to confirm and complete the effect; and whatever measures have a tendency to increase the intercourse of American citizens with these "remote tribes," and to give them a true conception of the power and justice, and the pacific and benevolent policy of our Government, must favor and hasten such a result.

I have the honor to be, sir, With the highest respect, Your most obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, _U. S. Indian Agent at the Sault Ste. Marie_.

Hon JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War, Washington_.

_Notes._

(B.)

Among the numerous superstitions which the Indian tribes entertain, that respecting mines is not the least remarkable. They are firmly impressed with a belief that any information communicated to the whites, disclosing the position of mines or metallic treasures situated upon their grounds, is displeasing to their manitos, and even to the Great Spirit himself, from whom they profess to derive every good and valuable gift; and that this offence never fails to be visited upon them in the loss of property, in the want of success in their customary pursuits or pastimes, in untimely death, or some other singular disaster or untoward event. This opinion, although certainly not a strange one to be cherished by a barbarous people, is, nevertheless, believed to have had its origin in the transactions of an era which is not only very well defined, but must ever remain conspicuous in the history of the discovery and settlement of America. It is very well known that the precious metals were the principal objects which led the Spanish invaders to penetrate into the interior of Mexico and Peru, and ultimately to devastate and conquer the country, to plunder and destroy its temples, and to tax and enslave its ill-fated inhabitants. It is equally certain that, to escape these scenes of cruelty and oppression, many tribes and fragments of tribes, when further resistance became hopeless, fled towards the north, preferring the enjoyment of liberty and tranquillity upon the chilly borders of the northern lakes, to the pains of servitude in the mild and delightful valleys of Mexico, and the golden plains of the Incas. In this way, many tribes who originally migrated from the north, along the Pacific Ocean, to the Gulf of California, and thence over all New Spain, were returned towards the north over the plains of Texas and the valley of the Mississippi; those tribes nearest the scenes of the greatest atrocities always pressing upon the remoter and less civilized, who, in turn, pressed upon the nations less enlightened than themselves, and finally drove them into the unfrequented forests of the north. Among these terrified tribes, the traditions of the Ojibwais affirm that their ancestors came, and that they originally dwelt in a country destitute of snows. Many tribes who now speak idioms of their language were left upon the way, and have since taken distinctive names. Among these, are the Pottawatamies, the Ottoways, &c. The latter formerly were, as they still remain, the agriculturists. The Miamis and Shawnees, whose languages bear some affinity, preceded them in their flight. The Winnebagoes, speaking a separate and original tongue, came later, and preserve more distinct traditions of their migration. All these tribes carried with them the strong prejudices and fixed hatred excited by the cruelty, rapacity, and cupidity of their European conquerors; and, above all, of that insatiable thirst for gold and silver which led the Spaniards to sack their towns, burn their temples, and torture their people. Cruelty and injustice of so glaring a character must have made upon their minds too deep an impression ever to be forgotten, or completely erased from their traditions. To that memorable epoch we must, therefore, look for the origin of that cautious and distrustful disposition which these tribes have since manifested with regard to the mines and minerals situated upon their lands; and the circumstance seems to offer an abundant excuse, if not a justification, for those prevarications and evasions which present a continual series of embarrassment to every person who seeks through their aid to develop the mineral resources, or describe the natural productions, of their territories. Hence, too, the cause why they are prone to imagine that all mineral or metallic substances obtained or sought upon their lands, are susceptible of being converted or _transmuted_ into the precious metals.

(C.)

The following _additional_ localities of native copper, derived from sources entitled to respect, and accompanied, in some instances, by specimens of the metal, may here be given:--

1. Grand Menou, or Isle Royal, Lake Superior. Captain----, of the schooner----, in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company, on Lake Superior, describes this island as affording frequent masses of copper. While becalmed off its shores in the spring of 1822, and, afterwards, in coasting along the island for a distance of one hundred miles, his men frequently went ashore, and never failed to bring back with them lumps of metallic copper, which they found promiscuously scattered among the fragments of rock. These were more abundant in approaching its southwestern extremity, where they unite in representing it to exist in a solid vein. Specimens of limpid quartz, chalcedony, and striped agate, were also brought to me from this island. [J. S. J. J.]

2. On the extremity of the great peninsula, called by the natives Meenaiewong, or Keweena Point, which forms so prominent a feature in the physiognomy of Lake Superior. It occurs in the detached form. [J. H. J. J.]

3. At Point aux Beignes, which is the east cape of the entrance into L'Ance Quewiwenon. A mass from this place was raised from the sandstone rock, which predominates there. [J. Y. B.]

4. At Caug Wudjieu, or the Porcupine Mountains, Lake Superior; in masses, enveloped with a green crust, along the banks of the Carp, or Neemaibee River, which originates in these mountains. [W. M. G. Y. J. J.]

5. On the banks of Lac Courterroile. This lake lies near the source of the River Broule, or Cawesacotai, which enters Lake Superior near La Pointe. It occurs in the alluvial soil, which is a kind of loamy earth, with pebbles intermixed, but of a rich quality, and timbered with beech and maple. It is found mostly in small, flat masses, more or less oxidated. [B. G. J. G. Y.]

6. In a vein on the shore of Lake Superior, between La Riviere de Mort and St. John's, a little to the west of Presque Isle. [J. J.]

7. On the northeast branch of the Ontonagon River. [J. H.]

8. In the precipitous bluffs called Le Portail, and the Pictured Rocks. A green matter oozes from the seams in these rocks, and forms a kind of stalactites, which is apparently a carbonate of copper. [G. Y.]

These localities embrace a range of more than two hundred miles along the south shore of Lake Superior, which proves how intimately this metal and its ores are identified with the rocks and the soil of that region.

(D.)

In all our calculations respecting the position and advantages of these mines, too much stress cannot be laid upon the facilities of the lake navigation. It is believed that a ton of merchandise, or a barrel bulk, can be transported through the lakes at the same rates that are paid in the coasting trade of the United States. Nor is the risk greater. The best data which I can command, induce me to conclude that a quintal of copper can be conveyed from the place of shipment on Lake Superior, to the city of New York, for _one dollar_. The present price of transportation, for a barrel bulk, from Buffalo to Mackina, may be stated, on the average of freights, at 8_s._, New York. The mean weight of a barrel bulk, taking flour as the standard, may be safely put down at 200 lbs. gross, being 50 cents per cwt. But it must be recollected that there is no return freight; and, consequently, that this sum covers the expenses not only of the outward and return voyage, but still leaves a profit to the owner. Messrs. Gray and Griswold, sutlers of the 2d regiment, paid 9_s._ 6_d._, New York, per barrel bulk, from Buffalo to the Sault. This gives a result of 59 cents per cwt. But, if a return cargo could be obtained, one-half of this sum would afford an equal profit on the voyage; and it is believed that the article of bar copper could at all times be conveyed from the Sault to Buffalo for 20 cents per cwt. Being a very convenient species of ballast, it would oftentimes be taken in lieu of stone, and, consequently, cost no greater sum than the price of carrying it on board. But the facilities and cheapness of the lake navigation cannot, perhaps, be better illustrated than by stating the price of provisions at the post of St. Mary's, every article of which is carried from 300 to 700 miles through the lakes. The following statement of the assistant commissary has been politely furnished at my request:--

SAULT STE. MARIE, October, 1822.

DEAR SIR: Agreeably to your request, I send you a statement of the actual cost of subsistence stores furnished at this post for the use of troops at present making the military establishment, ordered by the Government to this place.

The prices of the several articles below enumerated are at a small advance on the stores of the settlers outside of the cantonment.

The expenses of subsisting, or rather of maintaining, a garrison at this place will be as small, if not less, per annum, than at any other frontier post in our country. The provisions for the soldier cost as little, I believe, as at any other post, and next year we shall be able to raise all the forage for the use of our beef cattle, and the horses and oxen of the quartermaster's department.

I am, dear sir, yours, &c., W. BICKER, _A. C. S. U. S. A._

_Statement of the Cost of United States Subsistence Stores at the Sault de Ste. Marie, 1822._

Cents. Pork, per pound 4-1/4 Flour, per pound 1-9/10 Whiskey, per gallon 29 Fresh beef, per pound 6-1/2 Vinegar, per gallon 22 Salt, per bushel 90 Soap, per pound 10 Candles, per pound 20-1/2 Beans, per quart 4-7/10

The total cost of a soldier's ration is 9 cents and 1 mill per diem.

WALTER BICKER, _A. C. S. U. S. A._

H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Esq., _U. S. I. Agent_.

(E.)

_Statement of the Returns of Copper Ores Smelted at the Mines of Cornwall (Eng.) from 1726 to 1775.--[Rees's Cyclopedia.]_

-------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- Periods. |Tons of ore.|Average price| Amount. |Annual quantity | | per ton. | |of fine copper. -------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- 1726 to 1735 | 64,800 | £7 15 10 | £473,500| 700 tons 1736 to 1745 | 75,520 | 7 8 6 | 560,106| 830 " 1746 to 1755 | 98,790 | 7 8 0 | 731,457| 1,080 " 1756 to 1765 | 169,699 | 7 6 6 |1,243,045| 1,800 " 1766 to 1775 | 264,273 | 6 14 6 |1,778,337| 2,650 " -------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------

(F.)

_Statement of the Produce of the Mines of Cornwall and Devon (Eng.) for a period of four years, ending with 1811._

+-------------+------------+----------+--------- | 1808 | 1809 | 1810 | 1811 ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- |Corn- |Devon|Corn- |Devon| Cornwall | Cornwall |wall | |wall | |and Devon |and Devon ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- Tons of ore. | | | | | | Tons. |73,434 |3,725|72,038|3,210| 80,238 |73,579 cwt. | 2 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 14 | 0 qrs. | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- Fine copper. | | | | | | Tons. |7,118 | 369 |6,972 | 365 | 7,006 | 6,272 cwt. | 5 | 10 | 17 | 1 | 13 | 0 qrs. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 lbs. | 17 | 0 | 17 | 3 | 5 | 2 ------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- Average | | | | standard £ | 107 | 122 | 141 | 125 per ton. | | | | ------------------+-------+------------+----------------+--------- Annual amount £|781,348| 875,784 | 969,376 | 769,379 after deducting | | | | charges of s.| 16 | 2 | 19 | 4 smelting. | | | | ------------------+-------+------------+----------------+---------

(G.)

_Table of the Annual Quantity of Copper raised from the Earth in Different Countries, in Quintals--the Quintal valued at 100 lbs._

1. England 200,000 2. Russia 67,000 3. Austria, including Bohemia, Gallicia, Hungary, Transylvania, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Salzburg, and Moravia 60,000 4. Sweden 22,000 5. Westphalia, in 1808 17,229 6. States of Denmark 8,500 7. Bavaria, including the Tyrol 3,000 8. France 2,500 9. Saxony, in 1808 1,320 10. Prussia, as left by the treaty of Tilsit 337 11. Spanish European mines 309 -------- Total, 382,186

(H.)

I shall here give the synonoma for this tribe of Indians, which appears to have been first recognized by the United States as an independent tribe by Wayne's treaty of 1795,[241] under the name of Chipewa. This name has been retained in all subsequent treaties with them, not, however, without some discrepance in the orthography. These variations are chiefly marked by the introduction of the letter _p_ at the beginning of the second syllable, or the vowel _y_ annexed to the third; producing Chip-_pe_-wa, Chip-_pe_-wa_y_, and Chip-e-_way_. The French missionaries and traders, whose policy it was to discard the names of the aboriginal tribes from their conversations, bestowed upon this tribe, at a very early period, the _nom de guerre_ of _Saulteurs_, or _Sauteurs_, from the Sault or Falls of St. Mary's, which was the ancient seat of this tribe--a name which is still retained by the Canadians, and by many of the American traders. Among the early French writers, they were also sometimes denominated _Outchipouas_. There is as little uniformity among travellers and geographers. Pinkerton, Darby, Morse, Carver, Mackenzie, and Herriot, either employ the word according to the orthography of Wayne's treaty, or with the modifications above noticed. The name of Chippewyans, employed by Mackenzie, relates to a tribe residing north and west of the sources of the Mississippi, who speak a language having no affinity, and are a distinct people. Henry, who was well versed in the Chippewa language, also conforms to the popular usage, but observes that the true name, as pronounced by themselves, is Ojibwa.

[241] This fact is not stated in full confidence. I cannot refer to any authorities to prove that they were formally recognized by the United States before this very recent period. By the French and British governments they were known soon after the first settlements at Quebec and Albany (A. D. 1608, 1614), and subsequently treated with. A band of warriors from Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior, under the command of Waub Ojeag, or the White Fisher, was present at the taking of Fort Niagara by Sir W. Johnston in 1759.

Having taken pains to ascertain and fix the pronunciation of this word, I have not hesitated to introduce it into my correspondence and official accounts; but I am aware of my great temerity in so doing. Popular prejudices, and several of the authorities above cited, stand opposed to the proposed innovation. The continued use of the word "Chippewa" is also sanctioned by a name entitled to conclusive respect. "I write the word in this way," observes the Executive of Michigan, "because I am apprehensive the orthography is inveterately fixed, and not because I suppose it is correct." Still, there are reasons for changing it. Justice to this unfortunate race requires it. Since the popular apathy to their condition is such that every remembrance of their actual customs, manners, and traditions will probably perish with them, and their _name_, ere long, be all that is left, it is at least incumbent upon us to transmit _that_ to posterity in its true sound--as the fathers and sachems pronounced it. If, then, there is an acknowledged error in this respect, shall we hesitate to correct it?

IX.

_Rapid Glances at the Geology of Western New York, west of the Rome Summit, in 1820._[242]

[242] At the time these sketches were written, no geological observations had been made on this field, which has, at subsequent periods, been so elaborately described; nor had the topic itself attracted much attention. I landed at New York, in the ship Arethusa, from New Orleans, in the summer of 1819, and published, in that city, in the fall of that year, an account of the lead-bearing rocks of Missouri, and their supporting white sandstones, which rest, in horizontal deposits, on the primitive formation of the St. Francis; bringing, at the same time, a rich collection of the mineralogy of that region, which soon became known in private cabinets. This became the cause of my employment, by the United States Government, to visit the alleged copper mines on Lake Superior, as a member of the expedition to the sources of the Mississippi. I left Oneida County, in the district remarked on, on the 10th of April of that year, and reached the banks of the Niagara River on the 29th of that month. On returning from the sources of the Mississippi, I entered the same region on the 17th of October, and reached Oneida on the 21st of the same month. Prior to my visit to the Great West, I had dwelt some three years--namely, 1809, '10, '11, '12--in Oneida and Ontario counties. These were the opportunities enjoyed, up to the period, for acquiring a knowledge of the geography and geology of the country. Mr. A. Eaton's _Index to Geology_, published early in 1820, embraces nothing extending to western New York.

ROCK FORMATIONS.--1. Assuming the area of the most eastwardly head of the Onondaga Valley, the Wood Creek, and the Rome Summit, and the valley of the Niagara, with an indefinite extent laterally, to form the limits of this inquiry; it is in coincidence with all known facts to say that it is a secondary region, consisting of the sedimentary and semi-crystalline strata, the lines of which are perfectly horizontal. Colored sandstone, generally red, forms the lowest observed stratum.

Wherever streams have worn deep channels, they either disclose this rock or its adjuncts, the grits, or silicious sinter. It is apparent in the chasm at Niagara Falls, about half a mile below the cataract. It is often seen on the surface of the country, or buried slightly beneath the soil. In color, hardness, and other characters, there is a manifest variety. But, considered as a "formation," no doubt can exist of its unity. Its thickness can only be conjectured, as no labor has, so far as we know, penetrated through it.

Judging from observations made in Cattaraugus County, in 1818, the coal measures have been completely swept from this area.

2. Next in point of altitude, is the series of dark, carbonaceous, shelly slate rock. The thickness of this formation, as indicated at Niagara, cannot be less than ninety feet. It is also often a surface-rock in the district, forming portions of the banks of lakes, streams, &c. It is characterized by organic remains of nascent species. Portions of it also disclose rounded masses of pre-existing rocks.

3. Last in the order of superposition, is the secondary limestone formation. It is, most commonly, of a dark, sedimentary aspect. It is not invariably so, but portions of it have a shining, semi-crystalline fracture. Shades of color also vary considerably, but it never, in the scale of colors, exceeds a whitish-gray. Viewed at different localities, the mass is either compact, fetid, shelly, or silicious. Much of it produces good quicklime. It is often rendered "bastard," as the phrase is, by argillaceous and earthy impurities. Organic impressions, and remains of sea shells and coarse corals are frequent. Encrinites give some portions of it the appearance of eyed or dotted secondary marble. The occurrence of a hard variety of hornstone, which is not flint, is apparently confined to the compact, fetid variety. This formation, like the two preceding, may be found to consist of separate strata. Localities, joining, overlaying, substrata, mineral contents, organic species, &c., require observation. The following notices are added.

GEOLOGICAL CHANGES.--The evidences which are furnished of ancient submersion, which has "changed and overturned" vast portions of the solid land, are neither few nor equivocal. They are seen as well in the rock strata as the alluvial soils. The most elevated hills and the lowest valleys are equally productive of the evidences of extensive changes. The whole aspect of the country seems to attest to the ancient dominion of water. But the most striking proof of its agency is, perhaps, found in the sea-shells, polypi, and crustacea, which are preserved, in their outlines, in solid strata. Some of these are most vivid in their shapes and ray-like markings, particularly the univalve shells.

A subsequent change, in the surface of the country, is indicated by the marks of attrition and watery action upon the faces of these rocks, in situations greatly elevated above the present water-levels. This action must, consequently, be referred to a period when extensive submersions, in the nature of lakes or semi-seas, existed; for there is no power in present lakes and streams, however swelled and reinforced by rains or melting snows, to reach even a moiety of the elevation of these ancient water-marks. It is to the era of these last submersions that we are encouraged, by evidences, to look, as the disturbing cause which has buried trees, leaves, and bones in alluvial soils.

_Action of Water._--In examining some portions of the flat lands of Ontario County, such as the township of Phelps, there are strata of a fine sedimentary soil, such as might be expected to result from the settlings of water not greatly agitated. The bottoms of mill-ponds afford an analogous species of soil. In these level districts, there are also not unfrequently observed fields of bare flat rock, of the limestone species, which is checkered in its surface, conveying the idea of their having formed a flooring to some former lake. An appearance of this kind may be seen a few hundred yards from the meeting-house in Phelps. The rock, in this instance, is a carbonate of lime, and affords organic remains.

The Oak Openings, in Erie County, are a kind of natural meadows or prairies. Many suppose them to have been ancient clearings; but of this the Indians have no tradition, and the evidences of such a settlement are by no means satisfactory. In many places, on these extensive openings, there are naked and barren layers of calcareous rock, whose surface exhibits appearances analogous to those in Ontario. The limestone is, however, of a darker color, and contains numerous imbedded nodules of hornstone, and it emits a fetid odor on breaking.

In crossing the elevated calcareous highlands, between Danville and Arkport, in Steuben County, we perceive in the bluff rocks which bound the valley of the Conestoga River, at an elevation of perhaps two hundred feet above its bed, horizontal water-marks, deeply impressed upon the face of the rocks, as if the waters had formerly stood at that level; and it is impossible to resist the conviction, in travelling over this rugged district of country, that it has not been totally submerged by waters, which have been suddenly drawn off, but by gradual or periodical exhaustions, standing for many ages at different levels.

SLATE ROCKS.--These were, not inaptly, denominated "brittle slate," by Dr. Mitchell, in 1809. Brittleness is their pervading character; and it is owing to this quality, in a formation of great thickness, that the action of the water at Niagara Falls is of so very striking a character. There is no portion of the Niagara slate solid enough to be used for building stone. It is uniformly shelly, and exhibits, even in hand specimens, its reproduced character.[243] Those portions of the general formation which are solid constitute silicious slate. A locality of this variety may be seen at the Halfway House, eight miles east of Canandaigua.

[243] Appropriately pronounced a "secondary graywacke slate," by Mr. Eaton.

SENECA LAKE.--This clear and picturesque lake has its bed in the secondary formations, and may be referred to as exhibiting localities of them. Its upper parts afford the compact limestone in quadrangular blocks. Large portions of its margin consist of the brittle carbonaceous slate. The shores, from the vicinity of Rose's Farm to Appletown, are little else but a continuous bank of the slate. On the opposite coast, it is also visible at various localities below the Crooked Lake inlet. Cashong Creek may be particularly referred to. A short ascent of its valley brings the spectator into a scene where the walled masses of slaty rock assume a character of grandeur. Among the recent portions which have been thrown into the valley, may be seen masses having large species of the stem-like organic remains, which indicate its newness as a formation. Here are also disclosed orbicular masses, and pebbles of other rocks, imbedded in the slate. These prove it to be--what its texture would, in other places, indicate--a secondary slate.

The order of position on the banks of this lake is the same as at Niagara; but the sandstone is not apparent above the water line. Its existence, in the bed of the lake, may be satisfactorily inferred, from the masses of yellow coarse sand which are driven up at the foot of the lake, and particularly around its outlet. When the winds prevail, the water is driven violently against this part of the shore. As it is an alluvial flat, they soon surmount the stated margin, and produce a partial inundation. On their recession, wreathes of sand remain.

DILUVIAL ELEVATIONS.--Bounding the alluvial plain of the Seneca outlet westward, there is a series of remarkable wave-like ridges, whose direction is parallel to that of the lake. On the declivity-stop of the first of these ridges, stands the village of Geneva, the buildings of which are thus displayed in an amphitheatric manner above the clear expanse of the lake. The substratum of these ridges is an argillaceous, compact soil of the eldest formation. Some parts of it are a stiff clay, and yield septaria; but there is no considerable portion of it, which has been examined, wholly destitute of primitive boulders and pebbles. Little doubt can remain but that it is the result of the broken-down slaty rock mixed with the extraneous and far-fetched primitive masses. They are conclusive of its diluvial character. I have attentively examined this formation, in the section of it exposed on the shores of the lake between the village of Geneva and Two-mile Point. All its solid, stony contents are piled along the margin of the lake, the soil being completely washed away. Granite, quartz, and trap pebble-stones and boulders, are here promiscuously strewn with recent debris. Over the argillaceous deposit is spread a mantle of newer soil, of unequal depth and character, which forms, exclusively, the theatre of farming and horticultural labors.

WHITE SPRINGS.--On the declivity of one of these parallel ridges, at the distance of two miles from the lake, is found an extensive bed of white marl. This deposit, which is on the estate of the late Judge Nicholas, covers many acres, and yields so copious a spring of pure water that it is sufficient, at the distance of about three hundred yards from its issue, to turn a gristmill. There are to be found in this bed of marl several species of helix and voluta. The marl is generally covered with an alluvial deposit of two feet in depth. The depth of the marl itself is unexplored. Is not this marl the result of decomposed sea shells?

BEDS OF QUARTZOSE SAND.--In certain parts of the Seneca Valley are found limited deposits of a white quartzose sand, in a state of comparative purity. This substance is capable of being readily vitrified by the addition of alkaline fluxes, and is thus converted into glass. Its existence, as a local deposit, beneath separate strata of alluvial soil, supporting a growth of trees and shrubs, is such as to render it probable that the present stream, in its exhausted state, could have had no agency in producing these deposits. If we are compelled to look to a former condition of the waters passing off through this valley, as affording the requisite power of deposit, we are then carried back to an era in the geology of the country which we must refer to, to account for by far the greater number of changes in all its recent soils. Indeed, wherever we examine these soils, out of the range comprehended between high- and low-water mark, on any existing lake or stream, there will be found occasion to resort to the agency of more general and anterior submersions. A few localities may be appealed to.

FOSSIL WOOD.--In digging a well in the Genesee Valley, one mile east of the river (at Hosmer's), part of the trunk of a tree, of mature growth, was found at the depth of forty-one feet below the surface. The soil was a loose sand mixed with gravel. The position is more elevated than the flats, so called.

ANTLERS.--A large pair of elk's horns were discovered in an excavation made for the foundation of a mill at Clyde, in Seneca County. They were imbedded in alluvial soil, ten feet below the surface. This surface had been cleared of elm and other forest trees of mature growth. Near the same place, logs of wood were found at the depth of fourteen feet. These discoveries were made in the valley of Clyde River, which is formed by the junction of the Canandaigua Outlet with Mud Creek.

FROGS ENCLOSED IN THE GEOLOGICAL COLUMN.--At Carthage, on the Genesee, twelve or fifteen frogs were found in excavating a layer of compact clay marl, about nine feet below the surface. The position is several hundred feet above the bed of the Genesee River, to which elevation no one, after viewing the spot, will deem it probable its waters could have reached, this side of the diluvian era.

A frog was dug out of the solid rock, at Lockport, Niagara County, by the workmen engaged in excavating the canal. It was enveloped by the limestone which abounds in cavities filled with crystals of strontian and dog-tooth spar. It came to life for a few moments, and then expired. There was no aperture by which it could possibly communicate with the atmospheric air. The cavity was only large enough to retain it, without allowing room for motion.

The inclosure of animals of the inferior classes in the sedimentary strata, and even in the most solid substance of rock, is a fact which has been frequently noticed, without, however, any very satisfactory theory having been given of the process, at least to common apprehension. _Vide_ Addenda, for some further notices of this kind.

FOSSIL VEGETATION.--A well was dug in the lower part of the village of Geneva, in 1820, which disclosed, at the depth of thirteen feet, the branches and buds of a cedar-tree. They were found lying across the excavation, and in the sides of it; and were in excellent preservation. No one could conjecture in what age they had been buried. But this discovery would seem to establish the position that the catastrophe occurred _in the spring_.

MADREPORE.--A madrepore, measuring eight inches in diameter, was found in the upland soil of Caledonia, Genesee County. Smaller specimens of the same species occur in that township. Madrepores of a large size have also been found imbedded in the soil, or lying on the surface, in various places in Cattaraugus and Alleghany counties. They are locally denominated petrified wasps' nests. The lands containing these loose fossil remains are contiguous to, or based on, secondary rocks at considerable elevations.

BOULDERS AND PRIMITIVE GRAVEL.--But the most abundant evidences of diluvial action are furnished by the masses of foreign crystalline rocks which are scattered, in blocks of various sizes, on the surface of the soil, or imbedded at all depths within it. Primitive rocks are foreign to the district, and these masses could not, therefore, have resulted from local disintegration. They must have been transported from a distance. They required not only an adequate cause for their removal, but one commensurate with the effects. Such a cause Cuvier supposes, in discussing the general question, may have existed in eruptions, or in the action of oceanic masses of water, operating at an ancient period.

The latter opinion appears to be generally adopted. Dr. Mitchell, in reference to northwestern boulders, attributes their distribution over secondary regions to the draining of interior seas or lakes. Mr. Hayden, in his _Geological Essays_, refers them to the action of oceanic currents setting "from north and east to south and west."

SUBORDINATE AND EQUIVALENT STRATA.--These constitute the most intricate subjects of reference. They are either adjuncts or residuary deposits of leading formations. But their order, as accompanying series, must sometimes be sought for by a previous determination of the formations themselves. Could we certainly know, for instance, that the sandstone of Western New York is or is not the true coal-sandstone, or the limestone is or is not the carboniferous limestone, it would at once direct to positive eras, and serve to impart confidence in the prediction of unknown deposits of an important character. But, in order to fix the formations, it is often the safest mode of procedure to employ the subordinate and local deposits as evidences of the character of the formations embracing them.

GYPSUM.--A stratum of gypsum of the plaster of Paris kind--that is, consisting of an admixture of the carbonate with the sulphate of lime--occurs on the banks of the Canandaigua outlet. It has been chiefly explored in the township of Phelps, Ontario. In visiting the principal bed (1820), I found the following order of deposits composing the banks of the outlet:--

1. Alluvial soil of a dark, arenaceous, and mellow character, having small stones of the primitive kind sparingly interspersed, two and a half to three feet. Cultivated in improved farms.

2. Shelly limestone, of an earthy, dull-gray color and loose texture, in layers, three feet.

3. Limestone of a more firm character, but still shelly, or rather slaty, fissile, and easily quarried, six feet. This stratum contains iron pyrites in a decomposed state. Also, nodular or kidney-shaped masses of what the quarrymen call _plaster-eggs_--apparently snowy gypsum.

4. Plaster of Paris, ten feet. This stratum yields granular, earthy, fibrous, and foliated gypsum. It is the first two varieties which are quarried. In some places, the mass is firm enough to admit of blasting. In others, it is loose and veiny, and is readily broken up with iron bars and sledges. Portions of it appear to consist of a shelly limestone identical with No. 2. They are rejected in quarrying.

5. Limestone similar to No. 3, four feet.

At this depth it is covered by the waters of the outlet. How deep it extends is uncertain. The rapids at the village of Vienna are caused by shelving strata of this limestone.

There is a suite character in these strata which appears to constitute them a single deposit. The plaster-bed at Canasaraga exists in a ledge more elevated in reference to the local stream, and presents a broader section of the limestone. The shades of difference which are observable in its color and texture, do not appear to indicate a difference of geological era. Nor do appearances denote, for the calcareous formation which embraces these beds, much antiquity in the scale of secondary rocks.

SALIFEROUS RED CLAY-MARL.--Examinations, at various points, render it a probable supposition that the red clay-marl of western New York is the equivalent for the new red sandstone, in positions where the latter is--as it often is--wanting. It is extensively deposited in the upland soils, in the range of the salt rock and gypsum counties, from the summit grounds of Oneida County west. It may be seen in various stages of the decomposition. I have more attentively examined it on the upper parts of the Scanado[244] and Oneida creeks. Large areas of it exist in Westmoreland, Verona, and Vernon townships, and bordering the valley grounds of the Oneida reservation, and the northerly portions of Sullivan County. The existence of salt water might, apparently, be searched for with as much probability of success, in the district thus indicated, as at more westerly points.

[244] Usually written Skenanodoah, but pronounced as above.

COAL-FORMATION.--With a strong predisposition to regard our leading sandstone and limestone surface-formations as members of the "independent" or true coal-formation, inquiry has led me to relinquish the impression that they will, to any great degree, be found to yield this mineral. If the sandstone is--as facts indicate it to be--the new red or saliferous sandstone, it may be expected to yield thin seams of coal, in distant places, but no deposit of this mineral which will reward exploration in this or its super-incumbent series of rocks, the slates, limestones, &c. It will result, that the coal-measures, properly so denominated, are a prior deposit in the order of series; and, should they hereafter be found, such a discovery must take place above the range of the sandstone, which is the basis rock at Niagara and Genesee Falls.

Having premised the character of the sandstone, all the series occupying a position above it must derive their character, as secondary deposits, from this. The limestone cannot, therefore, be a part of the carboniferous or "medial." The slates, as shown at Cashong, are fragmentary, and rather nearer slaty grauwacks. The arenaceous and calcareous upper deposits assume nearly the position of the oolitic series, and, in fact, ought, in some localities, to be regarded as equivalents.

WESTERN COAL-MINES.--Much of the data employed in these inquiries is the result of previous examinations of the great coal deposits in the Ohio Valley, and other parts of the western country. Here we have the coal-sandstone and the slate clay, with slate, &c., alternating with the coal-measures. Such is the order of deposits at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela, where the formation is well developed, and where there exists, too, in the elevated valley hills, several repetitions of the series. The zechstone, or compact limestone, which is a pervading rock in the Mississippi Valley, occupies a position next above the great Mississippi sandstone.[245] It may always be distinguished from the shelly, entrochal limestone of the Genesee,[246] by the absence of gypsum and of the fetid odor emitted on fracture.

[245] This formation cannot be called "red sandstone," from its being generally white or gray, but appears to occupy the position of the "horizontal red sandstone" among European rocks.

[246] The cornutiferous lime-rock of Mr. Eaton.

ALLEGHANY VALLEY.--A question of interest, in connection with the extent of the Ohio Valley coal-formation, arises from the attempt to fix the point to which this formation ascends the Alleghany Valley--being the direct avenue into Western New York. I have examined this valley in its entire length between Pittsburg and Olean, in Cattaraugus County, and have not been able to observe that there are any evidences of its termination below the latter point. The general order and parallelism of strata remain the same. The coal stratum is apparently present. The qualities of the coal at Armstrong, and at various points below French Creek--the first primary fork of the river--are not distinguishable from the products of the Pittsburg galleries. Less search has been made above that point, but wherever the hills have been penetrated, they have--as at Brokenstraw--produced the bituminous coal. Above the Conawango Valley, which brings in the redundant waters of Chatauque Lake, the Alleghany discloses frequent rapids. The effect of parallelism upon the strata is to sink the coal-measures deeper as they ascend the Alleghany; and this cause may, in connection with the unexplored character of the country, be referred to in accounting for the absence of coal along this part of the line. The reappearance of traces of this mineral at Potato Creek, forty miles above Olean, is a proof, however, that the coal-formation extends to that point. This locality is a few miles within the limits of Pennsylvania. It occurs in a valley.

COAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK.--The coal-bed above Olean is south of the summit of the Genesee, and not remote from its primary source. The expectation may be indulged that the western coal-formation embraces portions of Cattaraugus and Alleghany or Steuben counties. The noted spring of naphtha, called Seneca Oil, is on Oil Creek in this county. As this substance, in the class of bitumens, is nearly allied to the coal series, it may be deemed favorable to the existence of the formation in the substrata.[247] Fragments of carbonized wood are frequently found in the large tracts of marine sand,[248] as well as in some of the mixed alluvions of these counties; and it needs but an examination, as cursory as it has fallen to my lot to make, of this portion of the country, to render it one of high geological interest, and to denote that the coal-measures probably extend into some portions of Western New York.[249]

[247] These tracts bear a valuable growth of pines, which constitute the source of a profitable lumber trade with the Ohio Valley.

[248] This mineral oil also occurs in several of the lower tributaries of the Alleghany River, within the coal district.

[249] A discovery of coal has been announced in Alleghany County, New York, as these sheets are going through the press, more than thirty years after these lines were penned.

ADDENDA.

_Animals inclosed in Rock, &c._

TOADS.--In 1770, a toad was brought to Mr. Grignon inclosed in two hollow shells of stone; but, on examining it nicely, Mr. G. discovered that the cavity bore the impression of a shell-fish, and, of consequence, he concluded it to be apocryphal.

In 1771, another instance occurred, and was the subject of a curious memoir read by Mr. Guettard to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. It was thus related by that famous naturalist:--

In pulling down a wall, which was known to have existed upwards of a hundred years, a toad was found without the smallest aperture being discoverable by which it could have entered. Upon inspecting the animal, it was apparent that it had been dead but a very little time; and in this state it was presented to the Academy, which induced Mr. Guettard to make repeated inquiries into the subject, the particulars of which will be read with pleasure in the excellent memoir we have just cited.

WORMS.--Two living worms were found, in Spain, in the middle of a block of marble which a sculptor was carving into a lion, of the natural color, for the royal family. These worms occupied two small cavities to which there was no inlet that could possibly admit the air. They subsisted, probably, on the substance of the marble, as they were the same color. This fact is verified by Captain Ulloa, a famous Spaniard, who accompanied the French academicians in their voyage to Peru to ascertain the figure of the earth. He asserts that he saw these two worms.

ADDER.--We read in the _Affiches de Provence_, 17 June, 1772, that an adder was found alive in the centre of a block of marble thirty feet in diameter. It was folded nine times round, in a spiral line. It was incapable of supporting the air, and died a few minutes after. Upon examining the stone, not the smallest trace was to be found by which it could have glided in or received air.

CRAWFISH.--Misson, in his _Travels through Italy_, mentions a crawfish that was found alive in the middle of a marble in the environs of Tivoli.

FROGS.--M. Peyssonel, king's physician at Guadaloupe, having ordered a pit to be dug in the back part of his house, live frogs were found by the workmen in beds of petrifaction. M. P., suspecting some deceit, descended into the pit, dug the bed of the rock and petrifactions, and drew out himself green frogs, which were alive, and perfectly similar to what we see every day.

We are informed by the _European Magazine_, February 21, 1771, that M. Herissan inclosed three live toads in so many cases of plaster, and shut them up in a deal box, which he also covered with thick plaster. On the 6th of April, 1774, having taken away the plaster, he opened the box, and found the cases whole and two of the toads alive. The one that died was larger than the others, and had been more compressed in its case. A careful examination of this experiment convinced those who had witnessed it, that the animals were so inclosed that they could have no possible communication with the external air, and that they must have existed during this lapse of time without the smallest nourishment.

The Academy prevailed upon M. Herissan to repeat the experiment. He inclosed again the two surviving toads, and placed the box in the hands of the Secretary, that the Society might open it whenever they should think proper. But this celebrated naturalist was too strongly interested in the subject to rest satisfied with a single experiment; he made, therefore, the two following:--

1. He placed, 15 April, 1771, two live toads in a basin of plaster, which he covered with a glass case that he might observe them frequently. On the 9th of the following month, he presented the apparatus to the Academy. One of the toads was still living; the other had died the preceding night.

2. The same day, April 15, he inclosed another toad in a glass bottle, which he buried in sand, that it might have no communication with the external air. This animal, which he presented to the Academy at the same time, was perfectly well, and even croaked whenever the bottle was shook in which he was confined. It is to be lamented that the death of M. Herissan put a stop to these experiments.

We beg leave to observe upon this subject, that the power which these animals appear to possess of supporting abstinence for so long a time, may depend upon a very slow digestion, and, perhaps, from the singular nourishment which they derive from themselves. M. Grignon observes that this animal sheds its skin several times in the course of a year, and that it always swallows it. He has known, he says, a large toad shed its skin six times in one winter. In short, those which, from the facts we have related, may be supposed to have existed many centuries without nourishment, have been in a total inaction, in a suspension of life, or a temperature that has admitted of no dissolution; so that it was not necessary to repair any loss, the humidity of the surrounding matter preserving that of the animal, who wanted only the component parts not to be dried up, to preserve it from destruction.

The results of modern chemistry and philosophy have proved the number of elementary substances to be far greater than was admitted in the preceding century. And this discovery is progressive, and will probably go on a long time; after which, it is not improbable a new race of chemical and philosophical observers will spring up, who will be able to decompose many substances we now consider elementary, and thus again reduce the number of elements of which all external matter is composed. It would not be wonderful if posterity should reduce the number of elements even as low as the ancients had them. Such a result would throw new light on the mysterious and intricate connection which seems to exist between animal, vegetable, and mineral matter. We should then, perhaps, have less cause to wonder that toads, &c., are capable of supporting life in stone, that birds should exist in solid blocks of wood, &c.

But toads are not the only animals which are capable of living for a considerable length of time without nourishment and communication with the external air. The instances of the oysters and dactyles, mentioned at the beginning of this article, may be advanced as a proof of it. But there are other examples.--_European Magazine_, March, 1791.

A beetle, of the species called capricorn, was found in a piece of wood in the hold of a ship at Plymouth. The wood had no external mark of any aperture.--_European Magazine_.

A bug eat itself out of a cherry table at Williamstown, Mass. See an account of this phenomenon, by Professor Dewey, in the _Lit. and Philos. Repertory_.

These phenomena remind us of others of a similar nature and equally certain.

In a trunk of an elm, about the size of a man's body, three or four feet above the root, and precisely in the centre, was found, in 1719, a live toad, of a moderate size, thin, and which occupied but a very small space. As soon as the wood was cut, it came out and slipped away very alertly. No tree could be more sound. No place could be discovered through which it was possible for the animal to have penetrated, which led the recorder of the fact to suppose that the spawn from which it originated must, from some unaccountable accident, have been in the tree from the very moment of its first vegetation. The toad had lived in the tree without air, and, what is still more surprising, had subsisted on the substance of the wood, and had grown in proportion as the tree had grown. This fact was attested by M. Hebert, Ancient Professor of Philosophy at Caen.

In 1731, M. Leigne wrote to the Academy of Sciences at Paris an account of a phenomenon exactly similar to the preceding one, except that the tree was larger, and was an oak instead of an elm, which makes the instance the more surprising. From the size of the oak, M. Leigne judged that the toad must have existed in it without air or any external nourishment, for the space of eighty or a hundred years.

We shall cite a third instance, related in a letter the 5th Feb. 1780, written from the neighborhood of Saint Mexent, of which the following is a copy.

"A few days ago, I ordered an oak tree of a tolerable size to be cut down, and converted into a beam that was wanting for a building I was then constructing. Having separated the head from the trunk, three men were employed in squaring it to the proper size. About four inches were to be cut away on each side. I was present during the transaction. Conceive what was their astonishment when I saw them throw aside their tools, start back from the tree, and fix their eyes on the same point with a kind of amazement and terror. I instantly approached, and looked at that part of the tree which had fixed their attention. My surprise equalled theirs, on seeing a toad, about the size of a large pullet's egg, incrusted, in a manner, in the tree, at the distance of four inches from the diameter and fifteen from the root. It was cut and mangled by the axe, but still moved. I drew it with difficulty from its abode, or rather prison, which it filled so completely that it seemed to have been compressed. I placed it on the grass; it appeared old, thin, languishing, decrepit. We afterwards examined the tree with the nicest care, to discover how it had glided in; but the tree was perfectly whole and sound."--_European Magazine._

BAT.--A woodman engaged in splitting timber for rail-posts in the woods close by the lake in Haming (a seat of Mr. Pringle's in Selkirkshire), lately discovered, in the centre of a large wild cherry tree, a living bat, of a bright scarlet color, which he foolishly suffered to escape, from fear, being fully persuaded it was (with the characteristic superstition of the inhabitants of that part of the country) a "being not of this world." The tree presented a small cavity in the centre, where the bat was inclosed, but is perfectly sound and solid on each side.--_N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository_, taken from the _London Semi-Monthly Magazine_.

SKULL IN WOOD.--A tenant of the Rev. J. Cattle, of Warwick, lately presented to him a part of the solid butt of an oak tree, containing within it the skull of some animal (unknown). It was in the part of the tree nine feet above the ground, and was perfectly inclosed in solid timber.--_N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository_, from _European Magazine_.

X.

_A Memoir on the Geological Position of a Fossil-Tree in the Series of the Secondary Rocks of the Illinois._

The spirit of inquiry which has been excited in this country in regard to objects of natural history, while it has enlarged the boundaries of our knowledge of existing species, has directed some of its more valuable researches to those organized forms which have perished and become embalmed in the shape of petrifactions, in the body of solid rocks. A petrified tree of this kind has recently been discovered in the secondary[250] rocks at the source of the Illinois River. Having recently visited this evidence of former changes in the flora of the West, I embrace the occasion, while my recollections are fresh, to give an account of it.

[250] This term is superseded, in geological discussions of the present day, by the term _silurian_, which embraces all strata of the era between the _palæozoic_ and _tertiary_ formations.

The tract of country separating the southern shores of Lake Michigan from the Illinois River, is a plat of table-land composed of compact limestone, based on floetz or horizontal sandstone. This formation embraces the contiguous parts of Illinois, and spreads through Indiana, Ohio, and the Peninsula of Michigan. It is overspread with a deposit of the drift era, covered with a stratum of alluvial soil, presenting a pleasing surface of prairies, forests, and streams. These features may be considered as peculiarly characteristic of the junction of the Rivers Kankakee and Des Plaines, which constitute the Illinois River. This junction is effected about forty miles south of Chicago.

The fossil in question occurs about forty rods above the junction of the Kankakee. The sandstone embracing it is deposited in perfectly horizontal layers, of a gray color and close grain. It lies in the bed of the Des Plaines. The action of this stream has laid bare the trunk of the tree to the extent of fifty-one feet six inches. The part at the point where it is overlaid in the western bank is two feet six inches in diameter. Its mineralization is complete. The trunk is simple, straight, scabrous, without branches, and has the usual taper observed in the living specimen. It lies nearly at right angles to the course of the river, pointing towards the southeast, and extends about half the width of the stream. Notwithstanding the continual abrasion to which it is exposed by the volume of passing water, it has suffered little apparent diminution, and is still firmly imbedded in the rock, with the exception of two or three places where portions of it have been disengaged and carried away; but no portion of what remains is elevated more than a few inches above the surface of the rock. It is owing, however, to those partial disturbances that we are enabled to perceive the columnar form of the trunk, its cortical layers, the bark by which it is enveloped, and the peculiar cross fracture, which unite to render the evidence of its ligneous origin so striking and complete. From these characters and appearances, little doubt can remain that it is referable to the species juglans nigra, a tree very common to the forest of the Illinois, as well as to most other parts of the immense region drained by the waters of the Mississippi. The woody structure is most obvious in the outer rind of the trunk, extending to a depth of two or three inches, and these appearances become less evident as we approximate the heart. Indeed, the traces of organic structure in its interior, particularly when viewed in the hand specimen, are almost totally obliterated and exchanged, the vegetable matter being replaced by a mixed substance, analogous, in its external character, to some of the silicated and impure calcareous carbonates of the region. Like those carbonates, it is of a brownish-gray color and compact texture, effervesces slightly in the nitric and muriatic acids, yields a white streak under the knife, and presents solitary points, or facets, of crystals resembling calc spar. All parts of the tree are penetrated by pyrites of iron of a brass yellow color, disseminated through the most solid and stony parts of the interior, filling interstices in the outer rind, or investing its capillary pores. There are also the appearances of rents or seams between the fibres of the wood, caused by its own shrinkage, which are now filled with a carbonate of lime, of a white color and crystallized.

From an effect analogous to carbonization, the exterior rind and bark of the tree have acquired a blackish-hue, while the inclosing rock is of a light-gray color, characters which are calculated to arrest attention.

There is reason to conclude that the subject under consideration is the joint result, partly of the infiltration of mineral matter into its pores and crevices, prior to inclosure in the rock, and partly to the chemical action educed by the great catastrophe by which it was translated from its parent forest, and suddenly enveloped in a bed of solidifying sand.

At the time of my visit (August 13, 1821), the depth of water upon the floetz rocks forming the bed of the River Des Plaines, would vary from one to two feet; but it was at a season when these higher tributaries, and the Illinois itself, are generally at their lowest stage. Like most of the confluent rivers of the Mississippi and their tributaries, the Des Plaines is subject to great fluctuations, and during its periodical floods may be estimated to carry a depth of eight or ten feet of water to the junction of the Kankakee. At those periods, the water is also rendered turbid by the quantity of alluvial matter it carries down, and a search for this organic fossil must prove unsuccessful. But during the prevalence of the summer droughts, in an atmosphere of little humidity, when the waters are drained to the lowest point of depression, and acquire the greatest degree of transparency, it forms a very conspicuous trait in the geology of the stream, and no person, seeking the spot, can fail to be directed to it.

The sand-rock containing this petrifaction is found in a horizontal position, differing only with respect to hardness and color. The remains of fossil organized bodies in this stratum are not abundant, or have not been successfully sought. It is probable that future observations will prove that its organic conservata are chiefly referable to the vegetable kingdom. It is certain, that this inference is justified by the facts which are before me, and particularly by the characteristic appearances of the strata in the bed of the River Des Plaines, where the imbedded walnut is the representative of the ancient flora. At a short distance above, where the bed of the Des Plaines approaches nearer the summit level, limestone ensues, and continues from that point northward to the shores of Lake Michigan. In the vicinity of Chicago, where this limestone is quarried for economical purposes, it is characterized by the fossil remains of molluscous species.

Lake Erie lies at an elevation of five hundred and sixty-five feet above the Atlantic.[251]

[251] Public Documents relating to the New York Canals, with an Introduction, &c., by Colonel Haines.

There exists a water communication between the head of Lake Michigan, at Chicago, and the River Des Plaines, during the periodical rises of the latter, but its summer level is about seven feet lower, at the termination of the Chicago portage, than the surface of the lake. From this point to its junction with the Kankakee, a computed distance of fifty miles, the bed of the Des Plaines may be considered as having a mean southern depression of ten inches per mile, so that the floetz rocks at its mouth, lying on a level of forty-eight feet eight inches below the surface of Lake Michigan, have an altitude which cannot vary far from five hundred and fifty feet above the Atlantic. There are no mountains for a vast distance either east or west of this stream. It is a country of plains, in which are occasionally to be seen alluvial hills of moderate elevation; but the most striking inequalities of surface proceed from the streams which have worn their deep-seated channels through it; and an oceanic overflow capable of covering the country, and producing these strata by deposition, would also submerge all the immense tracts of secondary and alluvial country between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, converting into an arm of the sea the great valley of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico north to the Canadian Lakes. We find in the alluvial soil along the Illinois and Des Plaines blocks of granite, hornblende, and gneiss, of the drift stratum, exhibiting the same appearances of attrition, and of having been transported from their parent beds, which characterize the secondary tablelands along the margin of the great American lakes, the prairies of Illinois, and the western parts of New York.

There is nothing, perhaps, in the progress of modern science, which has tended to facilitate geological research so much as the study and investigation of fossil organic remains. They teach, with unerring lights, how extensively the ancient flora and fauna of this continent have been prostrated, leaving their exact impressions, in all their minuteness, in the newly-formed stratifications. That these impressions, fresh and vivid as we find them, should mark the eras of depositions and crystallization of rocks from the suspension of their elements in water, is the observation of Werner, and it is to him we owe the elements of the Neptunian hypothesis. His general recognition of the epochs of the primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, appears too probable not to commend itself to adoption with regard to all strata which can be conceived to be the products of watery menstrua.

But it remained for Werner, who was the first to perceive an order in strata, also to point out the important application of fossil organic bodies in elucidating their eras, and the natural order of their superposition.

To adopt the words of Dr. Thomas Cooper:--

"There appears to be a series of strata, or, as Werner calls them, formations, that may be considered as surrounding the nucleus of the earth. The first formed, or lowest series, always preserve the same situation to each other, except where occasional eruptions, or circumstances not of a general nature, make a variety in their situations. These strata are not only the deepest, but they are also the highest that are observable in the crust of the earth; forming the tops of the highest mountains. They are characterized by an appearance of crystallization, and by containing no remains of organic matter, animal or vegetable. The strata or formations that in general constitute this first, deepest, highest, and crystallized series, are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, primitive greenstone, granular limestone, serpentine, porphyry, and sienite. These formations are so generally found, and in the same situations as incumbent upon or subtending each other relatively, that they may be considered as universal. Their crystallized appearance shows that their particles have either been dissolved or very finely suspended in water, so that the attraction of crystallization has been free to operate; that this water has been deep, so that the lowermost parts of it have not been much agitated during the crystallization, which would otherwise have been more confused than it is; and, indeed, the oldest formations are the best crystallized. A part of the water covering the nucleus must have been taken up, as water of crystallization, in the primitive formations. When these were deposited, there were no vegetables formed; of course, no animals; nay, even the sea was unpeopled, for there is no trace of any organic remains in these strata. Even the belemnites, the asteriæ, the echini, the entrochi, the most simple forms of oceanic animal life, do not occur until the transition strata appear. Hence the propriety of denominating these formations _primitive_.

"By processes of nature, besides the consumption of water by the new crystallized masses, to us unknown, the waters appear to have diminished. The highest parts of the primitive formations became the shores to the water superincumbent on their bases and middle regions; the simplest forms of oceanic animals came into existence; the mosses and lichens of high latitude would generally occupy the surface of the primitive strata, gradually decomposed by the alternate action of air and water after many ages. During this period, while the strata were in a state of _transition_ from the chaotic to the habitable state, other deposits would gradually be made from the waters, now decreased in quantity, and take their place below the summits of the primitive range. Those summits being exposed to the action of the atmosphere, of rains, of frost probably, and to the action also of the waters with their contents still incumbent on the earliest strata, would furnish masses and particles washed away, which would mingle with the deposits of the transition series. This series, therefore, will exhibit appearances of mechanical and chemical intermixture of earths and stones, such as are found in the silicious porphyries, the graywackes, the silicious and argillaceous hornblende rocks, the elder red sandstone, &c. During the period when these transition formations were deposited, there would be no land animals, for there would be no vegetables for them to feed upon. There would be no vegetables unless some few lichens, mosses, or ericas, that would find foothold upon the slight decomposition that, after the lapse of some ages, would take place on the surface of the primitive rocks. The sea only would be peopled, and that but sparingly; for, in that mass of muddy water, none but the lowest and most inferior grades of animal life, and such as do not inhabit deep water, could exist. Hence, we find the transition formations contain in their substances some belemnites, asteriæ, entrochi, echini, &c., but no organized vegetable substance except, very rarely, in the latest rocks of this series, and no remains whatever of terrestrial animals. Indeed, in the high latitudes of the outgoings or summits of the primitive strata, very few vegetables, even at the present day, can live. No vegetation fit for animal life could take place until the transition, and most of the next series of _secondary_ or _floetz_ formations had subsided. These would occupy lower and lower situations, till a rich soil, from every kind of intermixture of earth mechanically deposited, would afford a proper temperature of region, and an easily decomposed soil, wherein vegetables could grow.

"Next to the transition series, come the _secondary_, or, as the German mineralogists call them, the _floetz_ rocks; so called, because they appear to be more floated or horizontal, though I confess the appellation does not appear to me peculiarly appropriate. These strata consist principally of sandstone, limestone--sometimes fetid from bituminous impregnations, sometimes shelly--secondary greenstone, graphite, coal, gypsum, rock salt. I have observed that the Alpine heights of the primitive mountains could at no time furnish much food. The same remark, but in a less degree, will apply to the transition range; the low and kindly climates occupied by the secondary series. The soft and decomposable nature of these depositions would furnish the true theatre of vegetable life, and, until these regions were filled with vegetables, the race of animals could not have been produced; for on what could they subsist? Graminivorous animals, therefore, must have succeeded the various forms of vegetable existence; and carnivorous, the graminivorous. The vegetable matter imbedded in the substance of the secondary strata will consist of the remains of vegetables that grow in the transition strata; and the animal remains will consist chiefly of such animals as were produced in the early stages of animal existence, particularly the smaller aquatic animals; and, of these, chiefly shell-fish, as shells are not so soon decomposed as mere animal substance."

It is to the latter class of depositions--to the secondary series--that we must refer the sandstone of the River Des Plaines, in which we find a walnut, of mature growth, enveloped by, and imbedded in the rock, in the most complete state of mineralization; and, since all geological writers who subscribe to the Neptunian theory are constrained to employ the agency of oceanic depositions of different eras, in explaining the structure of the earth's surface, it is one of the most obvious and important conclusions, to be drawn from the fact that such submersions and depositions of rock matter have taken place subsequent to the existence of forests of mature growth, and that the rock strata and beds composing the exterior of the earth are the result of different geological epochs, and of successive subsidences of chaotic matter--positions which have been so severely attacked and so often denied, particularly by the disciples of the Huttonian school, that it is not without a feeling of lively interest, I communicate a discovery which appears so conclusive on the subject.

Considerations arising from the frontier position of the country, and the infrequency of the communication, have also induced me to draw from incidental sources, a corroboration of the facts advanced.

In a letter to Governor Cass, of Michigan, dated September 17, 1821, I made the following observations on the subject under review:--

"I consider the petrified tree discovered during our recent journey up the Illinois, so extraordinary an object in the natural history of the country, and calculated to lead to conclusions so important to the science of geology, that I am anxious to avail myself of your concurrent testimony as to the fact of the existence of the tree in a mineralized state, and the natural appearances of the spot where it lies imbedded. I feel the more solicitude on this subject, as I am aware that any description of this phenomenon which I may be induced to communicate to the public, will be received with a degree of caution and scrutiny which it is the province of the naturalist to exercise whenever any discovery is announced affecting the existing theories of the natural sciences, or tending to increase the volume of facts upon which their advancement and perfection depend. I am aware, also, that whatever degree of caution and vigilance it may be proper to exercise to prevent errors from mingling with the sound doctrines of the physical and other sciences, still more care and circumspection is requisite in examining facts which affect the progress of geology."

I quote an extract from Governor Cass's reply on the subject:--

"The appearance of the wood and bark indicates that it was a black walnut, the juglans nigra of our forests. We computed its original diameter, at the place where it is concealed in the earth, to have been three feet, and at the other end eighteen inches. The texture of the wood, and the bark and knots, are nearly as distinct as in the living subject, and the process of decay had not commenced previous to the commencement of this wonderful conversion. Every part of the mass which we could examine is solid stone, and readily yields fire by the collision with steel.

"When we visited the spot, the water of the river was at the lowest stage; but there was no part of the tree within some inches of the surface. The rocky bed of the stream was formed round and upon it. We raised from it pieces of the rock, which were evidently _in situ_, and which had been formed upon the tree posterior to the period of its deposit in its present situation. This rock is a species of sandstone, whose characteristic features must be well known to you.

"There are no mineralized substances of vegetable origin in the vicinity of this specimen, nor are there any appearances which indicate that its present condition has been caused by any peculiar property in the waters of the Des Plaines."

ADDENDA.

The publication of the foregoing memoir led to several letters being addressed to the author on topics connected with it. Some of these were from gentlemen eminent in science or politics, whose opinions are entitled to the highest respect. Extracts are given from such only as introduce new data, either of fact or opinion.

GEOLOGICAL THEORIES.--Professor Dewey, of Williams College, observes: "A friend has just lent me your 'Memoir on a Fossil-Tree.' Though the account is very interesting, I do not perceive its exact bearing on the Neptunian and Plutonian hypotheses. The fault is doubtless in me, and you will excuse my remarks and set me right. I had supposed the Huttonians and Wernerians did not dispute about the manner in which the _secondary_ rocks were formed. Macculloch, and others before him, led me into this opinion, though it may be erroneous. But Bakewell, who is referred to as authority in _Rees's Cyclopædia_, says, p. 131: 'Geologists are agreed that secondary rocks have been formed by the agency of water.' If this be so, they would agree generally with the account of Dr. Cooper respecting the formation of petrifactions, and especially those of vegetables, and the fossil-tree would be treated of in a similar manner by both."

Hutton's original hypothesis, and not the modifications of it introduced by the Neptu-Vulcanists, were adverted to in reply. Subsequently, Professor Dewey writes:--

"I was greatly obliged by your letter in various respects, and I write you now to make my acknowledgments for it, as well as to maintain the correctness of your notions on the Huttonian hypothesis. As you had seen a Scotch mineralogist directly from the mint of Playfair, I had every reason to suppose you had received correct views of Playfair's notions on the subject. I have been led, therefore, to examine the matter, and, as I may have set you on the search, I wish to prevent your continuing it on my account, or from what I wrote.

"Playfair's Illustrations I have never seen. Occasional extracts, or allusions to its points, have fallen in my way. But I have before me a very full abstract of Hutton's paper on the subject, from the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. It is from the very paper in which he announces his hypothesis. In that paper he mentions that the consolidation of all the hard crust of the globe has been effected by _heat_ and _fusion_, extending it to secondary as well as primitive rocks, and mentioning particularly Spanish marble, shell limestone, oolite, and chalk.

"This operation of heat, he says, is exemplified by _chalk, which is to be found in all gradations, from marble to loose chalk_. This is his precise notion, but not his words. I had once looked at this paper before, and thought much of this theory; but this thought had been obliterated from my mind by thoughts advanced by others, as I thought in consistency with the sentence I quoted from Bakewell. At least, one objection to Hutton's views would be removed by modifying his theory in the manner it seems to be by Bakewell. Though Hutton does not think this to be necessary; for he appears to feel no difficulty in accounting for petrifactions of wood on his hypothesis, for he mentions that _we have many proofs of the penetration of flinty matter, in a state of fusion, in other bodies, such as insulated pieces of flint in chalk or sand, and fossil wood penetrated with silicious matter_.

"Still, the grand reasons of Hutton for employing heat as the agent of consolidation are opposed to the above modification of his theory. These reasons, as you know, are the insolubility of most mineral substances in water, and the disappearance of the water from the cavities of minerals which have been consolidated. The first is, indeed, the great one for Hutton; for the crystallization of salts in water, and the existence of liquids, in some cases, in the cavities of the most solid minerals, show well enough that the water might or might not disappear, as the circumstances were different.

"If the Huttonians maintain, as he did, the formation of petrifactions by heat, which consistency requires, I concede, indeed, to you that that fossil-tree stands as a grand monument of some different process; and yet, we can hardly suppose that they do not see great difficulty in the common notion on the subject. The rapidity with which the petrifactions must have taken place--a point well illustrated in Hayden's _Geological Essays_--seems to require some new notions on the subject. What these may be, I cannot tell; but I believe that neither of these two hypotheses will be adopted exclusively, half a century hence, on this point, or on geology generally. I think, with you, that our countrymen need illumination on the subject of Hutton's hypothesis, and I wish some one would attempt it."

TRAP-ROCKS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA.--"I suspect the greenstone of our country, when examined as it ought to be, will be found, in its geological relations, much to resemble the basalt of Europe; and that the same difficulties will attend it, on Werner's hypothesis, as now attend the basalt. Indeed, I know not how we can account for what Bakewell and Macculloch state on this hypothesis."

SANDSTONE OF VIRGINIA.--"I have seen a piece of a petrified tree, about eight inches through, found in the sandstone of Virginia, but could get none of it. The petrifaction was far finer than the stone in which it lay, and was, like it, silex."

SANDSTONE OF OHIO.--C. Atwater, Esq., in a letter to the author, observes:--

"I can assure you that the finding of whole trees in sandstone is nothing strange in this State. Some of these trees are imbedded in sandstone one hundred feet below the surface. Zanesville and Gallipolis are the best spots to find these fossils.

"There is no part of the tree but what I have in my cabinet, not excepting their leaves, fruit, and even fungi attached to them."

MOSAICAL HISTORY OF THE CREATION.--B. Irvine, Esq., in adverting to remarks on the Illinois fossil, observes:--

"They may yet awaken some ideas in the minds of the people on the wonders of physics--and I had almost said, the _slow miracles of creation_; for, if ever there was a time when matter existed not, it is pretty evident that _millions of years_, instead of six days, were necessary to establish order in chaos, let Cuvier, &c. temporize as they may. However, it is the humble allotment of the herd to believe or stare; it is the glory of intelligent men to inquire and admire."

The doctrine of materialism, adverted to by Mr. Irvine, it is the province of divines to controvert. One remark may be predicted on the biblical era of the six days. It is now believed to be generally conceded by eminent geologists and ecclesiastics, that the term "day," employed by the translators of the English version of the Scriptures, is used in Gen. ch. i. in a sense synonymous with "era" or "time," as it is emphatically used in Gen. ch. ii. ver. 4. For an able exposition of the present views on this subject, see the _American Journal of Science_, vol. XXV. No. 1.

4. BOTANY.

XI.

A descriptive list of the plants collected on the expedition, drawn up by Dr. John Torrey, has been published in the fourth volume of the _American Journal of Science_. References to this standard work may be conveniently made by botanists.

5. ZOOLOGY.

No professed zoologist was attached to the expedition, the topic being left to such casual attention as members of it might find it convenient to bestow. Of the fauna of the region, it was not believed that there were any of the prominent species which were improperly classed in the _Systema Naturæ_ of Linnæus. It was doubtless desirable to know something more particularly of the character and habitat of the American species of the reindeer (_C. sylvestris_) and hyena, or glutton. Perhaps something new was to be gleaned respecting the extent of the genera arctomys and sciurus, among the smaller quadrupeds, and in the departments of birds and reptilia. The mode of travel gave but little opportunity of meeting the larger species in their native haunts, but it afforded opportunities of examining the skins of the quadrupeds at the several trading stations, and of listening to the narrations of persons who had engaged in their capture.

In effect, the crustacea of the streams furnished the most constant and affluent subject for enlarging the boundaries of species and varieties. The collections in this department were referred to members of the Lyceum of Natural History at New York, and of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. The results of their examinations have been published in two of the principal scientific journals of the country. It had been originally proposed to republish these papers in this Appendix, together with that on the botanical collections, and some other topics; but the long time that has elapsed, renders it, on second thought, inexpedient. Distinct references to the several papers are given.

XII.

_A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest._

By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VERNON, N.Y., October 27, 1820.

DEAR SIR: I reached this place, on my return from the sources of the Mississippi River, on the 21st instant, having left the canal at Oneida Creek at four o'clock in the morning, whence I footed it three miles through the forest, by a very muddy road, to the ancient location of Oneida Castle, while my baggage was carried by a man on horseback.

The plan of the expedition embraced the circumnavigation of the coasts of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. From the head of the latter, we ascended the rapid River of St. Louis to a summit which descends west to the Upper Mississippi, the waters of which we entered about five hundred miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, and some three hundred miles above the ulterior point reached with boats by Lieutenant Pike in December, 1805.

From this point we ascended the Mississippi, by its involutions, to its upper falls at Pakagama, where it dashes over a rock formation. A vast plateau of grass and aquatic plants succeeds, through which it winds as in a labyrinth. On this plateau we encountered and passed across the southern Lake Winnipek. Beyond this, the stream appears to be but little diminished, unless it be in its depth. It is eventually traced to a very large lake called Upper Lac Ceder Rouge, but to which we applied the name of Cass Lake. This is the apparent navigable source of the river, and was our terminal point. It lies in latitude 47° 25´ 23´´.

The whole of this summit of the continent is a vast formation of drift and boulders, deposited in steps. In descending it, we found the river crossed by the primitive rocks in latitude about 46°, and it enters the great limestone formation by the cataract of St. Anthony's Falls, in latitude 44° 58´ 40´´. We descended the river below this point, by its windings among high and picturesque cliffs, to the influx of the Wisconsin, estimated to be three hundred miles. Thence we came through the Wisconsin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan, and, having circumnavigated the latter, returned through Lakes Huron and St. Clair to Detroit. The line of travel is about four thousand two hundred miles. Such a country--for its scenery, its magnificence, and resources, and the strong influence it is destined ultimately to have on the commerce, civilization, and progress of the country--the sun does not shine on! Its topography, latitudes and longitudes, heights and distances, have been accurately obtained by Captain Douglass, of West Point, who will prepare an elaborate map and description of the country.

Personally, I have not been idle. If I have sat sometimes, in mute wonder, gazing on such scenes as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, or the sylvan beauty and mixed abruptness of the Falls of St. Anthony, it has been but the idleness of admiration. I have kept my note book, my sketch-book, and my pencil in my hands, early and late; nor have once, during the whole journey, transferred myself, at an early hour, from the camp-fire or pallet to the canoe, merely to recompose myself again to sleep. If the mineralogy or geology of the country often presented little to note, the scenery, or the atmosphere, or that lone human boulder, the American Indian, did. The evidences of the existence of copper in the basin of Lake Superior are ample. There is every indication of its abundance that the geologist could wish. Nature here has operated on a grand scale. By means of volcanic fires, she has infused into the trap-rocks veins of melted metal, which not inaptly represent the arteries of the human system; for wherever the broken-down shores of this lake are examined, they disclose, not the sulphurets and carbonates of this ore, but fragments and lumps of virgin veins. These, the winds and waves have scattered far and wide.

But what, you will ask, can be reported of its quadrupeds, birds, reptilia, and general zoology? Have you measured the height and length of the mastodon--"the great bull"--who the Indians told Mr. Jefferson resisted the thunderbolts, and leaped over the great lakes?[252] Truly, I beg you to spare me on this head. You are aware that we had no professed zoologist.

[252] Notes on Virginia.

I herewith inclose you a list of such animals as came particularly under our notice. Imperfect as it is, it will give you the general facts. The dried and stuffed skins of such species as were deemed to be undescribed, or were otherwise worthy attention, will be transmitted for description. Among these is a species of squirrel, of peculiar character, from the vicinity of St. Peter's, together with a species of mus, a burrowing animal, which is very destructive to vegetation. This appears to be the hamster of Georgia. Of the larger class of quadrupeds, we met, in the forest traversed, the black bear, deer, elk, and buffalo. The latter we encountered in large numbers, about one hundred and fifty miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, about latitude 45°, on the east bank of the river. We landed for the chase, and had a full opportunity of observing its size, color, gait, and general appearance.

Great interest was imparted to portions of the tour by the ornithology of the country, and it only required the interest and skill in this line of a Wilson or an Audubon, to have not only identified, but also added to the list of species.[253]

[253] The only addition to ornithology which it fell to my lot to make, was in the grosbeck family, and this occurred after I came to return to St. Mary's. Mr. Wm. Cooper has called the new species fringilia vespertina, from the supposition that it sings during the evening. The Chippewas call this species paushkundame, from its thick and penetrating bill.

The geological character of the country has been found highly interesting. The primitive rocks rise up in high orbicular groups on the banks of Lake Superior. The interstices between groups are filled up with coarse red, gray, or mottled sandstone, which lies, generally, in a horizontal position, but is sometimes waved or raised up vertically. Volcanic fires have played an important part here. I have been impressed with the fact that the granitical series are generally deficient in mica, its place being supplied by hornblende. Indeed, the rock is more truly sienite, very little true granite being found, and, in these cases, it is in the form of veins or beds in the sienite.

There have also been great volcanic fires and upliftings under the sources of the Mississippi. Greenstone and trap are piled up in huge boulders. The most elevated rock, in place, on the sources of the Mississippi, is found to be quartzite. This is at the Falls of Pakagama. In coming down the Mississippi, soon after passing the latitude of 46°, the river is found to have its bed on greenstones and sienites, till reaching near to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the great western horizontal limestone series begins. To facilitate the study of the latter, opportunities were sought of detecting its imbedded forms of organic life, but their infrequency, and the rapid mode of our journeying, was averse to much success in this line without the boundaries of the great lake basins.

In the department of mineralogy, I have not as brilliant a collection as I brought from Potosi in 1819--but, nevertheless, one of value--the country explored being a wilderness, and very little labor having been applied in excavations. Among the objects secured, I have fine specimens of the various forms of native copper and its ores, together with crystallized sulphurets of lead, zinc, and iron; native muriate of soda, graphite, sulphate of lime, and strontian, and the attractive forms which the species of the quartz family assume, in the shore debris of the lakes, under the names of agate, carnelian, &c. The whole will be prepared and elaborately reported to the Department.

I found the freshwater shells of this region to be a very attractive theme of observation in places

"Where the tiger steals along, And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"

where, indeed, there was scarcely anything else to attract attention; and I have collected a body of bivalves, which will be forwarded to our mutual friend, Dr. Mitchell, for description. Indeed, the present communication is designed, after you have perused it, to pass under his eye. No one in our scientific ranks is more alive to the progress of discovery in all its physical branches. Governor Clinton, in one of his casual letters, has very happily denominated him the Delphic oracle, for all who have a question to ask come to him, and his scientific memory and research, in books, old and new, are such, that it must be a hard question indeed which he cannot solve.

Next to him, as an expounder of knowledge, you, my dear sir, as the representative of the _corps editorial_, take your place. For, if it is the writer of books who truly increases information, every decade's experience more and more convinces me that it is the editor of a diurnal journal who diffuses it, by his brief critical notices, or by giving a favorable or unfavorable impetus to public opinion.

I am expected, I find, to publish my private narrative of the expedition, to serve at least--if I may say so--as a stay to popular expectation, until the more matured results can be duly elaborated. I am taking breath here, among my friends, for a few days, and shall be greatly governed by your judgment in the matter, after my arrival at Albany.

I am, sir, With sincere respect, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

To NATHANIEL H. CARTER, Esq., Albany.

_List of Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. observed._

The identification of species in this list, by giving the Indian name, is herein fixed.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) SCIENTIFIC NAME. NAME. Buffalo, Pe-zhík-i,[254] Bos Americanus. _Gm._ Elk, Mush-kos, Cervus Canadensis. _L._ Deer (common), Wa-wash-ká-shi, Cervus Virginianus. _Gm._ Moose, Möz, Cervus alces. _L._ Black Bear, Muk-wah, Ursus Americanus. _Gm._ Wolf (gray), My-een-gan, Canis vulpes. _L._ Wolverine, Gwin-gwe-au-ga,[255] Ursus luscus. _L._ Fox (red), Waú-goosh Canis vulpes. _L._ Badger, Ak-kuk-o-jeesh, Meles labradoria. _C._ Fox (black), Muk-wau-goosh, Canis argenteus. _C._ Muskrat, Wau-zhusk, Fiber vulgaris. _C._ Martin, Wau-be-zha-si, Mustela mortes. _L. & B._ Fisher, O-jeeg, Mustela Pennanti. _C. Am._ ed., app. v. Beaver, Am-ik, Castor fiber. _B._ Otter, Ne-gik, Lutra vulgaris. _L._ Porcupine, Kaug, Hystrix cristata. _C._

[254] This animal was found grazing the prairies on the east bank of the Mississippi, about latitude 45° 30´.

[255] Means under-ground drummer.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME.

Raccoon, Ais-e-bun (from _ais_, a shell, and _bun_, past tense), Procyon lotor. _C._ Hare, Wau-bose, Lepus Americanus. _Gm._ Polecat, She-kaug, Mephites putorius. _Cu._ Squirrel (red), Ad-je-dah-mo, Sciurus vulgaris. _C._ Squirrel (ground or striped), Ah-gwing-woos, Sciurus striatus. _C._ Squirrel (an apparently new species). Pouched Rat or Hamster, No-naw-pau-je-ne-ka-si, Mus busarius. _Shaw._ Weasel, Shin-gwoos, Mustela vulgaris. _L._ Mink, Shong-waish-ke, Mustela lutreola. _C._ Jerboa, called the Jumping Mouse,[256] Dipus. _C._ Eagle (bald), Mik-a-zi,[257] F. lucocephulus. _L._ Fork-tailed Hawk, Ca-niew, F. furcatus. _L._ Chicken Hawk, Cha-mees, F. communis. _C._ Pigeon Hawk, Pe-pe-ge-wa-zains, F. columbarius. _Wilson._ Raven, Kaw-gaw-ge, Corvus corax. _L._ Crow, On-daig, C. corone. _L._ Magpie, Wau-bish-kau-gau-gi (White Raven),[258] C. pica. _L._ Cormorant, Kau-kau-ge-sheeb (Raven-duck), P. carbe. _Brin._ Pelican, Shay-ta, P. onocrotalus. _Illig._ Goose, Wa-wa, An. anser. _L._ Brant, Ne-kuh, An. bernicla. _Wilson._ Duck (d. and m.), Shee-sheeb (a generic term), Anas. Duck (saw-bill), On-zig, A. tadorna. _C._ Duck (Red-head or Misquon-dib, A. rufus. _Gm._ Fall), Duck (alewives), Ah-ah-wa. Swan, Wau-bis-si, A. cygnus. _C._ Heron, Moosh-kow-e-si, Ardea. _C._ Plover, Tchwi-tchwish-ke-wa, Charadriûs. _C._ Turkey, Mis-is-sa, Meleagris. _C._ Blackbird, Os-sig-in-ok, The red-winged species. Rail, Muk-ud-a-pe-nais, Jay (blue), Dain-da-si,[259] Garrulus. _C._ Whippoorwill, Paish-kwa, Caprimulgas. _L._ Robin, O-pee-chi, T. migratorius. _L._

[256] Found at Lapointe, Lake Superior.

[257] This is a generic term for the eagle family. It is believed the kanieu, or black eagle, is regarded by them as the head of the family. The feathers of the falco furcatus are highly valued by warriors.

[258] The meaning is white raven.

[259] The term is from dain-da, a bullfrog.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME. Kingfisher, Me-je-ge-gwun-a, Alcedo. _C._ Pigeon, O-mee-mi, Columba emigratoria. Partridge, Pe-na,[260] Tetrao. _C._ Crane, Ad-je-jawk, Crane family. Gull, Ky-aushk, Gull family. Woodpecker, Ma-ma, Picus. _C._ Snipe, Pah-dus-kau-unzh-i, Scolipax. _C._ Owl, Ko-ko-ko-o,[261] } Generic terms for the Loon, Mong, } species. Mocking-bird (seen as far north as Michilimackinac), T. polyglotis. _Wilson._ Sturgeon, Na-ma, Acipenser. _L._ Sturgeon (paddle-nose), Ab-we-on-na-ma, Acipenser spatularia. _C._ White-fish, Ad-ik-um-aig[262] (means deer of the water). Salmon trout, Na-ma-gwoos, } Salmo. _L._ Trout (speckled), Na-zhe-ma-gwoos, } Carp, Nam-a-bin, Denotes the red fin. Catfish, Miz-zi, Silurus. _C._ Bass, O-gau. The striped species. Tulibee, O-dön-a-bee (wet-mouth). Eel, Pe-miz-zi (a specific term). A specific term. Snake, Ke-ná-bik (a generic), } Snake, A species supposed } Ophidia. _C._ peculiar, Turtle (lake), Mik-e-nok, } Turtle (small } Chelonia. _C._ land), Mis-qua-dais, }

[260] This is the prairie grouse of the West.

[261] The name is generic for the owl family.

[262] This term arises from _adik_, a reindeer, and _gumaig_, waters.

PHILOLOGICAL NOTE.--Three of these fifty-seven terms of Indian nomenclature are monosyllables, and twenty-four dissyllables. The latter are compounds, as in _muk-wah_ (black animal), and _wau-bose_ (white little animal); and it is inferable that all the names over a single syllable are compounds. Thus, aisebun (raccoon), is from _ais_, a shell, and the term past tense of verbs in _bun_.

XIII.

_Species of Bivalves collected in the Northwest, by Mr. Schoolcraft and Captain Douglass, on the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, in 1820._ By D. H. BARNES.

This paper, by which a new impulse was given to the study of our freshwater conchology, and many species were added to the list of discoveries, was published in two papers, to be found in the pages of _Silliman's American Journal of Science_, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259.

XIV.

_Freshwater Shells collected in the Valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin, in 1820, by Mr. Schoolcraft._ By ISAAC LEA, Member American Philosophical Society.

A description of these shells, in which several new species are established, was published by the ingenious conchologist, Mr. I. Lea, of Philadelphia, in the _Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_, vol. v. p. 37, Plate III., &c.

XV.

_Summary Remarks respecting the Zoology of the Northwest noticed by the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820._ By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

The squirrel [from the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony], is a species not heretofore described, and has been named _sciurus tredecem striatus_, or the federation squirrel. (A.)

The pouched rat, or _mus busarius_, has been seen but once in Europe. This was a specimen sent to the British Museum from Canada, and described by Dr. Shaw. But its existence is rather questioned by Chev. Cuvier. Both animals have been described, and the descriptions published in the 21st vol. of the _Medical Repository_, of New York, pp. 248, 249. The specimens [from the West] are both preserved in my museum. Drawings have been executed by the distinguished artist Milbert, and forwarded by him, at my request, to the administrators of the King's Museum, at Paris, of which he is a corresponding member. My descriptions accompany them. The animals are retained as too valuable to be sent out of the country. [B.]

The paddle-fish is the _spatularia_ of Shaw, and _polydon_ of Lacepede. It lives in the Mississippi only, and the skeleton, though incomplete, is better than any other person here possesses. It is carefully preserved in my collection.

The serpent is a species of the ophalian genus anguis, the oveto of the French, and the blind worm of the English. The loss of the tail of this fragile creature renders an opinion a little dubious; but it is supposed to be _opthiosaureus_ of Dandrige, corresponding to the _anguis ventralis_ of Linnæus, figured by Catesby.

The shells afford a rich amount of an undescribed species. The whole of the univalves and bivalves received from Messrs. Schoolcraft and Douglass have been assembled and examined, with all I possessed before, and with Mr. Stacy Collins's molluscas brought from the Ohio. Mr. Barnes is charged with describing and delineating all the species not contained in Mr. Say's _Memoir of the Productions of the Land and Fresh Waters of North America_. The finished work will be laid before the Lyceum, and finally be printed in Mr. Silliman's _New Haven Journal_. The species by which geology will be enriched will amount, probably, to nine or ten. (C.) We shall endeavor to be just to our friends and benefactors.

S. L. MITCHELL. For GOV. CASS.

_Notes._

(A.)

An animal similar, in some respects, has been subsequently found on the Straits of St. Mary's, Michigan, a specimen of the dried skin of which I presented to the National Institute at Washington; but, from the absence of the head bones and teeth, it is not easy to determine whether it is a sciurus, or arctomys.

(B.)

The duplicature of the cheeks of this animal having been extended _outwardly_ in drying the skin, was left in its rigid state, giving it an unnatural appearance, which doubtless led to the incredulity of Cuvier when he saw the figure and description of Dr. Shaw. Dr. Mitchell was led to a similar error of opinion, at first, as to the natural position of these bags; but afterwards, when the matter was explained to him, corrected this mistaken notion.

(C.)

By reference to the descriptions of Mr. Barnes and Mr. Lea, recited above, the number will be seen to have exceeded this estimate.

XVI.

Mus Busarius. Vide _Medical Repository_, vol. xxi. p. 248.

XVII.

Sciurus Tredecem Striatus. _Medical Repository_, vol. xxi.

XVIII.

Proteus. _American Journal of Science_, vol. iv.

6. METEOROLOGY.

XIX.

_Memoranda of Climatic Phenomena and the Distribution of Solar Heat in 1820._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

The influence of solar heat on the quantity of water which is discharged from the great table lands which give origin to the sources of the Mississippi was such, during the summer months of 1820, that, on reaching those altitudes in latitude but a few minutes north of 47°, on the 21st of July, it was found impracticable to proceed higher in tracing out its sources. Attention had been directed to the phenomena of temperatures, clouds, evaporations, and solar influences, from the opening of the year, but they were not prosecuted with all the advantages essential to generalization. Still, some of the details noticed merit attention as meteorological memoranda which may be interesting in future researches of this kind, and it is with no higher view that these selections are made.

_Observations made at Geneva, N. Y._

1820. 7 A.M. 1 P.M. 7 P.M. REMARKS.

April 20 64° 73° 60° Clear. " 21 62 74 61 Clear. " 22 65 78 66 Clear. " 23 60 69 59 Clear. " 24 59 70 61 Clear. " 25 54 64 55 Clear. " 26 55 67 54 Cloudy, with rain. " 27 50 60 51 Rainy. " 28 64 ... ... Clear.

_Observations made at Buffalo, N. Y._

1820. 8 A.M. 2 P.M. REMARKS.

April 30 43° 60° Clear. May 1 49 64 Clear. " 2 45 63 Clear. " 3 44 65 Clear. " 4 46 79 Cloudy. " 5 40 68 Cloudy, with rain. " 6 44 ... Cloudy.

These places are but ninety miles apart, yet such is the influence of the lake winds on the temperature of the latter position, that it denotes an atmospheric depression of temperature of 5°. At the same time, the range between the maximum and minimum was exactly the same.

_Observations made at Detroit._

1820. 8 A.M. 12 M. 6 P.M. REMARKS. WIND.

May 15, 50° 61° 51° Fair. N. E. " 16, 49 62 50 Fair. N. E. " 17, 50 64 51 Fair. N. E. " 18, 52 64 60 Fair. N. E. " 19, 60 68 60 Fair. N. E. " 20, 64 68 63 Fair. N. E. " 21, 67 82 66 Fair. S. W. " 22, 64 88 82 Fair. S. W. " 23, 72 84 76 Cloudy, some rain W. N. W. " 24, 53 64 ... Cloudy. N. W.

The average temperature of this place for May is denoted to be some five or six degrees higher while the wind remained at N.E., but on its changing to S.W. (on the 21st), the temperature ran up four degrees at once. As soon as it changed to N.W. (on the 24th), the thermometer fell from its range on the 21st fourteen degrees.

The uncommon beauty and serenity of the Michigan autumns, and the mildness of its winters, have often been the subject of remark. By a diary of the weather kept by a gentleman in Detroit, in the summer and fall of 1816, from the 24th of July to the 22d of October, making eighty-nine days, it appears that

57 were fair, 12 cloudy, and 20 showery and rainy.

By a diary kept at the garrison of Detroit (Fort Shelby), agreeable to orders from the War Department, from the 15th of Nov. 1818, to the 28th of Feb. 1819, making 105 days,

40 of them are marked "clear," 40 "cloudy," 13 "clear and cloudy," and 12 "cloudy, with rain or snow."

By Fahrenheit's thermometer, kept at the same place, and under the same direction, it appears that the medium temperature of the atmosphere was agreeable to the following statement:--

7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9 P.M. Average. Lowest deg. Highest deg. Nov. 13 to 30, 41° 47° 41° 43° 31° 58° December, 22 29 25 25 2 50 January, 30 31 30 30 10 58 February, 29 39 31 33 8 58 Prevailing winds, S. W. and N. W.

_Observations on Lake and River St. Clair, Michigan._

1820. 6 A.M. 8 A.M. 12 M. 2 P.M. 6 P.M. 8 P.M. REMARKS. May 24, ... ... ... ... ... 51° " 25, 47° 56° 56° ... 46° ... Clear. Wind N. W. " 26, ... 52 53 56° 45 ... Clear. Wind N. W. " 27, ... 54 55 ... ... 44 Clear. Wind N. W.

_Temperature of the Water of Lake and River St. Clair._

May 25, at 6 A. M., 49° at 12 M., 54° " 26, at 8 A. M., 55 at 2 P. M., 55 " 27, at 8 A. M., 54 at 12 M., 55 at 8 P. M., 50°

_Observations on Lake Huron._

--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- May| 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 |June 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 5 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 6 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 50°| 52 | 48 | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 8 A.M. |54° | 44 | 46 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 9 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| 57 | .. | .. | 51 | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 11 A.M.| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 12 M. |53° | .. | 53 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | 57 | 57 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 1 P.M. | .. | .. | .. |55° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 2 P.M. | .. | 70°| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 3 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 5 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49°| .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 6 P.M. | .. | 53°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 44| 46 --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 7 P.M. | .. | .. | 48°| 48 | 54 | 50 | 47 | 45 | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- 8 P.M. | 41°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- Average | 51°| 55 | 49 | 53 | 54 |52-½|52-½| 49 |49-½| 50-½ |51 6-10 temp. | | | | | | | | | | | --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- REMARKS.|[A] |[B] |[C] | | | | |[D] |[E] | [F] | [G] --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+--------

[Note A: Clear. Wind N. W.] [Note B: Clear in the morning; in the afternoon high wind from N. W. with thunder and lightening.] [Note C: Clear. Wind high; N. W.] [Note D: Cloudy, with rain. Winds strong; N. W.] [Note E: Flying clouds. Wind strong; N. W.] [Note F: Clear. Wind Strong; N. W.] [Note G: Average temperature]

_Water at Lake Huron._

Average. May 28, at 5 A.M., 55° at 12 A.M., 58° at 7 P.M., 56° 56° " 29, at 7 A.M., 54 at 12 A.M., 60 at 7 P.M., 63 59 June 1, at 5 A.M., 42 at 11 A.M., 52 at 7 P.M., 44 40 " 3, at 6 A.M., 46 at 2 P.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 46 47 " 6, at 8 A.M., 50 at 12 A.M., 52 at 6 P.M., 49 50-½

_Observations at Michilimackinac and on the Straits of St. Mary's._

------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- 1820.| 6 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 9 | | |A.M.|A.M.|A.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|Average.| WEATHER. ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- June 7|... |... | 59°|61° |... |... |59° |59-½° |Clear. " 8 |... |... | 59 |... |64° |... |59 |60 |Clear. " 9 |... |... | 53 |... |... |53° |... |52-½ |Cloudy with rain. " 10 |... |55° | ...|... |60 |... |54 |56 |Cloudy with rain. " 11 |... |52 | ...|... |54 |... |51 |52 |Clear. " 12 |... |54 | ...|55 |... |... |52 |53 |Clear. " 13 |53° |... | ...|63 |... |... |58 |58 |Fair. " 14 |55 |... | ...|73 |... |... |57 |61 |Cloudy. " 15 |... |66 | ...|... |68 |62 |... |65 |Clear. " 16 |... |52 | 70 |82 |... |66 |... |69 |Clear. " 17 |... |58 | ...|... |82 |... |78 |74 |Clear. " 18 |56 |... | ...|76 |... |... |68 |66 |Cloudy; rain. ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+-----------------

------+--------------- 1820. | WIND. ------+--------------- June 7| W. N. W. " 8 | W. N. W. " 9 | " 10 | W. " 11 | S. E. " 12 | S. E. " 13 | S. W. " 14 | S. W. " 15 | S. W. } " 16 | S. W. } St. " 17 | S. W. } Mary's " 18 | N. W. ------+---------------

The chief conclusion to be drawn, is the extreme fluctuations of winds and temperatures, in these exposed positions on the open lakes.

_Observations on Lake Superior._

--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ 1820. | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ June 19 | .. | .. | 64 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 20 | .. | 72 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 | | | | | | | | | " 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | .. " 22 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 23 | .. | 65 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 " 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 58 | .. | .. | .. | 74 " 25 | .. | .. | .. | 60 | .. | .. | .. | 62 | .. " 26 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. | .. " 27 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 28 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 29 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 79 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 76 | .. | .. | 84 July 1 | 54 | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. | .. " 2 | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 | .. | .. " 3 | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | | | | | | | | " 4 | .. | .. | .. | 57 | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------

--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ 1820. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ June 19 | 78 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 72 | .. | .. " 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | 71 | .. | .. | | | | | | | | " 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. " 22 | .. | .. | 63 | .. | .. | .. | 49 | .. " 23 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 | 63 | .. " 25 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. " 26 | .. | 83 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 " 27 | .. | 71 | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. " 28 | 91 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. " 29 | 94 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 86 | .. " 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 July 1 | .. | 75 | .. | 80 | .. | 68 | .. | .. " 2 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | 65 " 3 | .. | .. | 66 | .. | .. | 52 | .. | 61 | | | | | | | | " 4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------

--------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ 1820. | 9 | 10 | Average | REMARKS. | P.M. | P.M. | temp. | --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ June 19 | .. | .. | 70-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. " 20 | .. | .. | 71-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. | | | | Hurricane at night. " 21 | 50 | .. | 62 | Calm. " 22 | .. | .. | 55-½ | Clear. Wind light from N. W. " 23 | .. | 70 | 67-½ | Clear. Wind S. E. " 24 | .. | .. | 63 | Clear. High wind, N. W. " 25 | 53 | .. | 62-½ | Clear. Wind N. W. " 26 | .. | .. | 73 | Rainy. Wind W. N. W. " 27 | .. | .. | 69 | Clear. Wind E. N. E. (Fair!) " 28 | .. | .. | 79-½ | Sky clear. Wind N. W. " 29 | .. | .. | 88 | Clear. Wind N. W. " 30 | .. | .. | 73 | Clear. Wind N. W. July 1 | .. | .. | 67-½ | Misty. Wind light at N. N. W. " 2 | .. | .. | 70 | Clear. Wind W. S. W. " 3 | .. | .. | 65 | Cloudy, mist, and rain. Wind | | | | S. S. W. " 4 | .. | .. | | Wind S. S. W. --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------

_Temperature of Lake Superior._

Lake average. June 20, at 6 P.M., 55° 55° " 21, at 10 A.M., 60 at 6 P.M., 56° at 9 P.M., 56° 57 " 22, at 6 A.M., 56 at 3 P.M., 54 55 " 23, at 5 A.M., 52 at 12 A.M., 56 at 10 P.M., 64 57 " 24, at 6 P.M., 54 at 7 P.M., 51 53 " 25, at 7 A.M., 67 at 11 A.M., 66 at 9 P.M., 68 60 " 26, at 9 A.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 57 56 " 27, at 8 A.M., 57 at 6 P.M., 62 60 " 28, at 8 A.M., Superior 62° at 6 P.M., Lake 72 } 67 Ontonagon 54 River 71 } " 29, at 8 A.M., Lake 64 61 River 68 at 1 P.M., River 76 at 7 P.M., 75° " 30, at 8 P.M., River 74 July 1, at 8 A.M., 61 at 2 P.M., 65 at 6 P.M., 66 64 " 2, at 4 A.M., 63 at 11 A.M., 64 at 2 P.M., 68 at 9 P.M., 62 64 " 3, at 6 A.M., 62 at 3 P.M., 60 at 9 P.M., 58 60 " 4, at 7 A.M., 58

It will be observed that the fluctuations of temperature noticed at lower points on the lake chain, about the latitude of Michilimackinac, have also characterized the entire length of Lake Superior. The atmosphere observed at three separate times, during twenty-four days, by Fahrenheit's thermometer, during the months of June and July, has varied from an average temperature of 62° to 88°, agreeable to masses of clouds interposed to the rays of the sun, and to shifting currents of wind, which have often suddenly intervened. Its waters, spreading for a length of five hundred miles from E. to W., observed during the same time by as many immersions of the instrument, has not varied more than two degrees below or above the average temperature of 55° in mere surface observations.

_Observations on the Sources of the Mississippi River._

--------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- | 5 | 7 | 8 | 12 | 2 | 8 | 9 | A. M. | A. M. | A. M. | M. | P. M. | P. M. | P. M. --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- July 17 | ... | ... | ... | 76° | 80° | 79° | 78° " 18 | ... | ... | 51° | 64 | 66 | 53 | 50 " 19 | ... | ... | 46 | 63 | 70 | 55 | ... " 20 | ... | ... | 60 | 80 | 84 | 75 | ... " 21 | ... | ... | 68 | 86 | 88 | 85 | 74 " 22 | ... | ... | 73 | 88 | 90 | 77 | ... " 23 | ... | ... | 70 | 82 | 88 | 78 | ... " 24 | ... | ... | 74 | 87 | 80 | 78 | ... " 25 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 85 | 74 | ... " 26 | 61° | ... | ... | ... | 81 | 61 | ... " 27 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 80 | 75 | ... " 28 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 76 | 61 | ... " 29 | 50 | ... | ... | ... | 74 | 52 | ... " 30 | ... | 60° | ... | ... | 76 | ... | 63 " 31 | ... | 65 | ... | ... | 81 | ... | 69 Aug. 1 | ... | 67 | ... | ... | 83 | 70 | ... " 2 | ... | 72 | ... | ... | [263]| ... | ... --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+-------

--------+--------------------------------- | REMARKS. | --------+--------------------------------- July 17 | Morning rainy, then fair. " 18 | Fair. " 19 | Night rainy, morning cloudy, | then fair. " 20 | " 21 | " 22 | Cloudy, some thunder. " 23 | Night and morning rain, | afternoon thunder. " 24 | Fair. " 25 | Fair. " 26 | Morning fair, evening cloudy | and rain, clear. " 27 | Morning fair, evening fair. " 28 | Morning fair, rain in afternoon. " 29 | Clear. " 30 | Wind N. W., weather clear. " 31 | Wind W., weather clear. Aug. 1 | Fair. " 2 | Fair. --------+---------------------------------

[263] Broke instrument.

_Observations at St. Peter's (now Minnesota)._

1820. 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9. A.M. WINDS. WEATHER. July 15, 61° 79° 64° S. Clear; fair. " 16, 62 82 76 S. Clear; rain towards morning. " 17, 70 88 61 W. Cloudy; rain, thunder and lightning. " 18, 58 78 56 E. Clear. " 19, 59 80 64 S. Cloudy; rain P.M. " 20, 68 80 65 S. Clear. " 21, 69 84 72 S. Clear. " 22, 75 88 72 W. Clear; cloudy P.M., rain, thunder and lightning during the night. " 23, 73 86 70 W. Clear, cloudy; rain and fair weather alternately. " 24, 70 89 72 W. Clear; calms. " 25, 70 80 66 W. Clear; high winds at night. " 26, 68 82 64 W. Clear; calm. " 27, 72 78 62 W. Clear. " 28, 67 75 58 S. E. Clear; fresh winds. " 29, 60 71 54 N. E. Clear. " 30, 60 76 63 N. W. Clear. " 31, 65 81 69 W. Clear.

_Meteorological Journal kept at Chicago by Dr. A. Wolcott._

1820. Daylight. 9 A. M. 2 P. M. 9 P. M. WIND. WEATHER. Jan. 1, 4° 11° 10° 0° W. N. W. Cloudy; light snow; first ice in the river, 14 inches thick; none in the lake. " 2, 10 14 25 12 W. N. W. Clear. " 3, 4 9 13 14 W. S. W. Clear. " 4, 9 14 19 9 W. Clear. " 5, 9 5 4 10 W. N. W. Clear. " 6, 11 4 15 28 S. S. W. Clear. " 7, 36 36 39 36 S. W. Cloudy. " 8, 32 32 34 33 N. N. E. Cloudy. " 9, 32 33 36 34 N. E. Cloudy. " 10, 32 31 31 25 N. E. Snow-storm. " 11, 14 14 16 2 N. Clear. " 12, 17 15 2 12 S. S. W. Clear. " 13, 20 24 25 12 W. S. W. Clear. " 14, 14 15 15 15 N. Snow-squalls. " 15, 12 14 15 10 N. N. W. Clear; lake covered with moving ice, as far as the eye can see. " 16, 20 20 21 21 E. N. E. Snow-storm. " 17, 14 14 25 10 W. N. W. Clear. " 18, 14 18 15 6 W. Cloudy. " 19, 10 0 10 2 W. N. W. Clear. " 20, 6 12 25 13 W. Clear. " 21, 20 22 26 28 E. N. E. Snow-storm. " 22, 7 11 12 5 N. W. Clear. " 23, 20 4 0 3 W. Clear. " 24, 2 6 18 16 W. Clear. " 25, 4 3 9 7 W. Clear. " 26, 16 19 26 28 E. S. E. Snow-storm. " 27, 18 21 25 8 S. W. Cloudy. " 28, 8 1 11 10 W. N. W. Clear. " 29, 12 20 31 18 W. Cloudy; ice 18 inches on river. " 30, 6 6 4 5 W. Clear. " 31, 6 5 3 17 W. N. W. Clear; snow 22 inches deep. Feb. 1, 12 0 14 16 S. E. Cloudy. " 2, 22 25 29 20 E. N. E. Snow-storm; ice 18-¾ inches on river. " 3, 10 7 9 7 W. Clear. " 4, 0 5 25 24 E. S. E. Clear. " 5, 30 36 40 40 S. W. Clear. " 6, 11 12 32 24 S. Clear. " 7, 28 33 42 30 W. S. W. Clear. " 8, 30 34 40 32 E. Cloudy and mist; snow during the night fell six inches. " 9, 30 34 34 31 E. Clear. Feb. 10, 31 32 39 32 E. Cloudy. " 11, 28 32 38 34 S. Clear. " 12, 32 39 34 20 N. E. Cloudy. " 13, 12 22 39 32 W. S. W. Clear. " 14, 34 39 37 36 E. Cloudy; some rain with thunder. " 15, 36 38 39 36 E. Cloudy; some rain with thunder. " 16, 38 42 47 33 S. W. Clear. " 17, 27 27 28 22 W. Light clouds. " 18, 10 22 28 30 E. Cloudy. " 19, 32 36 46 24 W. Clear. " 20, 15 22 24 16 W. Clear. " 21, 8 20 37 38 S. W. Clear. " 22, 34 40 45 32 W. Clear. " 23, 28 37 46 36 S. W. Cloudy; rain and hail with thunder. " 24, 30 33 40 39 E. Clear. " 25, 44 50 59 54 S. W. Clear. " 26, 50 49 38 36 S. W. Cloudy; tempest of wind with flurries of rain and hail. " 27, 30 31 34 28 W. N. W. Clear. " 28, 20 28 30 39 S. E. Clear. " 29, 28 36 50 37 S. W. Clear. Mar. 1, 32 35 36 18 N. N. W. Clear. " 2, 8 15 25 20 N. N. W. Clear. " 3, 26 30 36 22 W. N. W. Cloudy. " 4, 19 28 42 36 S. W. Clear. " 5, 30 32 36 23 N. E. Cloudy. " 6, 13 19 25 14 N. N. W. Clear. " 7, 16 17 24 18 E. N. E. Cloudy; light snow. " 8, 17 24 23 21 N. E. Cloudy. " 9, 22 24 26 23 N. N. E. Cloudy. " 10, 24 26 31 24 N. N. E. Cloudy. " 11, 22 24 29 31 E. N. E. Cloudy. " 12, 28 32 33 32 E. S. E. Cloudy; light snow. " 13, 32 37 39 34 E. N. E. Cloudy. " 14, 32 36 36 33 E. N. E. Cloudy; light snow. " 15, 26 32 ... ...

Agreeable to a register kept at Council Bluffs during the month of January, 1820, the highest and lowest temperature at that place were, respectively, 36° and 22°, the month giving a mean of 17.89. Compared with the observed temperature, for the same month, at the following positions in the United States, both east and west of the Alleghanies, the Missouri Valley reveals the fact of its being adapted to the purposes of a profitable agriculture.[264]

[264] In Europe, the mean annual temperature necessary for the production of certain plants is--

For the sugar-cane 67° " coffee 64 " orange 63 " olive 54 " vine (vitis vinifera) 51

Mean temperature Highest. Lowest. of the month. Council Bluffs 17.89° 36° 22° Wooster 16.69 36 zero Zanesville 25.34 42 zero Marietta 28.42 45 zero Chillicothe 32.48 48 10 Cincinnati 28.76 46 11 Jeffersonville 23.05 50 6 Shawneetown 32.91 52 8 Huntsville 36.43 62 12 Tuscaloosa 46.63 74 17 Cahaba 65.87 73 54 Ouachita 34.16 68 10 New Orleans 52.16 78 25 Portsmouth, N. H. 19.31 40 4[265] Washington City 29.19 45 4

Council Bluffs, lat. 41° 45´, long. 19° 50´ W. of the capitol. New Orleans, " 29 57 " 12 53 W. " Portsmouth, " 43 05 " 6 10 E. " Difference of lat. 13° 48´. Difference of long. 26°.

[265] Below zero.

Nor does it appear that the same quantity of snow falls in the Missouri Valley which is common east of the Alleghany Mountains. At the Council Bluffs, on the last of January, snow was but twelve inches deep; at the same period, it was three feet or more throughout the Eastern States.

A snow-storm fell over the middle and eastern latitudes of the United States, for the first time, during the autumn of the year (1820), in the first half of November. As a precursor to this, slight drifts and gusts of snow had showed themselves at Albany on the 25th, 26th, and 28th of October.[266]

[266] Meteorological journal kept at the Albany Academy for October, 1820.

"MONTREAL, CANADA, October 28, 1820.--On Wednesday last we had the first fall of snow this season. It commenced in the forenoon, and continued slightly during the remainder of the day. Although expected to disappear, the frosts in the nights have been pretty severe, and a considerable quantity still remains (Saturday) at the moment we are writing."

"SALEM, N. Y. October 31.--On Saturday last (27th), we had our first snow for the season. It fell during most of the forenoon, and for an hour or two the atmosphere was quite filled with it. Some cool and shaded spots still remain whitened, though yesterday was one of our pleasant autumnal days, with a mild west wind."

_Early Sleighing._--The _Burlington_ (Vt.) _Sentinel_ of the 27th ult. says: "On Tuesday night and Wednesday, the snow fell in this place about eight inches deep on the level. It is said to be twelve inches deep in some of the adjoining towns."--_October, 1820._

At Philadelphia, it began on Saturday, 11th (morning), snow-storm from the east, and continued all day. At night a hurricane, accompanied by torrents of rain and snow, which did not subside until the 12th in the morning. Weather unsettled on the 13th.

At Worcester, a severe snow-storm, from northeast, on the 11th and 12th. On the 13th, snow was ten inches deep, the weather cold, and sleighing good.

Snow in Poughkeepsie fell twelve inches deep, and produced excellent sleighing.

At New Haven (Conn.), it began with snow, hail, and rain, on Saturday evening, 11th. The day before was wintery cold. The storm continued, without intermission, till Monday, 13th.

At Boston, it also began on Saturday, 11th, from the northeast, and fell six inches. On Sunday, rain and snow. Monday cold, and indifferent sleighing in the _streets_.--_Boston paper_, Nov. 14th.

In Vernon, Oneida County, it began on the 11th, in the evening, and continued, in all, till Monday, 13th, giving us snow, rain, hail, and wind, alternately. On the 15th, the snow, which lay six inches deep, began to thaw, and this was the beginning of our Indian summer.

The Buffalo papers, of November 14th, say that several vessels were lost in the gale and snow-storm, or driven ashore. The storm closed up on the 13th, at New York City; the wind at northwest, and very cold. The rain, snow, and hail which had fallen gave good sleighing a part of that day. These notices cover an area of about five hundred miles square, proving, the universality of our autumnal phenomena.

_Indian Summer._

This season appears to be produced by the settling of a thin azure vapor. It is supposed to arise from the partial decomposition of the foliage of the forest after the autumnal rains are past. "What is called the Indian summer," says an observer at Albany, "usually gives us fifteen or twenty days of uncommonly pleasant fall weather, commencing in the early part of October. The present season it set in as usual, and we had a week or ten days of very fine weather, when a northeast storm commenced, and continued for part of two days; within which time more rain is supposed to have fallen than during the whole of the preceding summer and fall. Most of the streams and springs were filled, and the Hudson River, in many places, overflowed its banks. It however again cleared off pleasant, and remained so till Tuesday evening, when another storm of rain commenced, which continued the whole night. In the morning, there was some fall of hail accompanying the rain, and about 8 o'clock a slight flurry of snow, and another on Thursday evening; since which the weather has set in cold, and has the appearance of the closing in of fall or the setting in of winter. We however expect to put off winter and cold weather for some time yet, and anticipate many pleasant days in November."

Indian summer, in Oneida, commenced on the 15th November. The weather had previously been cold, with snow and rain and a murky atmosphere.

Wednesday, Nov. 15. The snow, which lay six inches deep, began to thaw, and the sky was clear and sunny. Thursday, " 16. Was a clear and pleasant day throughout; snow continued to melt. Friday, " 17. The same, and smoky; warm sunshine; not a cloud to be seen; snow melts. Saturday, " 18. The same. Sunday, " 19. The same; full moon; cloudy, with wind in the evening; snow gone. Monday, " 20. The same; sky clear and warm. Tuesday, " 21. Weather cloudy; wind S. E.; prepares for a change; a little snow during the previous night, but melts from the roofs this morning; no sun appears. Wednesday, " 22. Cloudy, dull morning; rain afternoon; sun appeared a few moments about 4 P. M. Thursday, " 23. Cloudy, with alternate sunshine and rain. Friday, " 24. Clear and pleasant. Saturday, " 25. Clear and pleasant.

Dr. Freeman, of Boston, in one of his occasional sermons, employs the following poetic language in relation to this American phenomenon:--

"The southwest is the pleasantest wind which blows in New England. In the month of October, in particular, after the frosts which commonly take place at the end of September, it frequently produces two or three weeks of fair weather, in which the air is perfectly transparent, and clouds, which float in a sky of the purest azure, are adorned with brilliant colors. If at this season a man of an affectionate heart and ardent imagination should visit the tombs of his friends, the southwestern breezes, as they breathe through the glowing trees, would seem to him almost articulate. Though he might not be so wrapped in enthusiasm as to fancy that the spirits of his ancestors were whispering in his ear, yet he would at least imagine that he heard 'the still small voice' of God. This charming season is called the Indian Summer, a name which is derived from the natives, who believe that it is caused by a wind which comes immediately from the court of their great and benevolent God Cantantowan, or the Southwestern God; the God who is superior to all other beings, who sends them every blessing which they enjoy, and to whom the souls of their fathers go after their decease."

7. INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, OR PICTURE WRITING, LANGUAGES, AND HISTORY.

XX.

_Pictographic Mode of Communicating Ideas among the Northwestern Indians, observed during the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820, in a Letter to the Secretary of War._ By Hon. LEWIS CASS.

DETROIT, February 2, 1821.

SIR: An incident occurred upon my recent tour to the Northwest, so rare in itself, and which so clearly shows the facility with which communications may be opened between savage nations, without the intervention of letters, that I have thought it not improper to communicate it to you.

The Chippewas and Sioux are hereditary enemies, and Charlevoix says they were at war when the French first reached the Mississippi. I endeavored, when among them, to learn the cause which first excited them to war, and the time when it commenced. But they can give no rational account. An intelligent Chippewa chief informed me that the disputed boundary between them was a subject of little importance, and that the question respecting it could be easily adjusted. He appeared to think that they fought because their fathers fought before them. This war has been waged with various success, and, in its prosecution, instances of courage and self-devotion have occurred, within a few years, which would not have disgraced the pages of Grecian or of Roman history. Some years since, mutually weary of hostilities, the chiefs of both nations met and agreed upon a truce. But the Sioux, disregarding the solemn compact which they had formed, and actuated by some sudden impulse, attacked the Chippewas, and murdered a number of them. The old Chippewa chief who descended the Mississippi with us was present upon this occasion, and his life was saved by the intrepidity and generous self-devotion of a Sioux chief. This man entreated, remonstrated, and threatened. He urged his countrymen, by every motive, to abstain from any violation of their faith, and, when he found his remonstrances useless, he attached himself to this Chippewa chief, and avowed his determination of saving or perishing with him. Awed by his intrepidity, the Sioux finally agreed that he should ransom the Chippewa, and he accordingly applied to this object all the property he owned. He then accompanied the Chippewa on his journey until he considered him safe from any parties of the Sioux who might be disposed to follow him.

I subjoin an extract from the journal of Mr. Doty, an intelligent young gentleman who was with the expedition. This extract has already been published, but it may have escaped your observation, and the incident which it describes is so heroic in itself, and so illustrative of the Indian character, that I cannot resist the temptation of transmitting it to you.

EXTRACT FROM MR. DOTY'S JOURNAL.--"The Indians of the upper country consider those of the Fond du Lac as very stupid and dull, being but little given to war. They count the Sioux their enemies, but have heretofore made few war excursions.

"Having been frequently reprimanded by some of the more vigilant Indians of the north, and charged with cowardice, and an utter disregard for the event of the war, thirteen men of this tribe, last season, determined to retrieve the character of their nation by making an excursion against the Sioux. Accordingly, without consulting the other Indians, they secretly departed, and penetrated far into the Sioux country. Unexpectedly, at night, they came upon a party of the Sioux, amounting to near one hundred men, and immediately began to prepare for battle. They encamped a short distance from the Sioux, and, during the night, dug holes in the ground into which they might retreat and fight to the last extremity. They appointed one of their number (the youngest) to take a station at a distance and witness the struggle, and instructed him, when they were all slain, to make his escape to their own land, and state the circumstances under which they had fallen.

"Early in the morning, they attacked the Sioux in their camp, who, immediately sallying out upon them, forced them back to the last place of retreat they had resolved upon. They fought desperately. More than twice their own number were killed before they lost their lives. Eight of them were tomahawked in the holes to which they had retreated; the other four fell on the field! The THIRTEENTH returned home, according to the directions be had received, and related the foregoing circumstances to his tribe. They mourned their death; but, delighted with the bravery of their friends, unexampled in modern times, they were happy in their grief.

"This account I received of the very Indian who was of the party and had escaped."

The Sioux are much more numerous than the Chippewas, and would have overpowered them long since had the operations of the former been consentaneous. But they are divided into so many different bands, and are scattered over such an extensive country, that their efforts have no regular combination.

Believing it equally consistent with humanity and sound policy that these border contests should not be suffered to continue; satisfied that you would approve of any plan of pacification which might be adopted, and feeling that the Indians have a full portion of moral and physical evils, without adding to them the calamities of a war which had no definite object, and no probable termination; on our arrival at Sandy Lake, I proposed to the Chippewa chiefs that a deputation should accompany us to the mouth of the St. Peter's, with a view to establish a permanent peace between them and the Sioux. The Chippewas readily acceded to this proposition, and ten of their principal men descended the Mississippi with us.

The computed distance from Sandy Lake to the St. Peter's is six hundred miles, and, as I have already had the honor to inform you, a considerable proportion of the country has been the theatre of hostile enterprises. The Mississippi here traverses the immense plains which extend to the Missouri, and which present to the eye a spectacle at once interesting and fatiguing. Scarcely the slightest variation in the surface occurs, and they are entirely destitute of timber. In this debatable land, the game is very abundant; buffaloes, elks, and deer range unharmed, and unconscious of harm. The mutual hostilities of the Chippewas and Sioux render it dangerous for either, unless in strong parties, to visit this portion of the country. The consequence has been a great increase of all the animals whose flesh is used for food, or whose fur is valuable for market. We found herds of buffaloes quietly feeding upon the plains. There is little difficulty in approaching sufficiently near to kill them. With an eagerness which is natural to all hunters, and with an improvidence which always attends these excursions, the animal is frequently killed without any necessity, and no other part of them is preserved but the tongue.

There is something extremely novel and interesting in this pursuit. The immense plains, extending as far as the eye can reach, are spotted here and there with droves of buffaloes. The distance and the absence of known objects render it difficult to estimate the size or the number of these animals. The hunters approach cautiously, keeping to the leeward, lest the buffaloes, whose scent is very acute, should observe them. The moment a gun is fired, the buffaloes scatter and scour the field in every direction. Unwieldy as they appear, they move with considerable celerity. It is difficult to divert them from their course, and the attempt is always hazardous. One of our party barely escaped with his life from this act of temerity. The hunters, who are stationed upon different parts of the plain, fire as the animals pass them. The repeated discharge of guns in every direction, the shouts of those who are engaged in the pursuit, and the sight of the buffaloes at full speed on every side, give an animation to the scene which is rarely equalled.

The droves which we saw were comparatively small. Some of the party whom we found at St. Peter's, and who arrived at that place by land from the Council Bluffs, estimated one of the droves which they saw to contain two thousand buffaloes.

As we approached this part of the country, our Chippewa friends became cautious and observing. The flag of the United States was flying upon all our canoes, and, thanks to the character which our country acquired by the events of the last war, I found in our progress through the whole Indian country, after we had once left the great line of communication, that this flag was a passport which rendered our journey safe. We consequently felt assured that no wandering party of the Sioux would attack even their enemies, while under our protection. But the Chippewas could not appreciate the influence which the American flag would have upon other nations, nor is it probable that they estimated with much accuracy the motives which induced us to assume the character of an umpire.

The Chippewas landed occasionally to examine whether any of the Sioux had recently visited that quarter. In one of these excursions, a Chippewa found in a conspicuous place, a piece of birch bark, made flat by being fastened between two sticks at each end, and about eighteen inches long by fifteen broad. This bark contained the answer of the Sioux nation to the proposition which had been made by the Chippewas for the termination of hostilities. So sanguinary has been the contest between these tribes, that no personal communication could take place. Neither the sanctity of the office, nor the importance of the message, could protect the ambassadors of either party from the vengeance of each other. Some time preceding, the Chippewas, anxious for the restoration of peace, had sent a number of their young men into these plains with a similar piece of bark, upon which they had represented their desire. The bark had been left hanging to a tree in an exposed situation, and had been found and taken away by a party of the Sioux.

The propositions had been examined and discussed in the Sioux villages, and the bark which we found contained their answer. The Chippewa who had prepared the bark for his tribe was with us, and on our arrival at St. Peter's, finding it was lost, I requested him to make another. He did so, and produced what I have no doubt was a perfect _fac-simile_. We brought with us both of these _projets_, and they are now in the hands of Capt. Douglass. He will be able to give a more intelligible description of them than I can from recollection, and they could not be in the possession of one more competent to the task.

The Chippewas explained to us with great facility the intention of the Sioux, and apparently with as much readiness as if some common character had been established between them.

The junction of the St. Peter's with the Mississippi, where a principal part of the Sioux reside, was represented, and also the American fort, with a sentinel on duty, and the flag flying. The principal Sioux chief is named the Six, alluding, I believe, to the bands or villages under his influence. To show that he was not present at the deliberations upon the subject of peace, he was represented upon a smaller piece of bark, which was attached to the other. To identify him, he was drawn with six heads and a large medal. Another Sioux chief stood in the foreground, holding the pipe of peace in his right hand, and his weapons in his left. Even we could not misunderstand that. Like our own eagle with the olive-branch and arrows, he was desirous of peace, but prepared for war.

The Sioux party contained fifty-nine warriors, and this number was indicated by fifty-nine guns, which were drawn upon one corner of the bark. The only subject which occasioned any difficulty in the interpretation of the Chippewas, was owing to an incident, of which they were ignorant. The encampment of our troops had been removed from the low grounds upon the St. Peter's, to a high hill upon the Mississippi; two forts were therefore drawn upon the bark, and the solution of this enigma could not be discovered till our arrival at St. Peter's.

The effect of the discovery of this bark upon the minds of the Chippewas was visible and immediate. Their doubts and apprehensions appeared to be removed, and during the residue of the journey, their conduct and feelings were completely changed.

The Chippewa bark was drawn in the same general manner, and Sandy Lake, the principal place of their residence, was represented with much accuracy. To remove any doubt respecting it, a view was given of the old northwest establishment, situated upon its shore, and now in the possession of the American Fur Company. No proportion was preserved in their attempt at delineation. One mile of the Mississippi, including the mouth of the St. Peter's, occupied as much space as the whole distance to Sandy Lake; nor was there anything to show that one part was nearer to the spectator than another; yet the object of each party was completely obtained. Speaking languages radically different from each, for the Sioux constitute one of three grand divisions into which the early French writers have arranged the aborigines of our country, while the Chippewas are a branch of what they call Algonquins, and without any conventional character established between them, these tribes thus opened a communication upon the most important subject which could occupy their attention. Propositions leading to a peace were made and accepted, and the simplicity of the mode could only be equalled by the distinctness of the representations, and by the ease with which they were understood.

An incident like this, of rare occurrence at this day, and throwing some light upon the mode of communication before the invention of letters, I thought it not improper to communicate to you. It is only necessary to add, that on our arrival at St. Peter's, we found Col. Leavenworth had been as attentive and indefatigable upon this subject, as upon every other which fell within the sphere of his command.

During the preceding winter, he had visited a tribe of the Chippewas upon this pacific mission, and had, with the aid of the agent, Mr. Talliafero, prepared the minds of both tribes for a permanent peace. The Sioux and Chippewas met in council, at which we all attended, and smoked the pipe of peace together. They then, as they say in their figurative language, buried the tomahawk so deep that it could never be dug up again, and our Chippeway friends departed well satisfied with the result of their mission.

I trust that Mr. Bolvin, the agent at Prairie du Chien, has been able before this to communicate to you a successful account of the negotiation which I instructed him to open between the Sacs and Foxes, forming one party, and the Sioux. Hostilities were carried on between these tribes, which, I presume, he has been able to terminate.

We discovered a remarkable coincidence, as well in the sound as in the application, between a word in the Sioux language and one in our own. The circumstance is so singular that I deem it worthy of notice. The Sioux call the Falls of St. Anthony HA HA, and the pronunciation is in every respect similar to the same words in the English language. I could not learn that this word was used for any other purpose, and I believe it is confined in its application to that place alone.[267] The traveller in ascending the Mississippi turns a projecting point, and these falls suddenly appear before him at a short distance. Every man, savage or civilized, must be struck with the magnificent spectacle which opens to his view. There is an assemblage of objects which, added to the solitary grandeur of the scene, to the height of the cataract, and to the eternal roar of its waters, inspire the spectator with awe and admiration.

[267] Iha ha [iha-ikiha] are words given as equivalent to laugh, _v._ in Riggs's Dictionary of the Dakota language, published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1852. Ihapi, _n._, is laughter. The letter _h_, with a dot, represents a strong guttural, resembling the Arabic _Kha_. Iha, by the same authority, is the lips or cover to anything; it is also an adverb of doubt. The vowel _i_ has the sound of _i_ in marine, or _e_ in me.

In his _Anecdotes of Painting_, it is stated by Horace Walpole, that "on the invention of fosses for boundaries, the common people called them Ha Ha's! to express their surprise on finding a sudden and unperceived check to their walk." I believe the word is yet used in this manner in England. It is certainly not a little remarkable that the same word should be thus applied by one of the most civilized and by one of the most barbarous people, to objects which, although not the same, were yet calculated to excite the admiration of the observer.

Nothing can show more clearly how fallacious are those deductions of comparative etymology, which are founded upon a few words carefully gleaned here and there from languages having no common origin, and which are used by people who have neither connection nor intercourse. The common descent of two nations can never be traced by the accidental consonance of a few syllables or words, and the attempt must lead us into the regions of fancy.

The Sioux language is probably one of the most barren which is spoken by any of our aboriginal tribes. Colonel Leavenworth, who made considerable proficiency in it, calculated, I believe, that the number of words did not exceed one thousand. They use more gestures in their conversation than any Indians I have seen, and this is a necessary result of the poverty of their language.

I am well aware, that the subject of this letter is not within the ordinary sphere of official communications. But I rely for your indulgence upon the interest which you have shown to procure and disseminate a full knowledge of every subject connected with the internal condition of our country.

I am preparing a memoir upon the present state of the Indians, agreeably to the intimation in my letter of September last. I shall finish and transmit it to you as soon as my other duties will permit.

Very respectfully, sir, I have, &c., LEWIS CASS.

Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_.

XXI.

_Inquiries respecting the History of the Indians of the United States._

By LEWIS CASS.

These queries were published at Detroit in separate pamphlets, about the era of 1822, and communicated to persons in the Indian country supposed to be capable of furnishing the desired information. The results became the topic of several critical disquisitions, which appeared in the pages of the _North American Review_ in 1825 and 1826; disquisitions the spirit and tone of which created, as the reader who is posted up on the topic will remember, a sensation among philological and philosophical readers.

Whether we are most to admire the bold tone of inquiry assumed by Gen. Cass, the acumen displayed in the discussions, the eloquence of the language, or the general soundness of the positions taken, is the only question left for decision. Certainly, nobody can arise from the perusal of these papers without becoming wiser or better informed on the subjects discussed. The mere luxury of high-toned and eloquent language is a gratification to the inquirer. But he cannot close these investigations into a subject of deep historical and philological interest without feeling established in the principles of historic truth, or warmed in his literary ardor.

Prominent among the topics of the initial discussion, was the work of John Dunn Hunter, a singular adventurer in the Indian country, or, perhaps, an early captive, who, after wandering to the Atlantic cities, where his harmless inefficiency of character gained no favorable attention, found his way to London, where the booksellers concocted a book of travels from him, in which the United States is unscrupulously traduced for its treatment of the Indians. The scathing which this person and his book received arises from its having fallen in the way of the business journeys of the critic to visit some of the principal scenes referred to; and among others, the residence of John Dunn, of Missouri, after whom he professed to be named, who utterly denied all knowledge of the man or of his purported adventures.

The question of the authenticity of the Indian traditions of Mr. Heckewelder, derived from a single tribe, and that tribe telling stories to salve up its own disastrous history, and the mere literary capacities of the man to put his materials in order, is propounded and examined in connection with the contemporary traditions and languages of other tribes. These traditions had been communicated to the Pennsylvania Historical Society, in 1816, and were published under the special auspices of Mr. Duponceau, in 1819. From the internal evidence of the letters themselves, the critic pronounces them to be reproductions of Mr. Duponceau himself; and it is an evidence of the aptness of this deduction to be told that Mr. Gallatin admitted (_vide_ my _Personal Memoirs_, p. 623), that the letters of Mr. Heckewelder had all been rewritten previous to publication. It could no longer be a subject of admiration to philologists, that from such imperfect sources of information, that distinguished scholar should have pronounced the opinion that the Delaware language rather exceeds than falls short of the Greek and Latin in the affluence of syntactical forms and capacities of expression. _Trans. Hist. and Lit. Com., Am. Philo. Soc._, vol. i. p. 415.

XXII.

_A Letter on the Origin of the Indian Race of America, and the Principles of their Mode of uttering Ideas; addressed to John Johnston, Esq., late of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan._ By Dr. J. MCDONNELL, of Belfast, Ireland.

BELFAST, April 16, 1817.

MY DEAR J.: I feel always as if I am guilty of some great crime, in not writing to you.

An account came to Sir Joseph Banks, of very curious rocks, with odd stripes and colors, having been seen, this last war, by sailors on the lakes, I think on Lake Superior.[268] Pray keep up your thoughts to the geography of rocks. I got some lately from Bombay, exactly ditto with our Causeway.[269]

[268] Most probably this idea arose from the very marked precipices of the coast denominated Pictured Rocks.

H. R. S.

[269] The Giant's Causeway, on the Coast of Antrim.

I shall ever regret the not having seen your daughter. I think it likely that mingling the European blood and character with the Indian might bring out some superior traits of character. Lest my letter should altogether fail of presenting any useful point, I must put some questions to you that would be worth something if answered.

A man has published, in 1816, an octavo volume in Trenton (United States), the author's name Boudinot, to explain some things about the Indian nations, and, among other things, he fancies some resemblance between their languages and Hebrew. Baron Von Humboldt, a Prussian, was in Spanish America lately, and he found the natives had Hebrew opinions and usages, evidently things borrowed from Jewish doctrines. I don't want you to inquire much about their being of this extraction, but observe, for me, whether their languages have no pronouns, as one author, Colden, stated fifty years ago; and whether they are defective in the prepositions, as this Boudinot states; and whether those near you have any words, idioms, or traditions that are expressive of their early origin, or their connection with European nations.

In fact, I think you are better circumstanced, in most respects, than any other man that I ever heard of, to do something worth notice in that way; for, although you have not books, nor knowledge of many tongues, yet you could collect lists of great and radical words, expressed with proper letters, so that others could compare those words with Asiatic, and African, and European tongues, so as to enable mankind to judge of similitudes or dissimilitudes.

The words most apt to pervade different nations, and to pass from one people to another, are articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions; next to these, numerals; next to these, whatever terms are expressive of striking, useful, hurtful, or very clear and definite objects and ideas; for, if the conceptions we have of things be not very definite, clear, and distinct, the idea and the word are not likely to float down the stream of time together, they will be jostled and separated. Be very careful in spelling the Indian words; spell them in different ways, where our letters don't square exactly with their sounds. Take notice of their musical tones, and whether these tones get in, as essential parts, into their speech; and, above all, remember that a _word_ is a _thing_, and that it may be examined as a _record_, or considered like a coin or medal, as well as if it had the stamp of a king or mint upon it.

I will write more if this vessel does not sail to-day. God bless you and yours, and believe me, in haste, your affectionate cousin.

J. McDONNELL.

XXIII.

_Difficulties of Studying the Indian Tongues of the United States._ By Dr. ALEXANDER WOLCOTT, Jr.

Dr. Wolcott will be remembered by the early inhabitants of Chicago, when that place was still a military post and the site of an Indian agency, the latter of which trusts he filled. In 1820, the Pottowattomie tribe of Indians and their confederates--the Illinois--Chippewas, and Ottowas--possessed the whole surrounding regions, roving as lords of the prairies. These numerous and fierce hunter-tribes, who traded their peltries for fineries, had many horses, loved rum and fine clothes, and despised all restraints, came in to him, at his agency, as the mouthpiece of the President, to transact their affairs, and they often lingered for days and weeks around the place, which gave him a good opportunity of becoming familiar with their manners, customs, and history.

Dr. Wolcott was a man of education, of high morals, dignified manners, and noble sentiments, with decidedly saturnine feelings, and a keen perception of the ridiculous. Constitutionally averse to much or labored personal effort, his leisure hours, in this seclusion from society, were hours devoted to reading and social converse, and his attention was appropriately called by Gen. Cass to the "Inquiries," No. 21, above referred to. The reply which he at length communicated was written in so happy a vein, that I obtained permission to publish the substance of it, in 1824, in my _Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley_, p. 381. It declares an important truth, which all must concur in, who have attempted the study of the Indian languages, for they are required to perform the prior labor of ascertaining and generalizing the principles of their accidence and concord. When I first came to St. Mary's, in 1822, and began the study of the Chippewa, I asked in vain the simple question how the plural was formed. It was formed, in truth, in twelve different ways, agreeably to the vowels of terminal syllables; but this could not be declared until quires of paper had been written over, the whole vocabulary explored, and days and nights devoted to it. My first interpreter could not tell a verb from a noun, and was incapable of translating the simplest sentence literally. Besides his ignorance, he was so great a liar that I never knew when to believe him. He sometimes told the Indians the reverse of what I said, and often told me the reverse of what they said.

XXIV.

_Examination of the Elementary Structure of the Algonquin Language as it appears in the Chippewa Tongue._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

SAULT STE. MARIE, May 31, 1823.

SIR: In order to answer your inquiries, I have improved my leisure hours, during the part of the summer following our arrival here (6th July last), and the entire winter and spring, in examining the words and forms of expression of the Chippewa, or (as the Indians pronounce it) Odjibwa, tongue. I have found, as I anticipated, my most efficient aid, in this inquiry, in Mr. Johnston, and the several members of his intelligent family; my public interpreter being too unprecise and profoundly ignorant of the rules of grammar to be of much use in the investigation. Mr. Johnston, as you are aware, perhaps, came from the north of Ireland, where his connections are highly respectable, during the first term of General Washington's administration. He brought letters from high sources to the Governor-General of Canada; but having, while at Montreal, fallen in with Don Andrew Tod, a countryman, who had the monopoly of the fur trade of Louisiana, in a spirit of enterprise and adventure, he threw himself into that, at the time, fascinating pursuit, and visited Michilimackinac. Circumstances determined him to fix his residence at St. Mary's, where he has resided, making frequent visits to Montreal and Great Britain, about thirty years. His children have been carefully instructed in the English language and literature, and the whole family are familiar with the Indian. Without such proficient aid, I should have labored against serious impediments at every step; and, with them, I have found the inquiry, in a philological point of view, involved in many, and some of them insuperable difficulties. The results I communicate to you, rather as an earnest of what may be hereafter done in this matter, than as completely fulfilling inquiries which it would require Horne Tooke himself, with the aid of the Bodleian library, to unravel.

With respect, &c., HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

His Excellency Gov. LEWIS CASS.

EXAMINATION OF THE ODJIBWA.

1, 2. _Simple Sounds._--The language is one of easy enunciation. It has sixteen simple consonental and five vowel sounds. Of these, two are labials, _b_ and _p_; five dentals, _d_, _t_, _s_, _z_, _j_, and _g_ soft; two nasals, _m_ and _n_; and four gutturals, _k_, _q_, _c_, and _g_ hard. There is a peculiar nasal combination in _ng_, and a peculiar terminal sound of _g_, which may be represented by _gk_. Of the mixed dipthongal and consonental sounds, those most difficult to English organs are the sounds in _aiw_ and _auw_.

3. _Letters not used._--The language is wholly wanting in the sound of _th_. It drops the sound of _v_ entirely, substituting _b_, in attempts to pronounce foreign words. The sound of _l_ is sometimes heard in their necromantic chants; but, although it appears to have been known to the old Algonquin, it is supplied, in the Odjibwa of this day, exclusively by _n_. It also eschews the sounds of _f_, _r_, and _x_, leaving its simple consonental powers of utterance, as above denoted, at sixteen. In attempts to pronounce English words having the sound of _f_, they substitute _p_, as in the case of _v_. The sound of _r_ is either dropped, or takes the sound of _au_. Of the letter _x_ they make no use; the nearest approach I have succeeded in getting from them is _ek-is_, showing that it is essentially a foreign sound to them. The aspirate _h_ begins very few words, not exceeding five in fifteen hundred, but it is a very frequent sound in terminals, always following the slender or Latin sound of _a_, but never its broad sound in _au_, or its peculiarly English sound as heard in the _a_ of _may_, _pay_, _day_. The terminal syllable of the tribal name (Odjibwa), offers a good evidence of this rule, this syllable being never sounded by the natives either _wah_ or _wau_, but always _wa_. These rules of utterance appear to be constant and imperative, and the natives have evidently a nice ear to discriminate sounds.

_Rule of Euphony._--In the construction of words, it is required that a consonant should _precede_ or _follow_ a vowel. In dissyllables wherein two consonants are sounded in juxtaposition, it happens from the joining of two syllables, the first of which ends and the last begins with a consonant, as _muk-kuk_, a box, and _os-sin_, a stone; the utterance in these cases being confluent. But in longer compounds this juxtaposition is generally avoided by throwing in a vowel for the sake of euphony, as in the term _assinebwoin_, the _e_ in which is a mere connective, and has no meaning by itself. Nor is it allowable for vowels to follow each other in syllabication, except in the restricted instances where the being or existence of a thing or person is affirmed, as in the vowel-words _i-e-e_ and _i-e-a_, the animate and inanimate forms of this declaration. In these cases, there is a distinct accent on each vowel.

4. _Accent._--The accent generally falls on full or broad vowels, and never on short vowels; such accented vowels are always significant, and if they are repeated in a compound word, the accents are also repeated, the only difference being that there are primary and secondary accents. Thus, in the long descriptive name for a horse, _Pa-bá-zhik-ó-ga-zhé_, which is compounded of a numeral term and two nouns, meaning, the animal with solid hoofs; there are three accents, the first of which is primary, while the others succeed each other with decreased intensity. By a table of words which I have constructed, and had carefully pronounced over by the natives, it is denoted that dissyllables are generally accented on the final syllable, trisyllables on the second, and words of four syllables on the second and fourth. But these indications may not be constant or universal, as it is perceived that the accents vary agreeably to the distribution of the full and significant vowels.

5. _Emphasis._--Stress is laid on particular words in sentences to which the speaker designs to impart force, and the whole tone of the entire sentiment and passages is often adapted to convey particular impressions. This trait more frequently comes out in the private narrative of real or imaginary scenes, in which the narrator assumes the very voice and tone of the real or supposed actor. Generally, in their dealings and colloquial intercourse, there is a significant stress laid on the terms, _meenungaika_, certainly; _kaigait_, truly; _kaugaigo_, nothing at all; _tiau_, behold; _woh-ow_, who; _auwanain_, were; and other familiar terms of inquiry, denial, or affirmation in daily use.

6. _Conjugation._--The simplest form in which their verbs are heard, is in the third person singular of the indicative, as _he speaks_, _he says_, _he loves_, _he dances_, or in the first person present of the imperative. The want of a distinction between the pronouns _he_ and _she_, is a defect which the language shares, I believe, with other very ancient and rude tongues. Conjugations are effected for persons, tenses, and number, very much as they are in other rude languages, particularly those of the transpositive class. The verb is often a single root, or syllable, as _saug_, love; but owing to the tendency of adding qualifying particles, their verbs are cluttered up with other meanings. The word _saug_ is therefore never heard as an element by itself. In the first place, it takes before it the pronoun, and in the second place, the object of action; so that _nesaugeau_, I love him, or her, or a person, is one of the simplest of their colloquial phrases. And of this term, the e, being the fourth syllable, is mere verbiage, means nothing by itself, and is thrown in for euphony.

Tenses are formed by adding _gee_ to the pronoun for the perfect, and _gah_ for the future, and _gahgee_ for the second future. These terms play the part, and supply the want of, auxiliary verbs. The imperative is made in _gah_, and the potential in _dau_ where the second future is _daugee_. The subjunctive is made by prefixing the word _kishpin_, meaning if. The inflection _nuh_, asks a question, and as it can be put to all the forms of the conjugation, it establishes an interrogative mood. The particle see, negatives the verb, and thus all verbs can be conjugated positively and negatively.

To constitute the plural, the letter _g_ is added to the conjugations; thus, _nesaugeaug_ means, I love them. But this is an animate plural, and can only be added to words of the vital class. Besides, if the verb or noun to be made plural does not end in a vowel, but in a consonant, the _g_ cannot be added without interposing a vowel. It results, therefore, that the vowel class of words have their plurals in _äg_, _eeg_, _ig_, _og_, or _ug_. But, if the class of words be non-vital and numerical, the plural is made in the letter _n_. But this letter cannot, as in the other form, be added, unless the word terminate in a vowel, when the regular plurals are _än_, _een_, _in_, _on_, or _un_. This simple principle clears up one cause of perplexity in the conjugations, and denotes a philosophical method, which divides the whole vocabulary into two classes; while this provision _supersedes_, it answers the purpose of _gender_. There is, in fact, no gender required by the conjugations, it being sufficient to denote the _vitality_ or _non-vitality_ of the class. Nothing can be clearer. This is one of the leading traits of the grammar of the language, upon the observance of which the best speakers pride themselves.

It does not, however, result that, because there is no gender required in the conjugations, the idea of sexuality is unknown to the nomenclature. Quite the contrary. The tenses for male and female, in the chief orders of creation, are _iaba_ and _nozha_. These words prefixed to the proper names of animals, produce expressions of precisely the same meaning, and also the same inelegance; as if we should say, male goose, female goose, male horse, and female horse, male man and female man. The term for man (_inini_) is masculine, and that for woman (_equa_) feminine in its construction. It is only in the conjugations that the principle of gender becomes lost in that of vitality.

7. _Active and passive voices._--The distinction between these two classes of verbs is made by the inflection _ego_. By adding this form to the active verb, its action is reversed, and thrown back on the nominative. Thus, the verb to carry is _nim bemön_, I carry; _nim bemön-ego_, I am carried. _Adowawa_ is the act of thumping, as a log by the waves on the shore._ Adowawa-ego_ is a log that is thumped by the waves on shore. _Nesaugeah_, I love; _Nesaugeigo_, I am loved. In the latter phrase, the personal term _au_ is dropped, and the long sound of _e_ slips into _i_, which converts the inflection into _igo_ instead of _ego_.

8. _Participles._--My impression is, that the Indians are in the habit of using participles, often to the exclusion of other proper forms of the verb. The vocabulary contains abundantly the indicative forms of the verb. To run, to rise, to see, to eat, to tie, to burn, to strike, to sing, to cry, to dance, are the common terms of parlance; but as soon as these terms come to be connected with the action of particular persons, this action appears to be spoken of as if existing--both the past and future tenses being thrown away; and the senses appear to be, I, you, he, or they; running, rising, seeing, eating, tying, burning, striking, singing, crying, dancing. At least, I have not been able to convince myself that the action is not referred to as existing. When the participles should be used, they, on the contrary, employ the indicative forms, by which such sentences are made as, he run, he walk, for running, walking.

The general want of the substantive verb, in their colloquial phrases, constantly leads to imperfect forms of syntax. Thus, _nëbä_ is the indicative, first person of the verb to sleep; but if the term, I am sleeping, be required, the phrase is _ne nëbä_, simply, I sleep. So, too, _tshägiz_ is the first person indicative to burn; but the colloquial phrase, I am burned, or burning, is _nen tshägiz_--the verb remaining in the indicative, and not taking the participle form.

It is not common to address persons by their familiar names, as with us--as John, or James. The very contrary is the usage of Indian society, the object being to conceal all personal names, unless they be forced out. If it be required to express this sentence, namely: Adario has gone out (or temporarily departed), but will soon return; the equivalent is _Ogima_, _ke mahjaun_, _panema_, _ke takooshin_. This sentence literally retranslated is, Chief, he gone; by and by, he (will) return--the noun chief being put for the personal noun Adario. It will be perceived that the pronoun _ke_ is repeated after the noun, making, chief, he gone. _Panema_ is an adverb which is undeclinable under all circumstances, and _tahkooshin_, the future tense of the verb to arrive, or come (by land). The phraseology is perfectly loaded with local or other particulars, which constantly limit the action of verbs to places, persons, and things.

XXV.

_A Vocabulary of the Odjibwa Algonquin Language._ BY H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

On referring to the manuscript of this vocabulary, it is found to fill a large folio volume, which puts it out of my power to insert it in this connection. It is hoped to bring it into the series of the Ethnological volumes, now in the process of being published at Philadelphia, under the auspices of Congress.

APPENDIX

No. 2.

THE EXPEDITION TO ITASCA LAKE IN 1832.

SYNOPSIS.

1. INDIAN LANGUAGES.

I. II. Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of the Odjibwa Substantive. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

III. Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-adjective. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

IV. Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and Properties of the Pronoun. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

2. NATURAL HISTORY.

V. Zoology.

1. Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the Northwestern parts of the United States. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.--_Northwest Journal._

2. Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered by Mr. Schoolcraft in the Northwest. By WILLIAM COOPER.--_Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History._

3. A list of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft during his Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1832. By WILLIAM COOPER.

VI. Botany.

1. List of Species and Localities of Plants collected during the Exploratory Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft in 1831 and 1832. By DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D., _Surgeon to said Expeditions_.

VII. Mineralogy and Geology.

1. A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper in the Trap Rocks of Upper Michigan. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

2. Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver, and the Ores of Silver, in the Stratification of the Basins of Lakes Huron and Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

3. A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals observed in the Northwest. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

4. Geological Outlines of the Valley of Takwymenon in the Basin of Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

5. Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of the Deposit of Red Sandstone of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

3. INDIAN TRIBES.

VIII. Condition and Disposition.

1. Official Report to the War Department, of an Expedition through Upper Michigan and Northern Wisconsin in 1831. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

2. Brief Notes of a Tour in 1831, from Galena, in Illinois, to Fort Winnebago, on the source of Fox River, Wisconsin. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

3. Official Report of the Expedition to Itasca Lake in 1832. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

4. Report of the Vaccination of the Indians in 1832, under the authority of an Act of Congress. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

4. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY.

IX. Astronomical and Barometrical Observations.

1. Table of Geographical Positions observed in 1836. By J. N. NICOLLET.

5. SCENERY.

X. Letters on the Scenery of Lake Superior. By MELANCTHON WOOLSEY. _Vide_ Southern Literary Messenger, 1836.

APPENDIX.

1. INDIAN LANGUAGE.

I.

_Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of the Odjibwa Substantive._[270]

[270] Mr. Du Ponceau did me the honor, in 1834, to translate these two inquiries on the substantive in full, for the prize paper on the Algonquin, before the National Institute of France.

INQUIRY 1.

Observations on the Ojibwai substantive. 1. The provision of the language for indicating gender--Its general and comprehensive character--The division of words into animate and inanimate classes. 2. Number--its recondite forms, arising from the terminal vowel in the word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the objective person.

Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian languages, have resulted in elucidating the principles governing the use of the verb, which has been proved to be full and varied in its inflections. Either less attention has been paid to the other parts of speech, or results less suited to create high expectations of their flexibility and powers have been attained. The Indian verb has thus been made to stand out, as it were in bold relief, as a shield to defects in the substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact, compensating, by its multiform appendages of prefix and suffix--by its tensal, its pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its adverbial terminations, for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts of speech. Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the present inquiry, the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until I have considered the substantive, and its more important adjuncts.

Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches, and the actions or condition, which determine the relation of one object to another, are perhaps the first points to demand attention in the invention of languages. And they have certainly imprinted themselves very strongly, with all their materiality, and with all their local, and exclusive, and personal peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and the verb not only thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as in all languages; but they continue to perform their first offices, with less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would appear to be reconcilable with a clear expression of the circumstances of time and place, number and person, quality and quantity, action and repose, and the other accidents, on which their definite employment depends. But to enable the substantives and attributives to perform these complex offices, they are provided with inflections, and undergo changes and modifications, by which words and phrases become very concrete in their meaning, and are lengthened out to appear formidable to the eye. Hence the polysyllabic, and the descriptive character of the language, so composite in its aspect and in its forms.

To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible, the prominent ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear to have been the paramount object with the inventors of the language. Hence, concentration became a leading feature. And the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, and the preposition, however they may be disjunctively employed in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials to the speaker, to be worked up into the complicated texture of the verb and the substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike, than the language, viewed in its original, elementary state--in a vocabulary, for instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a vocabulary can now be formed, and the same language as heard under its oral, amalgamated form. Its transpositions may be likened to a picture, in which the copal, the carmine, and the white lead, are no longer recognized as distinct substances, but each of which has contributed its share towards the effect. It is the painter only who possesses the principle, by which one element has been curtailed, another augmented, and all, however seemingly discordant, made to coalesce.

Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives and compounds; to afford rules for giving verbs substantive, and substantives verbal qualities; to concentrate the meaning of words upon a few syllables, or upon a single letter, or alphabetical sign; and to supply modes of contraction and augmentation, and, if I may so say, _short cuts_, and _by-paths_ to meanings, which are equally novel and interesting. To arrive at its primitives, we must pursue an intricate thread, where analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of those accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules of material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only after a process of this kind, that the _principle of combination_--that secret wire, which moves the whole machinery can be searched for, with a reasonable prospect of success. The labor of analysis is one of the most interesting and important, which the subject presents. And it is a labor which it will be expedient to keep constantly in view, until we have separately considered the several parts of speech, and the grammatical laws by which the language is held together; and thus established principles and provided materials wherewith we may the more successfully labor.

1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it must be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes itself so constantly to view, as the principle which separates all words, of whatever denomination, into animates and inanimates, as they are applied to objects in the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. This principle has been grafted upon most words, and carries its distinctions throughout the syntax. It is the gender of the language; but a gender of so unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common distinctions of a masculine and feminine, and to give a twofold character to the parts of speech. The concords which it requires, and the double inflections it provides, will be mentioned in their appropriate places. It will be sufficient here to observe, that animate nouns require animate verbs for their nominatives, animate adjectives to express their qualities, and animate demonstrative pronouns to mark the distinctions of person. Thus, if we say, "I see a man; I see a house," the termination of the verb must be changed. What was in the first instance _wâb imâ_, is altered to _wâb indân_. _Wâb_, is here the infinitive, but the root of this verb is still more remote. If the question occurs "Is it a good man, or a good house," the adjective, which, in the inanimate form is _onishish-í_, is, in the animate _onishish-i[n']_. If the question be put, "Is it this man, or this house," the pronoun _this_, which is _mâ bum_, in the animate, is changed to _mâ ndun_, in the inanimate.

Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, insects, reptiles, crustacæ, the sun, and moon, and stars, thunder, and lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either possesses animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and superstitions of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their number is comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and those only while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the speaker to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates: but it is a choice seldom resorted to, except in conformity with stated exceptions. These conventional exceptions are not numerous, and the more prominent of them, may be recited. The cause of the exceptions it is not always easy to perceive. It may, however, generally be traced to a particular respect paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real or fancied properties--the uses to which they are applied, or the ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so necessary in the chase; a feather, the honored sign of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable in the household; a pipe, by which friendships are sealed and treaties ratified; a drum, used in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the mask of authority; vermilion, the appropriate paint of the warrior; wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These are among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby transferred to the animate class.

It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are only employed as animates, while the objects are referred to as whole and complete species. But the gender must be changed, when it becomes necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are separate nouns, so long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot, head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but neck, back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like manner, eagle, swan, dove, are distinguished as animates; but beak, wing, tail, are arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf, root, inanimates.

Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule--the reasons for which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either in peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities or uses of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws of the bear, and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the neck, are invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and horns of all quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical and mystic purposes; the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man, are similarly situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some exceptions of this nature; such are the names for the outer bark of all trees (except the birch), and the branches, the roots, and the resin of the spruce, and its congeners.

In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two classes of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life; neuter nouns will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist without my knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and the adjectives, but it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to which they are applied neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The subject in all its bearings is interesting, and a full and minute description of it would probably elicit new light respecting some doubtful points in the language, and contribute something towards a curious collateral topic--the history of Indian opinions. I have stated the principle broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions as fully as it is in my power, and without following its bearings upon points which will more properly come under discussion at other stages of the inquiry. A sufficient outline, it is believed, has been given, and having thus met, at the threshold, a principle deeply laid at the foundation of the language, and one which will be perpetually recurring, I shall proceed to enumerate some other prominent features of the substantive.

2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without number. But there are, probably, few which furnish so many modes of indicating it, as the Odjibwa. There are as many modes of forming the plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction between a limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the pronoun, an _inclusive_ and an _exclusive_ plural. Whether we say _man_ or _men_, _two men_ or _twenty men_, the singular _inin´i_, and the plural _nin´iwug_, remains the same. But if we say _we_, or _us_, or _our men_ (who are present), or _we_, or _us_, or _our Indians_ (in general), the plural _we_, and _us_, and _our_--for they are rendered by the same form--admit of a change to indicate whether the objective person be _included_ or _excluded_. This principle, of which full examples will be given under the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous instance of the use of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions, by means of the pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs and substantives, creating the necessity of double conjugations and double declensions, in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for "Our Father," which, in the inclusive form is _Kósinân_, is, in the exclusive, _Nósinân_.

The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of the language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb and substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or objects, but arises from the operations of the verb. The general plural is variously made. But the plurals making inflections take upon themselves an additional power or sign, by which substantives are distinguished into animate and inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns plural would end in the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_. But to mark the gender, the letter _g_ is added to animates, and the letter _n_ to inanimates, making the plurals of the first class terminate in _âg_, _eeg_, _ig_, _ôg_, _ug_, and of the second class in _ân_, _een_, _in_, _ôn_, _un_. Ten modes of forming the plural are thus provided, five of which are animate, and five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line of distinction is thus drawn between the two classes of words; so unerring, indeed, in its application, that it is only necessary to inquire how the plural is formed, to determine whether it belonged to one or the other class. The distinctions which we have endeavored to convey will, perhaps, be more clearly perceived, by adding examples of the use of each of the plurals.

Animate Plural.

a. Odjibwâi, a Chippewa. Odjibwaig, Chippewas. e. Ojee, a Fly. Oj-eeg, Flies. i. Kosénan, Our father, (in.) Kosenân-ig, Our fathers, (in.) o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees. u. Ais, a Schell. Ais-ug, Shells.

Inanimate Plural.

a. Ishkôdai, Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires. e. Wadôp, Alder. Wadôp-een, Alders. i. Adetaig, Fruit. Adetaig-in, Fruits. o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds. u. Meen, Berry. Meen-un, Berries.

Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition of the _g_, or _n_, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In other instances, as in _peenai_, a partridge--_seebi_, a river--it requires a consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule previously stated. Thus, _peenai_, is rendered _peenai-wug_--and _seebi_, _seebi-wun_. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad, instead of the long sound of _a_, as in _ogimâ_, a chief, _ishpatinâ_, a hill, the plural is _ogim-ag_, _ishpatinân_. But these are mere modifications of two of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to be considered as additional plurals.

Comparatively few substances are without number. The following may be enumerated:--

Missun´, Firewood. Ussáimâ, Tobacco. Pinggwi, Ashes. Naigow, Sand. Méjim, Food. Ahwun, Mist. Kôn, Snow. Kimmiwun, Rain. Mishk´wi, Blood. Ossâkumig, Moss. Ukkukkuzhas, Coals. Unitshimin, Peas.

Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it is less an object, in this lecture, to pursue exceptions into their minutest ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not to every word, to at least a majority of words in the language.

There is, however, one exception from the general use of number, so peculiar in itself, that not to point it out would be an unpardonable remissness in giving the outlines of a language, in which it is an object neither to extenuate faults nor to overrate beauties. This exception consists in the want of number in the _third person_ of the declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of animate verbs. Not that such words are destitute of number, in their simple forms, or when used under circumstances requiring no change of these simple forms--no prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at a glance, how very limited such an application of words must be, in a transpositive language.

Thus _mang_ and _kâg_ (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection _wug_, becoming _mang wug_ and _kâg wug_ (loons and porcupines). So, in their pronominal declension:--

My loon Ni mang oom Thy loon Ki mang oom My porcupine Ni gâg oom Thy porcupine Ki gâg oom My loons Ni mang oom ug Thy loons Ki mang oom ug My porcupines Ni gâg oom ug Thy porcupines Ki gâg oom ug

But his loon, or loons (_o many oom un_), his porcupine or porcupines (_o gâg oom un_), are without number. The rule applies equally to the class of words in which the pronouns are inseparable. Thus, my father and thy father, _nôs_ and _kôs_, become my fathers and thy fathers, by the numerical inflection _ug_, forming _nôsug_ and _kôsug_. But _ôsun_, his father or fathers, is vague, and does not indicate whether there be one father or twenty fathers. The inflection _un_, merely denotes the _object_. The rule also applies equally to sentences in which the noun is governed by or governs the verb. Whether we say, "I saw a bear," _ningi wâbumâ mukwah_, or "a bear saw me," _mukwah ningi wâbumig_, the noun, itself, undergoes no change, and its number is definite. But _ogi wâbumân muk-wun_, "he saw bear," is indefinite, although both the verb and the noun have changed their endings. And if the narrator does not subsequently determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt, or must resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third person are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which would seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the indefinite article, _paizhik_, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus, _paizhik mukwun ogi wâbumân_, conveys with certainty the information "he saw _a_ bear." But in this sentence both the noun and the verb retain the objective inflections, as in the former instances. These inflections are not uniformly _un_, but sometimes _een_, as in _ogeen_, his mother, and sometimes _ôn_, as in _odakeek-ôn_, his kettle, in all which instances, however, the number is left indeterminate. It may hence be observed, and it is a remark which we shall presently have occasion to corroborate, that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns (which have no objective form), forms the objective inflection to animate nouns, which have no number in the third person.

3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been indicated by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer, one of those tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without imparting additional precision, serve to clothe the language with accumulated verbiage. The strong tendency to combination and amalgamation, existing in the language, renders it difficult, in fact, to discuss the principles of it in that elementary form which could be wished. In the analysis of words and forms we are constantly led from the central point of discussion. To recur, however, from these collateral unravellings to the main thread of inquiry, at as short and frequent intervals as possible, and thus to preserve the chain of conclusions and proofs, is so important, that, without keeping the object distinctly in view, I should despair of conveying any clear impressions of those grammatical features which impart to the language its peculiar character.

It has been remarked that the distinctions of number are founded upon a modification of the five vowel sounds. Possessives are likewise founded upon the basis of the vowel sounds. There are five declensions of the noun to mark the possessive, ending in the possessive in _âm_, _eem_, _im_, _ôm_, _um_, _oom_. Where the nominative ends with a vowel, the possessive is made by adding the letter _m_, as in _maimai_, a woodcock, _ni maimaim_, my woodcock, &c. Where the nominative ends in a consonant, as in _ais_, a shell, the full possessive inflection is required, making _nin daisim_, my shell. In the latter form, the consonant _d_ is interposed between the pronoun and noun, and sounded with the noun, in conformity with a general rule. Where the nominative ends in the broad in lieu of the long sound of _a_, as in _ogimâ_, a chief, the possessive is _âm_. The sound of _i_, in the third declension, is that of _i_ in pin, and the sound of _u_, in the fifth declension, is that of _u_ in bull. The latter will be uniformly represented by _oo_.

The possessive declensions run throughout both the animate and inanimate classes of nouns, with some exceptions in the latter, as knife, bowl, paddle, &c.

Inanimate nouns are thus declined.

Nominative.

Ishkôdai, Fire.

Possessive.

My, Nin Dishkod-aim. Thy, Ki Dishkod-aim. His, O Dishkod-aim. Our, Ki Dishkod-aim-inân. (in.) -- Ni Dishkod-aim-inân. (ex.) Your, Ki Dishkod-aim-iwâ. Their, O Dishko-aim-iwâ.

Those words which form exceptions from this declension, take the separable pronouns before them as follows:--

Môkoman, A Knife. Ni môkoman, My Knife. Ki môkoman, Thy Knife. O môkoman, His Knife, &c.

Animate substantives are declined precisely in the same manner as inanimate, except in the third person, which takes to the possessive inflections, _aim_, _eem_, _im_, _ôm_, _oom_, the objective particle _un_, denoting the compound inflection of this person, both in the singular and plural, _aimun_, _eemun_, _imun_, _ômun_, _oomun_, and the variation of the first vowel sound, _âmun_. Thus, to furnish an example of the second declension, _bizhiki_, a bison, changes its forms to _nim_, _bizhik-im_, my bison--_ke bizhik-im_, thy bison, _O bizhik-imun_, his bison, or bisons.

The cause of this double inflection in the third person, may be left for future inquiry. But we may add further examples in aid of it. We cannot simply say, "The chief has killed a bear," or, to reverse the object upon which the energy of the verb is exerted, "The bear has killed a chief." But, _ogimâ ogi nissân muk-wun_, literally, "Chief he has has killed him bear," or, _mukwah ogi_ _nissân ogimân_, "Bear he has killed him chief." Here the verb and the noun are both objective in _un_, which is sounded _ân_, where it comes after the broad sound of _a_, as in _nissân_, objective of the verb to kill. If we confer the powers of the English possessive (_'s_), upon the inflections _aim_, _eem_, _im_, _ôm_, _oom_, and _âm_, respectively, and the meaning of _him_, and of course _he_, _her_, _his_, _hers_, _they_, _theirs_ (as there is no declension of the pronoun, and no number to the third person), upon the objective particle _un_, we shall then translate the above expression, _o bizhik-eemum_, his bison's hisn. If we reject this meaning, as I think we should, the sentence would read, "His bison," him, a mere tautology.

It is true, it may be remarked, that the noun possessed, has a corresponding termination, or pronominal correspondence, with the pronoun possessor, also a final termination indicative of its being the _object_ on which the verb exerts its influence--a mode of expression, which, so far as relates to the possessive, would be deemed superfluous, in modern languages; but may have some analogy in the Latin accusatives _am_, _um_, _em_.

It is a constant and unremitting aim in the Indian languages to distinguish the actor from the object, partly by prefixes, and partly by inseparable suffixes. That the termination _un_, is one of these inseparable particles, and that its office, while it confounds the number, is to designate the object, appears probable from the fact, that it retains its connection with the noun, whether the latter follow or precede the verb, or whatever its position in the sentence may be.

Thus we can, without any perplexity in the meaning say, _Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân Pontiac-un_, "Frenchmen, they did love Pontiac him." Or to reverse it, _Pontiac-un Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân_, "Pontiac, he did Frenchmen he loved." The termination _un_, in both instances, clearly determines the object beloved. So in the following instance, _Sagunoshug ogi sagiân Tecumseh-un_, "Englishmen, they did love Tecumseh," or _Tecumseh-un Sagunoshug oji sagiân_, "Tecumseh, he did Englishmen he loved."

In tracing the operation of this rule, through the doublings of the language, it is necessary to distinguish every modification of sound, whether it is accompanied or not accompanied by a modification of the sense. The particle _un_, which thus marks _the third person and persons_, is sometimes pronounced _wun_, and sometimes _yun_, as the harmony of the word to which it is suffixed may require. But not the slightest change is thereby made in its meaning.

Wâbojeeg ogi meegân-ân nâdowaisi-wun.

Wâbojeeg fought his enemies. L.[271] W. he did fight them, his enemy, or enemies.

O sâgi-ân inini-wun.

He, or she, loves a man. L. He, or she, loves him-man, or men.

Kigo-yun waindji pimmâdizziwâd.

They subsist on fish. L. Fish or fishes, they upon them, they live.

Ontwa o sagiân odi-yun.

Ontwa loves his dog. L. O. he loves him, his dog, or dogs.

[271] L. for _literally_.

In these sentences, the letters _w_ and _y_ are introduced before the inflection _un_, merely for euphony's sake, and to enable the speaker to utter the final vowel of the substantive, and the inflective vowel, without placing both under the accent. It is to be remarked in these examples, that the verb has a corresponding inflection with the noun, indicated by the final consonant _n_, as in _sagiâ-n_, objective of the verb _to love_. This is merely a modification of _un_, where it is requisite to employ it after broad _a_ (_aw_), and it is applicable to nouns as well as verbs whenever they end in that sound. Thus, in the phrase, "He saw a chief," _O wâbumâ-n O gimâ-n_, both noun and verb terminate in _n_. It is immaterial to the sense, which precedes. And this leads to the conclusion, which we are in some measure compelled to state in anticipation of our remarks on the verb: That verbs must not only agree with their nominatives in number, person, and _gender_ (we use the latter term for want of a more appropriate one), but also with their objectives. Hence, the objective sign _n_ in the above examples. Sometimes this sign is removed from the ending of the verb, to make room for the plural of the nominative person, and is subjoined to the latter. Thus,

O sagiâ(wâ)n. They love them (him or them).

In this phrase, the interposed syllable (_wâ_) is, apparently, the plural--it is a reflective plural--of _he_--the latter being indicated, as usual, by the sign _O_. It has been observed, above, that the deficiency in number, in the third person, is sometimes supplied "by numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence," and this interposed particle (_wâ_) affords an instance in point.

The number of the nominative pronoun appears to be thus rendered precise, but the objective is still indefinite.

When two nouns are used without a verb in the sentence, or when two nouns compose the whole matter uttered, being in the third person, both have the full objective inflection. Thus,

Os-(un). Odi-(yun). His father's dog. L. His father--his dog or dogs.

There are certain words, however, which will not admit the objective _un_, either in its simple or modified forms. These are rendered objective in _een_, or _ôn_.

O wâbumâ-(n), ossin-(een). He sees the stone. L. He sees him--stone or stones. O wâbumâ-(n) mittig o mizh-(een). L. He sees him, tree or trees. He sees an oak tree. O mittig wâb (een), gyai o bikwuk-(ôn). His bow and his arrows. L. His bow him, and his arrows, him or them. Odyâ | wâ | wâ (n), akkik-(ôn). They possess a kettle. L. They own them, kettle or kettles.

The syllable _wâ_, in the verb of the last example included between bars (instead of parentheses), is the reflective plural _they_ pointed out in a preceding instance.

I shall conclude these remarks, with full examples of each pronominal declension.

_a._ First declension, forming the first and second persons in _aim_, and the third in _aimun_.

Nominative.

Pinâi, a partridge. Pinâi-wug, partridges.

First and second person.

My, Nim Bin-aim. Thy, Ki Bin-aim. Our, Ki Bin-aim inân. Inclusive plural. Our, Ni Bin-aiminân. Exclusive plural. Your, Ki Bin-aim wâ.

Third person.

His, O Bin-aim (un). Their, O Bin-aim iwâ (n).

_e._ Second declension forming the first and second persons in eem, and the third in _eemun_.

Nominative.

Ossin, a stone. Ossineen, stones.

First and second persons.

My, Nin Dossin-eem. Thy, Ki Dossin-eem. Our, Ki Dossin-eeminân. (in.) Our, Ni Dossin-eeminân. (ex.) Your, Ke Dossin-eemewâ.

Third person.

His, O Dossin-eem(un). Their, O Dossin-eemewâ (n).

_i._ Third declension forming the first and second persons in _im_, and the third in _imun_.

Nominative.

Ais, a shell. Aisug, shells.

First and second persons.

My, Nin Dais-im. Thy, Ki Dais-im. Our, Ki Dais-iminân. (in.) Our, Ni Dais-iminân. (ex.) Your, Ki Dais-imiwâ.

Third person.

His, O Dais-im (un). Their, O Dais-imewâ (n).

_o._ Fourth declension forming the first and second persons in _ôm_, and the third in _ômun_.

Nominative.

Monidô, a Spirit. Monidôg, Spirits.

First and second persons.

My, Ni Monid-ôm. Thy, Ki Monid-ôm. Our, Ki Monid-ôminân. (in.) Our, Ni Monid-ôminân. (ex.) Your, Ki Monid-ômiwâ.

Third person.

His, O Monid-ôm (un). Their, O Monid-ômewâ (n).

_u._ (_oo_) Fifth declension forming the first and second persons in _oom_, and the third in _oomun_.

Nominative.

Môz, a Moose. Môzôg, Moose.

First and second persons.

My, Ni Môz-oom. Thy, Ki Môz-oom. Our, Ki Môz-oominân. (in.) Our, Ni Môz-oominân. (ex.) Your, Ki Môz-oomiwu.

Third person.

His, O Môz oom (un). Their, O Môz oomiwâ (n).

_aw._ Additional declension, required when the noun ends in the broad, instead of the long sound of a, forming the possessive in _âm_, and the objective in _âmun_.

Nominative.

Ogimâ, a Chief. Ogimâg, Chiefs.

First and second persons.

My, Ni Dôgim âm. Thy, Ki Dôgim âm. Our, Ki Dôgim âminân. (in.) Our, Ni Dôgim âminân. (ex.) Your, Ki Dôgim âmiwâ.

Third person.

His, O Dôgim âm (un). Their, O Dôgim âmiwâ (n).

The abbreviations, _in._, and _ex._, in these declensions, mark the inclusive and exclusive forms of the pronoun plural. The inflection of the third person, as it is superadded to the first and second, is included between parentheses, that the eye, unaccustomed to these extended forms, may readily detect it.

Where the inseparable, instead of the separable pronoun is employed, the possessive inflection of the first and second person is dispensed with, although the inflection of the third is still retained.

Os: Father.

_S. singular._

Nos. My father. Kos. Thy father. Os-un. His father. _Sing. and plural._ Nos-inân. Our father. (ex.) Kos-inân. Our father. (in.) Kos-iwâ. Your father. Os-iwân. Their father. _Sing. and plural._

_S. plural._

Nos-ug. My fathers. Kos-ug. Thy fathers. Os-un. His fathers. _Sing. and plural._ Nos.-inân ig. Our fathers. (ex.) Kos.-inân ig. Our fathers. (in.) Kos-iwâg. Your fathers. Os-iwân. Their fathers. _Sing. and plural._

The word dog, and this word alone, is declined in the following manner.

Annimoosh: a Dog.

_S. singular._

Nin Dy (or Di) My dog. Ki Dy Thy dog. O Dy-un His dog or dogs. Ki Dy-inân Our dog. (in.) Ni Dy-inân Our dog. (ex.) Ki Dy-iwâ Your dog. O Dy-iwân Their dog, &c.

_S. plural._

Nin Dy-ug My dogs. Ki Dy-ug Thy dogs. O Dy-un His dogs, &c. Ki Dy-inânig Our dogs. (in.) Ni Dy-inânig Our dogs. (ex.) Ki Dy-iwâg Your dogs. O Dy-iwân His dogs, &c.

The word _Dy_, which supplies this declension, is derived from _Indyiâm_ mine. _pron. an._--a derivative form of the word, which is, however, exclusively restricted, in its meaning, to the dog. If the expression _Nin Dy_ or _N' Dy_, is sometimes applied to the horse, it is because it is thereby intended to call him, my dog, from his being in a state of servitude similar to that of the dog. It must be borne in mind, as connected with this subject, that the dog, in high northern latitudes, and even as far south as 42 degrees, is both a beast of draught and of burden. He is compelled during the winter season to draw the _odâban_, or Indian sleigh; and sometimes to support the burden upon his back, by means of a kind of drag constructed of slender poles.

A review of the facts which have been brought together respecting the substantive, will show that the separable or inseparable pronouns under the form of prefixes, are throughout required. It will also indicate, that the inflections of the first and second persons which occupy the place of possessives, and those of the third person, resembling objectives, pertain to words, which are either primitives, or denote but a single object, as _moose_, _fire_. There is, however, another class of substantives, or substantive expressions, and an extensive class--for it embraces a great portion of the compound descriptive terms--in the use of which no pronominal prefixes are required. The distinctions of person are, exclusively, supplied by pronominal suffixes. Of this character are the words descriptive of country, place of dwelling, field of battle, place of employment, &c. The following example will furnish the inflections applicable to this entire class of words:--

Aindâd: Home, or place of dwelling.

_S. singular._ Aindâ-yân. My home. Aindâ-yun. Thy home. Aindâ-d. His home. Aindâ-yâng. Our home. (ex.) Aindâ-yung. Our home. (in.) Aindâ-yaig. Your home. Aindâ-wâd. Their home.

_S. plural._

Aindâ-yân-in. My homes. Aindâ-yun-in. Thy homes. Aindâ-jin. His homes. Aindâ-yâng-in. Our homes. (ex.) Aindâ-yung-in. Our homes. (in.) Aindâ-yaig-in. Your homes. Aindâ-wâdjin. Their homes.

By these examples, it is perceived that the final _d_ in _aindâd_ is not essential to its primitive meaning; and that the place of the pronoun is, in respect to this word, invariably a suffix. _Aindâd_ means, truly, not home, but his home. The plural is formed by the inflection _in_, except in the third person, where the sound of _d_ sinks in _j_.

INQUIRY 2.

Further remarks on the substantive--Local, diminutive, derogative, and tensal inflections--Mode in which the latter are employed to denote the disease of individuals, and to indicate the past and future seasons--Restricted or sexual terms--Conversion of the substantive into a verb, and the reciprocal character of the verb by which it is converted into a substantive--Derivative and compound substantives--Summary of the properties of this part of speech.

In the view which has been taken of the substantive in the preceding Inquiry, it has been deemed proper to exclude several topics, which, from their peculiarities, it was believed could be more satisfactorily discussed in a separate form. Of this character are those modifications of the substantive by which locality, diminution, a defective quality, and the past tense are expressed; by which various adjective and adverbial significations are given; and, finally, the substantives themselves converted into verbs. Such are also the mode of indicating the masculine and feminine (both merged, as we have shown, in the animate class), and those words which are of a strictly _sexual_ character, or are restricted in their _use_ either to males or females. Not less interesting is the manner of forming derivatives, and of conferring upon the derivatives so formed a _personality_, distinguished as either animate or inanimate, at the option of the speaker.

Much of the flexibility of the substantive is derived from these properties, and they undoubtedly add much to the figurative character of the language. Some of them have been thought analogous to case, particularly that inflection of the noun which indicates the locality of the object. But if so, then there would be equally strong reasons for establishing an _adjective_, and an _adverbial_, as well as a _local_ case, and a plurality of forms in each. But it is believed that no such necessity exists. There is no regular declension of these forms, and they are all used under limitations and restrictions incompatible with the true principles of case.

It is under this view of the subject, that the discussion of these forms has been transferred, together with the other accidents of the substantive just adverted to, and reserved as the subject-matter of a separate inquiry. And in now proceeding to express the conclusions at which we have arrived touching these points, it will be an object so to compress and arrange the materials before us, as to present within a small compass the leading facts and examples upon which each separate position depends.

1. That quality of the noun which, in the shape of an inflection, denotes the relative situation of the object, by the contiguous position of some accessory object, is expressed in the English language by the prepositions _in_, _into_, _at_, or _on_. In the Indian, they are denoted by an inflection. Thus, the phrase "In the box," is rendered in the Indian by one word, _mukukoong_. Of this word, _mukuk_, simply, is box. The termination, _oong_, denoting the locality, not of the box, but of the object sought after. The expression appears to be precise, although there is no definite article in the language.

The substantive takes this form, most commonly, after a question has been put, as _Anindi ni môkoman-ais?_ "Where is my penknife?" _Mukukoong_ (in the box), _addôpowin-ing_ (on the table), are definite replies to this question. But the form is not restricted to this relation. _Chimân-ing n'guh pôz_, "I shall embark in the canoe;" _wakyigum n'ghu izhâ_, "I shall go into the house," are perfectly correct, though somewhat formal expressions, when the canoe or the house are present to the speaker's view.

The meaning of these inflections has been restricted to _in_, _into_, _at_, and _on_, but they are the more appropriate forms of expressing the first three senses, there being other modes besides these of expressing the preposition _on_. These modes consist in the use of prepositions, and will be explained under that head. The choice of the one or the other is, however, with the speaker. Generally, the inflection is employed when there is some circumstance or condition of the noun either concealed or not fully apparent. Thus, _Muzzinyigun-ing_, is the appropriate term for "In the book," and _may_ also be used to signify "On the book." But if it is meant only to signify _on_ the book, something visible being referred to, the preposition _ogidj_ would be used, that word indicating with certainty _on_, and never _in_. _Wakyigun-ing_ indicates with clearness "In the house;" but if it is necessary to say "On the house," and it be meant at the same time to exclude any reference to the interior, the expression would be changed to _ogidj wakyigun_.

It will be proper further to remark in this place, in the way of limitation, that there is also a separate preposition signifying _in_. It is _pinj_. But the use of this word does not, in all cases, supersede the necessity of inflecting the noun. Thus, the expression _pindigain_, is literally walk in, or enter. But if it is intended to say, "Walk in the house," the local, and not the simple form of house must be used; and the expression is, _Pindigain waky'igun-ing_, "Enter in the house," the verbal form which this preposition _pinj_ puts on, having no allusion to the act of _walking_, but merely implying position.

The local inflection, which, in the above examples, is _ing_ and _oong_, is further changed to _aing_ and _eeng_, as the ear may direct--changes which are governed chiefly by the terminal vowel of the noun. Examples will best supply the rule, as well as the exceptions to it.

SIMPLE FORM. LOCAL FORM.

a. First inflection in _aing_.

Ishkodai Fire Ishkod-aing In, &c. the fire. Muskodai Prairie Muskod-aing In, &c. the prairie. Mukkuddai Powder Mukkud-aing In, &c. the powder. Pimmedai Grease Pimmid-aing In, &c. the grease.

e. Second inflection in _eeng_.[272]

[272] The double vowel is here employed to indicate the long sound of _i_, as _i_ in machine.

Seebi River Seeb-eeng In, &c. the river. Neebi Water Neeb-eeng In, &c. the water. Miskwi Blood Miskw-eeng In, &c. the blood. Unneeb Elm Unneeb-eeng In, &c. the elm.

i. Third inflection in _ing_.

Kôn Snow Kôn-ing In, &c. the snow. Min Berry Meen-ing In, &c. the berry. Chimân Canoe Chimân-ing In, &c. the canoe. Muzziny´egun Book Muzziny´egun-ing In, &c. the book.

o. Fourth inflection in _oong_.

Azhibik Rock Azhibik-oong In, &c. the rock. Gizhig Sky Gizhig-oong In, &c. the sky. Kimmiwun Rain Kimmiwun-oong In, &c. the rain. Akkik Kettle Akkik-oong In, &c. the kettle.

Throw it in the fire. 1. Puggidôn ishkod-aing. Go into the prairie. 2. Muskôdaing izhân. He is in the elm. 3. Unnib-eeng iâ. It is on the water. 4. Nib-eeng attai. Put it on the table. 5. Addôpôwin-ing attôn. Look in the book. 6. Enâbin muzziny´igun-ing. You stand in the rain. 7. Kimmiwun-oong ki nibow. What have you in that box? 8. Waigonain aitaig mukuk-oong? Put it in the kettle. 9. Akkik-oong attôn, or Pôdawain. My bow is not in the lodge; neither is it in the canoe, nor on the rock. 10. Kâwin _pindiq_ iâsi ni mittigwâb; kâwiuh gyai chimân-_ing_; kâwin gyai âzhibik-_oong_.

An attentive inspection of these examples will show that the local form pertains either to such nouns of the animate class as are in their nature inanimate, or at most possessed of vegetable life. And here another conclusion presses upon us; that where these local terminations, in all their variety, are added to the names of animated beings, when such names are the nominatives of adjectives or adjective-nouns, these words are converted into terms of qualification, indicating _like_, _resembling_, _equal_. Thus, if we wish to say to a boy, "He is like a man," the expression is, _Inin-ing izzhinâgozzi_; or, if to a man, "He is like a bear," _Mukk-oong izzhinâgozzi_; or, to a bear, "He is like a horse, _Pabaizhikogâzh-ing izzhinâgozzi_. In all these expressions, the word _izzhi_ is combined with the pronominal inflection _â_ (or _nâ_) and the animate termination _gozzi_. And the inflection of the nominative is merely an adjective corresponding with _izzhi_--a term indicative of the general qualities of persons or animated beings. Where a comparison is instituted, or a resemblance pointed out, between inanimate instead of animate objects, the inflection _gozzi_ is changed to _gwud_, rendering the expression, which was, in the animate form, _izzhinâ_gozzi, in the inanimate form _izzhinâ_zgwud.

There is another variation of the local form of the noun, in addition to those above instanced, indicative of locality in a more general sense. It is formed by _ong_ or _nong_--frequent terminations in geographical names. Thus, from _Ojibwai_, Chippewa, is formed _Ojibwai_nong, "Place of the Chippewas." From _Wamattigozhiwug_, Frenchmen, is formed _Wamittigozhi_nong, "Place of Frenchmen." From _Ishpatinâ_, Hill, _Ishpatinong_, "Place of the hill," &c. The termination _ing_, is also sometimes employed in this more general sense, as in the following names of places:--

Monomonikâ_ning_. In the place of wild rice. Moninggwunikâ_ning_. In the place of sparrows. Ongwashagoosh_ing_. In the place of the fallen tree, &c.

2. The diminutive forms of the noun are indicated by _ais_, _eas_, _ôs_, and _aus_, as the final vowel of the word may require. Thus, _Ojibwai_, a Chippewa, becomes _Ojibw-ais_, a little Chippewa: _Inin´i_, a man, _inin-ees_, a little man: _Amik_, a beaver, _amik-ôs_, a young beaver: _Ogimâ_, a chief, _ogim-âs_, a little chief, or a chief of little authority. Further examples may be added.

SIMPLE FORM. DIMINUTIVE FORM.

--ais.

A woman Eekwâ Eekwâz-ais. A partridge Pinâ Pin-ais. A woodcock Mâimâi Mâim-ais. An island Minnis Minnis-ais. A grape Shômin Shômin-ais. A knife Môkoman Môkoman-ais.

--ees.

A stone Ossin Ossin-ees. A river Seebi Seeb-ees. A pigeon Omimi Omim-ees. A bison Pizhiki Pizhik-ees. A potato Opin Opin-ees. A bird Pinâisi Pinâish-ees.

--ôs.

A moose Môz Môz-ôs. An otter Nigik Nigik-ôs. A reindeer Addik Addik-ôs. An elk Mushkôs Mushkôs-ôs. A hare Wâbôs Wâbôs-ôs. A box Mukuk Mukuk-ôs.

--aus.

A bass Ogâ Og-âs. A medal Shôniâ Shôni-âs. A bowl Onâgun Onâg-âns. A bed Nibâgun Nibâg-aûns. A gun Pâshkizzigun Pâshkizzig-âns. A house Wakyigun Wakyig-âns.

In the last four examples, the letter _n_, of the diminutive, retains its full sound.

The use of diminutives has a tendency to give conciseness to the language. As far as they can be employed they supersede the use of adjectives, or prevent the repetition of them. And they enable the speaker to give a turn to the expression, which is often very successfully employed in producing ridicule or contempt. When applied to the tribes of animals, or to inorganic objects, their meaning, however, is, very nearly, limited to an inferiority in size or age. Thus, in the above examples, _pizhik-ees_, signifies a calf; _omim-ees_, a young pigeon; and _ossin-ees_, a pebble, &c. But _inin-ees_, and _ogim-âs_, are connected with the idea of mental or conventional as well as bodily inferiority.

1. I saw a little chief, standing upon a small island, with an inferior medal abouthis neck. Ogimâs n'gi wâbumâ nibowid minnisainsing onâbikowân shoniâsun.

2. Yamoyden threw at a young pigeon. Ogi pukkitaiwun omimeesun Yamoyden.

3. A buffalo calf stood in a small stream. Pizhikees ki nibowi sibeesing.

4. The little man fired at a young moose. Ininees ogi pâshkizwân môzôsun.

5. Several diminutive-looking bass were lying in a small bowl, upon a small table. Addôpowinaising attai onâgâns abbiwâd ogâsug.

Some of these sentences afford instances of the use, at the same time, of both the local and diminutive inflections. Thus, the word _minnisainsing_, signifies literally, "in the little island;" _seebees-ing_, "in the little stream;" _addôpowinais ing_, "on the small table."

3. The preceding forms are not the only ones by which adjective qualities are conferred upon the substantive. The syllable _ish_, when added to a noun, indicates a bad or dreaded quality, or conveys the idea of imperfection or decay. The sound of this inflection is sometimes changed to _eesh_, _oosh_, or _aush_. Thus, _Chimân_, a canoe, becomes _Chimânish_, a bad canoe; _Ekwai_, a woman, _Ekwaiwish_, a bad woman; _nibi_, water, becomes _nibeesh_, turbid or strong water; _mittig_, a tree, becomes _mittigoosh_, a decayed tree; _akkik_, a kettle, _akkikoosh_, a worn-out kettle. By a further change, _wibid_, a tooth, becomes _wibidâsh_, a decayed or aching tooth, &c. Throughout these changes the final sound of _sh_ is retained, so that this sound alone, at the end of a word, is indicative of a faulty quality.

In a language in which the expressions _bad-dog_ and _faint-heart_ are the superlative terms of reproach, and in which there are few words to indicate the modifications between positively good and positively bad, it must appear evident that adjective inflections of this kind must be convenient, and sometimes necessary modes of expression. They furnish a means of conveying censure and dislike, which, though often mild, is sometimes severe. Thus, if one person has had occasion to refuse the offered hand of another--for it must be borne in mind that the Indians are a hand-shaking people as well as the Europeans--the implacable party has it at his option, in referring to the circumstance, to use the adjective form of hand, not _onindj_, but _oninjeesh_, which would be deemed contemptuous in a high degree. So, also, instead of _odâwai winini_, a trader, or man who sells, the word may be changed to _odâwai winini_wish, implying a bad or dishonest trader. It is seldom that a more pointed or positive mode of expressing personal disapprobation or dislike is required; for, generally speaking, more is implied by these modes than is actually expressed.

The following examples are drawn from the inorganic as well as organic creation, embracing the two classes of nouns, that the operation of these forms may be fully perceived.

SIMPLE FORM. ADJECTIVE FORM.

--ish.

A bowl Onâgun Onâgun-ish. A house Wakyigun Wakyigun-ish. A pipe Opwâgun Opwâgun-ish. A boy Kweewizais Kweewizais-ish. A man Inini Ininiw-ish.

--eesh.

Water Neebi Neeb-ish. A stone Ossin Ossin-eesh. A potato Opin Opin-eesh. A fly Ojee Oj-eesh. A bow Mittigwâb Mittigwâb-eesh.

--oosh.

An otter Neegik Neegik-oosh. A beaver Ahmik Ahmik-oosh. A reindeer Addik Addik-oosh. A kettle Akkeek Akkeek-oosh. An axe Wagâkwut Wagâkwut-oosh.

--aush.

A foot Ozid Ozid-âsh. An arm Onik Onik-âsh. An ear Otowug Otowug-âsh. A hoof Wunnussid Wunnussid-âsh. A rush mat Appukwa Appukw-âsh.

These forms cannot be said, strictly, to be without analogy in the English, in which the limited number of words terminating in _ish_, as saltish, blackish, furnish a correspondence in sound with the first adjective form.

It may subserve the purposes of generalization to add, as the result of the foregoing inquiries, that substantives have a diminutive form, made in _ais_, _ees_, _ôs_, or _âs_; a derogative form, made in _ish_, _eesh_, _oosh_, or _âsh_; and a local form, made in _aing_, _eeng_, _ing_, or _oong_. By a principle of accretion, the second or third may be added to the first form, and the third to the second.

EXAMPLE.

Serpent, s. Kinai´bik.

---- s. diminutive. ----ôns, implying Little serpent. ---- s. derogative. ----ish, " Bad serpent. ---- s. local. ----ing, " In (the) serpent. ---- s. dim. and der. ----ônsish, " Little bad serpent. ---- s. dim. and lo. ----ônsing, " In (the) little serpent. ---- s. dim. der. and lo. ----ônsishing, " In (the) little bad serpent. 4. More attention has, perhaps, been bestowed upon these points than their importance demanded; but, in giving anything like a comprehensive sketch of the substantive, they could not be omitted; and, if mentioned at all, it became necessary to pursue them through their various changes and limitations. Another reason has presented itself. In treating of an unwritten language, of which others are to judge chiefly from examples, it appeared desirable that the positions advanced should be accompanied by the data upon which they respectively rest--at least, by so much of the data employed as to enable philologists to appreciate the justice or detect the fallacy of our conclusions. To the few who take any interest in the subject at all, minuteness will not seem tedious, and the examples will be regarded with deep interest.

As much of our time as we have already devoted to these lesser points of inquiry, it will be necessary, at this place, to point out other inflections and modifications of the substantive, to clear it from obscurities, that we may go into the discussion of the other parts of speech unincumbered.

Of these remaining forms, none is more interesting than that which enables the speaker, by a simple inflection, to denote that the individual named has ceased to exist. This delicate mode of conveying melancholy intelligence, or alluding to the dead, is effected by placing the object in the past tense.

Aiekid-ôpun aieko Garrangula-bun. So the deceased Garrangula spoke.

The syllable _bun_, in this sentence, added to the noun, and _ôpun_ added to the verb, place both in the past tense. And, although the death of the Indian orator is not mentioned, that fact would be invariably inferred.

Names which do not terminate in a vowel sound, require a vowel prefixed to the tensal inflection, rendering it _ôbun_ or _ebun_. Inanimate as well as animate nouns take these inflections.

PRESENT. PAST FORM.

Tecumseh, Tecumsi-bun. Tammany, Tamani-bun. Skenandoah, Skenandoa-bun. Nôs (my father), Nos-êbun. Pontiac, Pontiac-ibun. Waub Ojeeg, Waub Ojeeg-ibun. Tarhe, Tarhi-bun. Mittig (a tree), Mittig-ôbun. Akkik (a kettle), Akkik-ôbun. Môz (a moose), Môz-ôbun.

By prefixing the particle _Tah_ to these words, and changing the inflection of the animate nouns to _iwi_, and the inanimates to _iwun_, they are rendered future. Thus, _Tah Pontiac-iwi_; _Tah Mittig-iwun_, &c.

The names for the seasons only come under the operation of these rules, when the year before the last, or the year after the next, is referred to. The last and the ensuing season are indicated as follows:--

PRESENT. LAST. NEXT.

Spring, Seegwun, Seegwun-oong, Seegwung. Summer, Neebin, Neebin-oong, Neebing. Autumn, Tahgwâgi, Tahgwâg-oong, Tahgwâgig. Winter, Peebôn, Peebôn-oong, Peebông.

I spent last winter in hunting. Ning´i nunda-wainjigai peebônoong. I shall go to Detroit next spring. Ninjah izhâ Wâwiâ´tunong seegwung.

5. _Sexual Nouns.--_The mode of indicating the masculine and feminine having been omitted in the preceding Inquiry, as not being essential to any concordance with the verb or adjective, is, nevertheless, connected with a striking peculiarity of the language--the exclusive use of certain words by one or the other sex. After having appeared to the founders of the language a distinction not necessary to be engrafted in the syntax, there are yet a limited number of words to which the idea of sex so strongly attaches, that it would be deemed the height of impropriety in a female to use the masculine, and in a male to use the feminine expressions.

Of this nature are the words _Neeji_ and _Nindongwai_, both signifying my friend, but the former is appropriated to males and the latter to females. A Chippewa cannot, therefore, say to a female, my friend; nor a Chippewa woman to a male, my friend. Such an interchange of the terms would imply arrogance or indelicacy. Nearly the whole of their interjections--and they are numerous--are also thus exclusively appropriated; and no greater breach of propriety in speech could be committed, than a woman's uttering the masculine exclamation of surprise, _Tyâ!_ or a man's descending to the corresponding female interjection, _N'yâ!_

The word _Neenimoshai_, my cousin, on the contrary, can only be applied, like husband and wife, by a male to a female, or a female to a male. If a male wishes to express this relation of a male, the term is _Neetowis_; and the corresponding female term _Neendongwooshai_.

The terms for uncle and aunt are also of a twofold character, though not restricted like the preceding in their use. _Neemishomai_, is my uncle by the father's side; _Neezhishai_, my uncle by the mother's side. _Neezigwoos_, is my paternal aunt; _Neewishai_, my maternal aunt.

There are also exclusive words to designate elder brother and younger brother; but, what would not be expected after the fore going examples, they are indiscriminately applied to younger brothers and sisters. _Neesgai_, is my elder brother, and _neemissai_, my elder sister. _Neeshemai_, my younger brother or younger sister, and may be applied to any brother or sister except the eldest.

The number of words to which the idea of sex is attached, in the usual acceptation, is limited. The following may be enumerated.

MASCULINE. FEMININE.

Inin´i, A man. Ekwai´, A woman. Kwee´wizais, A boy. Ekwa´zais, A girl. Oskinahwai, A young man. Oskineegakwai, A young woman. Akiwaizi, An old man. Mindimô´ed, An old woman. Nôsai, My father. Nin Gah, My mother. Ningwisis, My son. Nin dânis, My daughter. Ni ningwun, My son-in-law. Nis sim, My daughter-in-law.

MASCULINE. FEMININE.

Ni nâbaim, My husband. Nimindimôimish, My wife. Nimieshomiss, My grandfather. Nôkômiss, My grandmother. Ogimâ, A chief. Ogemâkwâ, A chiefess. Addik, A reindeer. Neetshâni, A doe. Annimoosh, A dog. Kiskisshâi, A bitch.

The sex of the brute creation is most commonly denoted by prefixing the words _Iâbai_, male, and _Nôzhai_, female.

6. _Reciprocal Changes of the Noun._--The pronominal particles with which verbs as well as substantives are generally encumbered, and the habit of using them in particular and restricted senses, leave but little occasion for the employment of either the present or past infinitive. Most verbs are transitives. A Chippewa does not say I love, without indicating, by an inflection of the verb, the object beloved: and thus the expression is constantly, I love him, or her, &c. Neither does the infinitive appear to be generally the ultimate form of the verb.

In changing their nouns into verbs, it will not, therefore, be expected that the change should uniformly result in the infinitive, for which there is so little use, but in such of the personal forms of the various moods as circumstances may require. Most commonly, the third person singular of the indicative, and the second person singular of the imperative, are the simplest aspects under which the verb appears; and hence these forms have been sometimes mistaken for, and reported as the present infinitive. There are some instances in which the infinitive is employed. Thus, although an Indian cannot say I love, thou lovest, &c., without employing the objective forms of the verb to love, yet he can say I laugh, I cry, &c.; expressions in which, the action being confined to the speaker himself, there is no transition demanded. And in all similar instances the present infinitive, with the proper pronoun prefixed, is employed.

There are several modes of transforming a substantive into a verb. The following examples will supply the rules, so far as known, which govern these changes:--

INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE.

Chimân, a canoe. Chimai, he paddles. Chimain, paddle thou. Pashkizzigun, a gun. Pashkizzigai, he fires. Pashkizzigain, fire thou. Jeesidyigun, a broom. Jeesidyigai, he sweeps. Jeesidyigain, sweep thou. Weedjeeagun, a helper. Weedôkagai, he helps. Weedjeei-wain, help thou. Ojibwâi, a Chippewa. Ojibwâmoo, he speaks Ojibwâmoon, speak thou Chippewa. Chippewa.

Another class of nouns is converted into the first person, indicative, of a pseudo-declarative verb, in the following manner:--

Monido, A spirit. Ne Monidôw, I (am) a spirit. Wassaiâ, Light. Ne Wassaiâw, I (am) light. Ishkodai, Fire. Nin Dishkodaiw, I (am) fire. Weendigô, A monster. Ni Weendigôw, I (am) a monster. Addik, A deer. Nin Daddikoow, I (am) a deer. Wakyigun, A house. Ni Wakyiguniw, I (am) a house. Pinggwi, Dust, ashes. Nim Binggwiw, I (am) dust, &c.

The word _am_, included in parenthesis, is not in the original, unless we may suppose the terminals _ow_, _aw_, _iw_, _oow_, to be derivatives from _Iaw_. These changes are reciprocated by the verb, which, as often as occasion requires, is made to put on a substantive form. The particle _win_, added to the indicative of the verb, converts it into a substantive. Thus--

Keegido, He speaks. Keegidowin, Speech. Pâshkizzigai, He fires. Pashkizzigaiwin, Ammunition. Agindasoo, He counts. Agindasoowin, Numbers. Wahyiâzhinggai, He cheats. Wahyiâzhinggaiwin, Fraud. Minnikwâi, He drinks. Minnikwâiwin, Drink. Kubbâshi, He encamps. Kubbâishiwin, An encampment. Meegâzoo, He fights. Meegâzoowin, A fight. Ojeengai, He kisses. Ojeendiwin, A kiss. Annôki, He works. Annôkiwta, Work. Pâpi, He laughs. Pâpiwin, Laughter. Pimâdizzi, He lives. Pimâdoiziwin, Life. Onwâibi, He rests. Onwâibiwin, Rest. Annamiâ, He prays. Annamiâwin, Prayer. Nibâ, He sleeps. Nibâwin, Sleep. Odâwai, He trades. Odâwaiwin, Trade.

Adjectives are likewise thus turned into substantives:--

Keezhaiwâdizzi, He generous. Keezhaiwâdizziwin, Generosity. Minwaindum, He happy. Minwaindumowin, Happiness. Keezhaizeâwizzi, He industrious. Keezhaizhâwizziwin, Industry. Kittimâgizzi, He poor. Kittimâgizziwin, Poverty. Aukkoossi, He sick. Aukkoossiwin, Sickness. Kittimishki, He lazy. Kittimishkiwin, Laziness. Nishkâdizzi, He angry. Nishkâdizziwin, Anger. Baikâdizzi, She chaste. Baikâdizziwin, Chastity.

In order to place the substantives thus formed in the third person, corresponding with the indicative from which they were changed, it is necessary only to prefix the proper pronoun. Thus, _Ogeezhaiwâdizziwin_, his generosity, &c.

7. _Compound Substantives._--The preceding examples have been given promiscuously from the various classes of words, primitive and derivative, simple and compound. Some of these words express but a single idea, as, _ôs_, father--_gah_, mother--_môz_, a moose--_kâg_, a porcupine--_mang_, a loon--and appear to be incapable of further division. All such words may be considered as primitives, although some of them may be contractions of dissyllabic words. There are also a number of dissyllables, and _possibly_ some trisyllables, which, in the present state of our analytical knowledge of the language, may be deemed both simple and primitive. Such are _neebi_, water; _ossin_, a stone; _geezis_, the sun; _nodin_, wind. But it may be premised, as a principle which our investigations have rendered probable, that all polysyllabic words, all words of three syllables, _so far as examined_, and most words of two syllables, are compounds.

The application of a syntax, formed with a view to facilitate the rapid conveyance of ideas by consolidation, may, it is presumable, have early led to the coalescence of words, by which all the relations of object and action, time and person, were expressed. And in a language which is only spoken, and not written, the primitives would soon become obscured and lost in the multiform appendages of time and person, and the recondite connection of actor and object. And this process of amalgamation would be a progressive one. The terms that sufficed in the condition of the simplest state of nature, or in a given latitude, would vary with their varying habits, institutions, and migrations. The introduction of new objects and new ideas would require the invention of new words, or what is much more probable, existing terms would be modified or compounded to suit the occasion. No one who has paid much attention to the subject, can have escaped noticing a confirmation of this opinion, in the extreme readiness of our western Indians to bestow, on the instant, names, and appropriate names--to any new object presented to them. A readiness not attributable to their having at command a stock of generic polysyllables--for these it would be very awkward to wield--but, as appears more probable, to the powers of the syntax, which permits the resolution of new compounds from existing roots, and often concentrates, as remarked in another place, the entire sense of the parent words, upon a single syllable, and sometimes upon a single letter.

Thus it is evident that the Chippewas possessed names for a living tree, _mittig_, and a string, _aiâb_, before they named the bow _mittigwâb_--the latter being compounded under one of the simplest rules from the two former. It is further manifest that they had named earth _akki_, and (any solid, stony, or metallic mass) _âbik_, before they bestowed an appellation upon the kettle, _akkeek_, or _akkik_, the latter being derivatives from the former. In process of time these compounds became the bases of other compounds, and thus the language became loaded with double, and triple, and quadruple compounds, concrete in their meaning and formal in their utterance.

When the introduction of metals took place, it became necessary to distinguish the clay from the iron pot, and the iron from the copper kettle. The original compound, _akkeek_, retained its first meaning, admitting the adjective noun _piwâbik_ (itself a compound) iron, when applied to a vessel of that kind, _piwâbik akkeek_, iron kettle. But a new combination took place to designate the copper kettle, _mishwâkeek_, red metal kettle; and another expression to denote the brass kettle, _ozawâbik akkeek_, yellow metal kettle. The former is made up from _miskôwâbik_, copper (literally _red-metal_--from _miskwâ_, red, and _âbik_, the generic above mentioned), and _akkeek_, kettle. _Ozawâbik_, brass, is from _ozawâ_, yellow, and the generic _âbik_--the term _akkeek_ being added in its separate form. It may, however, be used in its connected form of _wukkeek_, making the compound expression _ozawâbik wukkeek_.

In naming the horse _paibâizhikôgazhi, i. e._ the animal with solid hoofs, they have seized upon the feature which most strikingly distinguished the horse from the cleft-footed animals, which were the only species known to them at the period of the discovery. And the word itself affords an example, at once, both of their powers of concentration, and brief, yet accurate description, which it may be worth while to analyze. _Paizhik_ is one, and is also used as the indefinite article--the only article the language possesses. This word is further used in an adjective sense, figura-tively indicating, united, solid, undivided. And it acquires a plural signification by doubling, or repeating the first syllable, with a slight variation of the second. Thus, _Pai-baizhik_ denotes not _one_, or _an_, but several; and when thus used in the context, renders the noun governed plural. _Oskuzh_ is the nail, claw, or horny part of the foot of beasts, and supplies the first substantive member of the compound _gauzh_. The final vowel is from _ahwaisi_, a beast; and the marked _o_, an inseparable connective, the office of which is to make the two members coalesce, and harmonize. The expression thus formed becomes a substantive, specific in its application. It may be rendered plural like the primitive nouns, may be converted into a verb, has its diminutive, derogative, and local form, and, in short, is subject to all the modifications of other substantives.

Most of the modern nouns are of this complex character. And they appear to have been invented to designate objects, many of which were necessarily unknown to the Indians in the primitive ages of their existence. Others, like their names for a copper-kettle and a horse, above mentioned, can date their origin further back than the period of the discovery. Of this number of nascent words, are most of their names for those distilled or artificial liquors, for which they are indebted to Europeans. Their name for water, _neebi_, for the fat of animals, _weenin_, for oil or grease, _pimmidai_, for broth, _nâbôb_, and for blood, _miskwi_, belong to a very remote era, although all but the first appear to be compounds. Their names for the tinctures or extracts derived from the forest, and used as dyes, or medicines, or merely as agreeable drinks, are mostly founded upon the basis of the word _âbo_, a liquid, although this word is never used alone. Thus--

Shomin-âbo, Wine, From Shomin, a grape, âbo, a liquor. Ishkôdâi-wâbo, Spirits, From Ishkôdâi, fire, &c. Mishimin-âbo, Cider, From Mishimin, an apple, &c. Tôtôsh-âbo, Milk, From Tôtôsh, the female breast, &c. Sheew-âbo, Vinegar, From Sheewun, sour, &c. Annibeesh-âbo, From Annibeeshun, leaves, &c. Ozhibiegun-aubo, From Ozhibiêgai, he writes, &c.

In like manner their names for the various implements and utensils of civilized life, are based upon the word _Jeegun_, one of those primitives, which, although never disjunctively used, denotes, in its modified forms, the various senses implied by our words instrument, contrivance, machine, &c. And by prefixing to this generic a substantive, verb, or adjective, or parts of one or each, an entire new class of words is formed. In these combinations, the vowels e and o are sometimes used as connectives.

Keeshkeebô-jeegun, A saw, From Keeshkeezhun, v. a. to cut. Seeseebô-jeegun, A file, From Seesee, to rub off, &c. Wassakoonen-jeegun, A candle, From Wassakooda, bright, biskoona, flame, &c. Beeseebô-jeegun, A coffee-mill, From Beesâ, fine grains, &c. Minnikwâd-jeegun, A drinking-vessel, From Minnekwâi, he drinks, &c. Tâshkeebôd-jeegun, A saw-mill, From Taushkâ, to split, &c. Mudwâiabeed-jeegun, A violin, From Mudwâwâi, sound, âiâb, a string, &c.

Sometimes this termination is shortened into _gun_, as in the following instances:--

Onâ-gun, A dish. Tikkina-gun, A cradle. Neeba-gun, A bed. Puddukkyi-gun, A fork. Puggimmâ-gun, A war-club. Opwâ-gun, A pipe. Wassâitshie-gun, A window. Wakkyi-gun, A house. Pôdahwâ-gun, A fire-place. Sheema-gun, A lance.

Another class of derivatives is formed from _wyân_, indicating, generally, an undressed skin. Thus--

Muk-wyân, A bear skin, From Mukwah, a bear, and wyaun, a skin. Wazhusk-wyân, A muskrat skin, From Wazhusk, a muskrat, &c. Wabôs-wyân, A rabbit skin, From Wabôs, a rabbit, &c. Neegik-wyân, An otter skin, From Neegih, an otter, &c. Ojeegi-wyân, A fisher skin, From Ojeeg, a fisher, &c. Wabizhais-ewyân, a martin skin, from wabizhais, a martin, &c.

_Wâbiwyân_, a blanket, and _bubbuggiwyân_, a shirt, are also formed from this root. As the termination _wyân_, is chiefly restricted to undressed skins, or peltries, that of _waigin_ is, in like manner, generally applied to dressed skins or to cloths. Thus--

Monido-waigin, Blue cloth, shrouds, From Monido, spirits, &c. Misk-waigin, Red cloth, From Miskwâ, red, &c. Nondâ-waigin, Scarlet. Peezhiki-waigin, A buffalo robe, From Peezhiki, a buffalo, &c. Addik-waigin, A cariboo skin, From Addik, a cariboo, &c. Ozhauwushk-waigin, Green cloth, From Ozhâwushkwâ, green.

An interesting class of substantives is derived from the third person singular of the present indicative of the verb, by changing the vowel sound of the first syllable, and adding the letter d to that of the last, making the terminations in _aid_, _âd_, _eed_, _id_, _ood_. Thus, _Pimmoossâ_, he walks, becomes _pâmmoossâd_, a walker.

aid.

Munnissai, He chops. Mânissaid, A chopper. Ozhibeigai, He writes. Wâzhibeigaid, A writer. Nundowainjeegai, He hunts. Nândowainjeegaid, A hunter.

âd.

Neebâ, He sleeps. Nâbâd, A sleeper. Kwâbahwâ, He fishes (with Kwyâbahwâd, A fisher (with scoop net). scoop net). Puggidowâ, He fishes (with Pâgidowâd, A fisher (with seine). seine).

eed.

Annokee, He works. Anokeed, A worker. Jeessakea, He juggles. Jossakeed, A juggler. Munnigobee, He pulls bark. Mainigobeed, A bark puller.

id.

Neemi, He dances. Nâmid, A dancer. Weesinni, He eats. Wâssinid, An eater. Pimâdizzi, He lives. Paimaudizzid, A living being.

ood.

Nugamoo, He sings. Naigumood, A singer. Keegido, He speaks. Kâgidood, A speaker. Keewonimoo, He lies. Kâwunimood, A liar.

This class of words is rendered plural in _ig_--a termination, which, after _d_ final in the singular, has a soft pronunciation, as if written _jig_. Thus, _Nâmid_, a dancer, _nâmidjig_, dancers.

The derogative form is given to these generic substantives by introducing _ish_, or simply _sh_, in place of the _d_, and changing the latter to _kid_, making the terminations in _ai_, _aishkid_, in _â_, _âshkid_, in _e_, _eeshkid_, in _i_, _ishkid_, and in _oo_, _ooshkid_. Thus, _naindowainjeegaid_, a hunter, is changed to _naindowainjeegaishkid_, a bad or unprofitable hunter. _Naibâd_, a sleeper, is changed to _naibâshkid_, a sluggard. _Jossakeed_, a juggler, to _jossakeeshkid_, a vicious juggler. _Wâsinnid_, an eater, to _wâssinishkid_, a gormandizer. _Kâgidood_, a speaker, _kâgidooshkid_, a babbler. And in these cases the plural is added to the last educed form, making _kâgidooshkidjig_, babblers, &c.

The word _nittâ_, on the contrary, prefixed to those expressions, renders them complimentary. For instance, _nittâ naigumood_, is a fine singer, _nittâ kâgidood_, a ready speaker, &c.

Flexible as the substantive has been shown to be, there are other forms of combination that have not been adverted to--forms, by which it is made to coalesce with the verb, the adjective, and the preposition, producing a numerous class of compound expressions. But it is deemed most proper to defer the discussion of these forms to their several appropriate heads.

Enough has been exhibited to demonstrate its prominent grammatical rules. It is not only apparent that the substantive possesses number and gender, but it also undergoes peculiar modifications to express locality and diminution, to denote adjective qualities and to indicate tense. It exhibits some curious traits connected with the mode of denoting the masculine and feminine. It is modified to express person and to distinguish living from inanimate masses. It is rendered possessive by a peculiar inflection, and provides particles, under the shape either of prefixes or suffixes, separable or inseparable, by which the actor is distinguished from the object--and all this, without changing its proper substantive character, without putting on the aspect of a pseudo adjective, or a pseudo verb. Its changes to produce compounds are, however, its most interesting, its most characteristic trait. Syllable is heaped upon syllable, word upon word, and derivative upon derivative, until its vocabulary is crowded with long and pompous phrases, most formidable to the eye.

So completely transpositive do the words appear, that like chessmen on a board, their elementary syllables can be changed at the will of the player, to form new combinations to meet new contingencies, so long as they are changed in accordance with certain general principles and conventional rules; in the application of which, however, much depends upon the will or the skill of the player. What is most surprising, all these changes and combinations, all these qualifications of the object, and distinctions of the person, the time, and the place, do not supersede the use of adjectives, and pronouns, and verbs, and other parts of speech woven into the texture of the noun, in their elementary and conjunctive forms.

III.

_Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-Adjective._

INQUIRY 3.

Observations on the adjective--Its distinction into two classes denoted by the presence or absence of vitality--Examples of the animates and inanimates--Mode of their conversion into substantives--How pronouns are applied to these derivatives, and the manner of forming compound terms from adjective bases to describe the various natural phenomena--The application of these principles in common conversation, and in the description of natural and artificial objects--Adjectives always preserve the distinction of number--Numerals--Arithmetical capacity of the language--The unit exists in duplicate.

1. It has been remarked that the distinction of words into animates and inanimates, is a principle intimately interwoven throughout the structure of the language. It is, in fact, so deeply imprinted upon its grammatical forms, and is so perpetually recurring, that it may be looked upon, not only as forming a striking peculiarity of the language, but as constituting the fundamental principle of its structure, from which all other rules have derived their limits, and to which they have been made to conform. No class of words appears to have escaped its impress. Whatever concords other laws impose, they all agree, and are made subservient in the establishment of this.

It might appear to be a useless distinction in the adjective, when the substantive is thus marked; but it will be recollected that it is in the plural of the substantive only that the distinction is marked; and we shall, presently have occasion to show that redundancy of forms is, to considerable extent, obviated in practice.

For the origin of the principle itself, we need look only to nature, which endows animate bodies with animate properties and qualities, and _vice versâ_. But it is due to the tribes who speak this language, to have invented one set of adjective symbols to express the ideas peculiarly appropriate to the former, and another set applicable exclusively to the latter; and to have given the words good and bad, black and white, great and small, handsome and ugly, such modifications as are practically competent to indicate the general nature of the objects referred to, whether provided with, or destitute of, the vital principle. And not only so, but, by the figurative use of these forms, to exalt inanimate masses into the class of living beings, or to strip the latter of its properties of life--a principle of much importance to their public speakers.

This distinction is shown in the following examples, in which it will be observed that the inflection _izzi_ generally denotes the personal, and _au_, _un_, or _wud_, the impersonal forms.

ADJ. INANIMATE. ADJ. ANIMATE.

Bad, Monaudud, Monaudizzi. Ugly, Gushkoonaugwud, Gushkoonaugoozzi. Beautiful, Bishegaindaugwud, Bisheguindaugoozzi. Strong, Söngun, Söngizzi. Soft, Nökun, Nökizzi. Hard, Mushkowau, Mushkowizzi. Smooth, Shoiskwau, Shoiskoozzi. Black, Mukkuddäwau, Mukkuddäwizzi. White, Waubishkau, Waubishkizzi. Yellow, Ozahwau, Ozahwizzi. Red, Miskwau, Miskwizzi. Blue, Ozhahwushkwau, Ozhahwushkwizzi. Sour, Sheewun, Sheewizzi. Sweet, Weeshköbun, Weeshköbizzi. Light, Naugun, Naungizzi.

It is not, however, in all cases, by mere modifications of the adjective that these distinctions are expressed. Words totally different in sound, and evidently derived from radically different roots, are, in some few instances, employed; as in the following examples:--

ADJ. INANIMATE. ADJ. ANIMATE.

Good, Onisheshin, Minno. Bad, Monaudud, Mudjee. Large, Mitshau, Mindiddo. Small, Pungee, Uggaushe. Old, Geekau, Gitizzi.

It may be remarked of these forms, that, although the impersonal will, in some instances, take the personal inflections, the rule is not reciprocated, and _minno_, and _mindiddo_, and _gitizzi_, and all words similarly situated, remain unchangeably animates. The word _pungee_ is limited to the expression of quantity, and its correspondent, _uggaushi_, to size or quality. _Kishedä_ (hot) is restricted to the heat of a fire; _keezhautä_, to the heat of the sun. There is still a third term to indicate the natural heat of the body; _kizzizoo_. _Mitshau_ (large) is generally applied to countries, lakes, rivers, &c.; _mindiddo_, to the body; and _gitshee_, indiscriminately. _Onishishin_, and its correspondent, _onishishshä_, signify handsome or fair, as well as good. _Kwonaudy_, a. a., and _kwonaudyewun_, a. i., mean, strictly, handsome, and imply nothing further. _Minno_ is the appropriate personal form for good. _Mudjee_ and _monaudud_ may reciprocally change genders, the first by the addition of _iee_, and the second by altering _ud_ to _izzi_.

Distinctions of this kind are of considerable importance in a practical point of view, and their observance or neglect is noticed with scrupulous exactness by the Indians. The want of inanimate forms to such words as happy, sorrowful, brave, sick, &c., creates no confusion, as inanimate nouns cannot, strictly speaking, take upon themselves such qualities; and when they do--as they sometimes do--by one of those extravagant figures of speech which are used in their tales of transformations, the animate form answers all purposes; for in these tales the whole material creation may be clothed with animation. The rule, as exhibited in practice, is limited, with sufficient accuracy, to the boundaries prescribed by nature.

To avoid a repetition of forms, were the noun and the adjective both to be employed in their usual relation, the latter is endowed with a pronominal or substantive inflection; and the use of the noun in its separate form is thus wholly superseded. Thus, _onishishin_, a. i., and _onishishsha_, a. a., become _wänishishing_, "That which is good or fair," and _wänishishid_, "He who is good or fair." The following examples will exhibit this rule under each of its forms:--

COMPOUND OR NOUN-ADJECTIVE ANIMATE.

Black, Mukkuddawizzi, Mäkuddäwizzid. White, Waubishkizzi, Wyaubishkizzid. Yellow, Ozahwizzi, Wäzauwizzid. Red, Miskwizzi, Mäskoozzid. Strong, Söngizzi, Swöngizzid.

NOUN-ADJECTIVE INANIMATE.

Black, Mukkuddäwau, Mäkuddäwaug. White, Waubishkau, Wyaubishkaug. Yellow, Ozahwau, Wäzhauwaug. Red, Miskwau, Maiskwaug.

The animate forms, in these examples, will be recognized as exhibiting a further extension of the rule, mentioned in the preceding Inquiry, by which substantives are formed from the indicative of the verb by a permutation of the vowels; and these forms are likewise rendered plural in the manner there mentioned. They also undergo changes to indicate the various persons. For instance, _onishisha_ is thus declined to mark the person:--

Wänishish-eyaun, I (am) good or fair. Wänishish-eyun, Thou (art) good or fair. Wänishish-id, He (is) good or fair. Wänishish-eyaung, We (are) good or fair. (ex.) Wänishish-eyung, We (are) good or fair. (in.) Wänishish-eyaig, Ye (are) good or fair. Wänishish-idjig, They (are) good or fair.

The inanimate forms, being without person, are simply rendered plural by _in_, changing _maiskwaug_ to _maiskwaug-in_, &c. &c. The verbal signification which these forms assume, as indicated in the words am, art, is, are, is to be sought in the permutative change of the first syllable. Thus, _o_ is changed to _wä_, _muk_ to _mäk_, _waub_ to _wy-aub_, _ozau_ to _wäzau_, _misk_ to _maisk_, &c. The pronoun, as is usual in the double compounds, is formed wholly by the inflections _eyaun_, _eyun_, &c.

The strong tendency of the adjective to assume a personal or pronomico-substantive form, leads to the employment of many words in a particular or exclusive sense; and, in any future practical attempts with the language, it will be found greatly to facilitate its acquisition, if the adjectives are arranged in distinct classes, separated by this characteristic principle of their application. The examples we have given are chiefly those which may be considered strictly animate or inanimate, admit of double forms, and are of general use. Many of the examples recorded in the original manuscripts employed in these inquiries, are of a more concrete character, and, at the same time, a more limited use. Thus, _shaugwewe_ is a weak person; _nökaugumme_, a weak drink; _nökaugwud_, a weak or soft piece of wood. _Sussägau_ is fine, but can only be applied to personal appearance; _beesau_, indicates fine grains. _Keewushkwä_ is giddy, and _keewushkwäbee_, giddy with drink--both being restricted to the third person. _Söngun_ and _songizzi_ are the personal and impersonal forms of strong, as given above, but _mushkowaugumme_ is strong drink. In like manner, the two words for hard, as above, are restricted to solid substances. _Sunnuhgud_ is hard (to endure). _Waindud_ is easy (to perform). _Söngodää_ is brave; _shaugedää_, cowardly; _keezhinghowizzi_, active; _kizheekau_, swift; _onaunegoozzi_, lively; _minwaindum_, happy; _gushkaindum_, sorrowful; but all these forms are confined to the third person of the indicative, singular. _Pibbigwun_ is a rough or knotted substance; _pubbiggozzi_, a rough person. _Keenwau_ is long or tall (any solid mass). _Kaynozid_ is a tall person. _Tahkozid_ a short person. _Wassayau_ is light; _wassaubizzoo_, the light of the eye; _wasshauzhä_, the light of a star or any luminous body. _Keenau_ is sharp; _keenaubikud_, a sharp knife or stone. _Keezhaubikeday_ is hot metal, a hot stove, &c. _Keezhaugummeday_ is hot water. _Uubudgeetön_ is useful, a useful thing. _Wauweeug_ is frivolous, anything frivolous in word or deed. _Tubbushish_ appears to be a general term for low. _Ishpimming_ is high in the air. _Ishpau_ is applied to any high fixture, as a house, &c. _Ishpaubikau_ is a high rock. _Taushkaubikau_, a split rock.

These combinations and limitations meet the inquirer at every step; they are the current phrases of the language; they present short, ready, and often beautiful modes of expression; and, as they shed light both upon the idiom and genius of the language, I shall not scruple to add further examples and illustrations. Ask a Chippewa the name for a rock, and he will answer _awzhebik_. The generic import of _awbik_ has been explained. Ask him the name for red rock, and he will answer _miskwaubik_; for white rock, and he will answer _waubaubik_; for black rock, _mukkuddäwaubik_; for yellow rock, _ozahwaubik_; for green rock, _ozhahwushkwaubik_; for bright rock, _wassayaubik_; for smooth rock, _shoishkwaubik_, &c.--compounds in which the words red, white, black, yellow, &c., unite with _aubik_. Pursue this inquiry, and the following forms will be elicited:--

Impersonal.

Miskwaubik-ud, It (is) a red rock. Waububik-ud, It (is) a white rock. Mukkudäwaubik-ud, It (is) a black rock. Ozahwaubik-ud, It (is) a yellow rock. Wassayaubik-ud, It (is) a bright rock. Shoiskwaubik-ud, It (is) a smooth rock.

Personal.

Miskwaubik-izzi, He (is) a red rock. Waububik-izzi, He (is) a white rock. Mukkudäwaubik-izzi, He (is) a black rock. Ozahwaubik-izzi, He (is) a yellow rock. Wassayaubik-izzi, He (is) a bright rock. Shoiskwaubik-izzi, He (is) a smooth rock.

Add _bun_ to these terms, and they are made to have passed away; prefix _tah_ to them, and their future appearance is indicated. The word "is" in the translations, although marked with parentheses, is not deemed wholly gratuitous. There is, strictly speaking, an idea of existence given to these compounds, by the particle _au_, in _aubic_, which seems to be indirectly a derivative from that great and fundamental root of the language _Iau_. _Bik_ is apparently the radix of the expression for "rock."

Let this mode of interrogation be continued, and extended to other adjectives, or the same adjectives applied to other objects, and results equally regular and numerous will be obtained. _Minnis_, we shall be told is an island; _miskominnis_, a red island; _mukkuddäminnis_, a black island; _waubeminnis_, a white island, &c. _Annokwut_, is a cloud; _miskwaunakwut_, a red cloud; _mukkuddawukwut_, a black cloud; _waubahnokwut_, a white cloud; _ozahwushkwahnakwut_, a blue cloud, &c. _Neebe_ is the specific term for water; but is not generally used in combination with the adjective. The word _guma_, like _aubo_, appears to be a generic term for water, or potable liquids. Hence, the following terms:--

Gitshee, Great. Gitshiguma, Great water. Nokun, Weak. Nökauguma, Weak drink. Mushkowau, Strong. Mushkowauguma, Strong drink. Weeshkobun, Sweet. Weeshkobauguma, Sweet drink. Sheewun, Sour. Sheewauguma, Sour drink. Weesugun, Bitter. Weesugauguma, Bitter drink. Minno, Good. Minwauguma, Good drink. Monaudud, Bad. Mahnauguma, Bad drink. Miskwau, Red. Miskwauguma, Red drink. Ozahwau, Yellow. Ozahwauguma, Yellow drink. Weenun, Dirty. Weenauguma, Dirty water. Peenud, Clean. Peenauguma, Clean water.

From _minno_, and from _monaudud_, good and bad, are derived the following terms: _Minnopogwud_, it tastes well; _minnopogoozzi_, he tastes well; _mawzhepogwud_, it tastes bad; _mawzhepogoozzi_, he tastes bad. _Minnomaugwud_, it smells good; _minnomaugoozzi_, he smells good;_ mauzhemaugud_, it smells bad; _mauzhemaugoozzi_, he smells bad. The inflections _gwud_, and _izzi_, here employed, are clearly indicative, as in other combinations, of the words _it_ and _him_.

_Baimwa_, is sound; _baimwäwa_, the passing sound; _minwäwa_, a pleasant sound; _maunwäwa_, a disagreeable sound; _mudwayaushkau_, the sound of waves dashing on the shore; _mudwayaunnemud_, the sound of winds; _mudwayaukooshkau_, the sound of falling trees; _mudwäkumigishin_, the sound of a person falling upon the earth; _mudwaysin_, the sound of any inanimate mass falling on the earth. These examples might be continued _ad infinitum_. Every modification of circumstances, almost every peculiarity of thought, is expressed by some modification of the orthography. Enough has been given to prove that the adjective combines itself with the substantive, the verb, and the pronoun, that the combinations thus produced are numerous, afford concentrated modes of conveying ideas, and oftentimes, happy turns of expression. Numerous and prevalent as these forms are, they do not, however, preclude the use of adjectives in their simple forms. The use of the one or the other appears to be generally at the option of the speaker. In most cases brevity or euphony dictates the choice. Usage results from these applications of the principles. There may be rules resting upon a broader basis; but if so, they do not appear to be very obvious. Perhaps the simple adjectives are often employed before verbs and nouns, in the first and second persons singular.

Ningee minno neebau-nabun, I have slept well. Ningee minno weesin, I have eaten a good meal. Ningee minno pimmoossay, I have walked well, or a good distance. Kägät minno geezhigud, It (is) a very pleasant day. Kwanaudy ningödahs, I have a handsome garment. Ke minno iau nuh, Are you well? Auneende ain deyun, What ails you? Keezhamonedo aupädush shäwainemik, God prosper you. Aupädush shäwaindaugoozzegun, Good luck attend you. Aupädush nau kinwainzh pimmaudizziyun, May you live long. Onauneegoozzin, Be (thou) cheerful. Ne minwaindum waubumenaun, I (am) glad to see you. Kwanaudj kweeweezains, A pretty boy. Kägät söngedää, He (is) a brave man. Kägät onishishsha, She (is) handsome. Gitshee kinözee, He (is) very tall. Uggausau bäwizzi, She (is) slender. Gitshee sussaigau, He (is) fine dressed. Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug meegwunug, They (are) beautiful feathers. Ke daukoozzinuh, Are you sick? Monaudud muundun muskeekee, This (is) bad medicine. Monaudud aindauyun, My place of dwelling (is) bad. Aindauyaun mitshau, My place of dwelling (is) large. Ne mittigwaub onishishsha, My bow (is) good. Ne bikwukön monaududön, But my arrows (are) bad. Ne minwaindaun appaukoozzegun, I love mild or mixed tobacco. Kauweekau neezhikay ussämau ne But I never smoke pure tobacco. suggus-wannausee, Monaudud maishkowaugumig, Strong drink (is) bad. Keeguhgee budjeëgonaun, It makes us foolish. Gitshee Monedo neebe ogee özhetön, The Great Spirit made water. Ininewug dush ween ishködäwaubo ogee But man made whiskey. oz-hetönahwau,

These expressions are put down promiscuously, embracing verbs and nouns as they presented themselves, and without any effort to support the opinion, which may or may not be correct, that the elementary forms of the adjectives are most commonly required before verbs and nouns in the first and second persons. The English expression is thrown into Indian in the most natural manner, and, of course, without always giving adjective for adjective or noun for noun. Thus, God is rendered, not _monedo_, but _Geezha monedo, merciful spirit_. Good luck is rendered by the compound phrase, _shäwaindaugoozzegun_, indicating in a very general sense, the influence of kindness or benevolence on _success in life_. _Söngedää_ is, alone, _a brave man_, and the word _kägät_ prefixed, is an adverb. In the expression "mild tobacco," the adjective is entirely dispensed with in the Indian, the sense being sufficiently rendered by the compound noun _appaukoozzegun_, which always means the Indian weed or smoking mixture. _Ussämau_, on the contrary, without the adjective, signifies pure tobacco. _Bikwukön_, signifies blunt or lumpy-headed arrows; _assowaun_, is the barbed arrow. _Kwonaudj kweeweezains_ means, not simply "pretty boy," but _pretty little boy_; and there is no mode of using the word boy but in this diminutive form, the word itself being a derivative _kewewe coryugal_, with the regular diminutive in _ains_. _Onauneegoozzin_, embraces the pronoun, verb, and adjective, _be thou cheerful_. In the last phrase of the examples, "man" is rendered men (_inineewuy_) in the translation, as the term _man_ cannot be employed in the general plural sense it conveys in this connection in the original. The word "whiskey" is rendered by the compound phrase, _ishködawaubo_, literally _fire-liquor_, a generic for all kinds of ardent spirits.

These aberrations from the literal terms will convey some conceptions of the difference of the two idioms, although, from the limited nature and object of the examples, they will not indicate the full extent of the difference. In giving anything like the spirit of the original, much greater deviations in the written forms must appear. And in fact, not only the structure of the language, but the mode and _order of thought_ of the Indians is so essentially different, that any attempts to preserve the English idiom, to give letter for letter, and word for word, must go far to render the translation pure nonsense.

2. Varied as the adjective is in its changes, it has no comparative inflection. A Chippewa cannot say that one substance is hotter or colder than another, or of two or more substances unequally heated, that this or that is the hottest or coldest, without employing adverbs or accessory adjectives; and it is accordingly by adverbs and accessory adjectives that the degrees of comparison are expressed.

_Pimmaudizziwin_, is a very general substantive expression, indicating the _tenor of being or life_. _Izzhewäbizziwin_, is a term near akin to it, but more appropriately applied to the _acts_, _conduct_, _manner_, or _personal deportment_ of life. Hence the expressions--

Nem bimmaudizziwin, My tenor of life. Ke bimmaudizziwin, Thy tenor of life. O pimmaudizziwin, His tenor of life, &c. Nin dizhewäbizziwin, My personal deportment. Ke dizhewäbizziwin, Thy personal deportment. O Izzhewäbizziwin, His personal deportment, &c.

To form the positive degree of comparison from these terms, _minno_, good, and _mudjee_, bad, are introduced between the pronoun and verb, giving rise to some permutations of the vowels and consonants, which affect the sound only. Thus--

Ne minno pimmaudizziwin, My good tenor of life. Ke minno pimmaudizziwin, Thy good tenor of life. Minno pimmaudizziwin, His good tenor of life. Ne mudjee pimmaudizziwin, My bad tenor of life. Ke mudjee pimmaudizziwin, Thy bad tenor of life. Mudjee pimmaudizziwin, His bad tenor of life.

To place these forms in the comparative degree, _nahwudj_, _more_, is prefixed to the adjective; and the superlative is denoted by _mahmowee_, an adverb or an adjective as it is variously applied, but the meaning of which is, in this connection, _most_. The degrees of comparison may be, therefore, set down as follows:--

Positive, Kishedä. Hot (restricted to the heat of a fire), Comparative, Nahwudj kishedä. More hot, Superlative, Mahmowee kishedä. Most hot.

Your manner of life is good, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin onishishin. Your manner of life is better, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin nahwudj onishishin. Your manner of life is best, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin mahwoweé onishishin. His manner of life is best, Odizzhewäbizziwin mahmowee onishishinine. Little Turtle was brave, Mikkenoköns söngedääbun. Tecumseh was braver, Tecumseh nahwudj söngedääbun. Pontiac was bravest, Pontiac mahmowee söngedääbun.

3. The adjective assumes a negative form when it is preceded by the adverb. Thus, the phrase _songedää_, he is brave, is changed to _kahween söngedääsee_, he is not brave.

POSITIVE.

Neebwaukah, He is wise. Kwonaudjewe, She is handsome. Oskineegee, He is young. Shaugweewee, He is feeble. Geekkau, He is old. Mushkowizzi, He is strong.

NEGATIVE.

Kahween neebwaukah-see, He is not wise. Kahween kwonaudjewee-see, She is not handsome. Kahween oskineegee-see, He is not young. Kahween Shaugweewee-see, He is not feeble. Kahween Geekkau-see, He is not old. Kahween Mushkowizzi-see, He is not strong.

From this rule the indeclinable adjectives, by which is meant those adjectives which do not put on the personal and impersonal forms by inflection, but consist of radically different roots, form exceptions.

Are you sick? Ke dahkoozzi nuh? You are not sick! Kahween ke dahkoozzi-see. I am happy, Ne minwaindum. I am unhappy, Kahween ne minwainduz-see. His manner of life is bad, Mudjee izzhewabizzi. His manner of life is not bad, Kahween mudjee izzhewabizzi-see. It is large, Mitshau muggud. It is not large, Kahween mitshau-seenön.

In these examples, the declinable adjectives are rendered negative in _see_; the indeclinable, remain as simple adjuncts to the verbs; and the _latter_ put on the negative form.

4. In the hints and remarks which have now been furnished respecting the Chippewa adjective, its powers and inflections have been shown to run parallel with those of the substantive, in its separation into animates and inanimates; in having the pronominal inflections; in taking an inflection for tense--a topic which, by the way, has been very cursorily passed over--and in the numerous modifications to form the compounds. This parallelism has also been intimated to hold good with respect to number--a subject deeply interesting in itself, as it has its analogy only in the ancient languages--and it was therefore deemed best to defer giving examples, till they could be introduced without abstracting the attention from other points of discussion.

_Minno_ and _mudjee_, good and bad, being of the limited number of personal adjectives which modern usage permits being applied, although often improperly applied to inanimate objects, they, as well as a few other adjectives, form exceptions to the use of number. Whether we say "a good man" or "a bad man," "good men" or "bad men," the words _minno_ and _mudjee_ remain the same. But all the declinable and coalescing adjectives--adjectives which join on, and, as it were, _melt into_ the body of the substantive--take the usual plural inflections, and are governed by the same rules in regard to their use, as the substantive; personal adjectives requiring personal plurals, &c.

ADJECTIVES ANIMATE.

Singular.

Onishishewe mishemin, Good apple. Kwonaudjewe eekwä, Handsome woman. Songedää inine, Brave man. Bishegaindaugoozzi peenasee, Beautiful bird. Ozahwizzi ahmo, Yellow bee.

Plural.

Onishishewe-wug mishemin-ug, Good apples. Kwonaudjewe-wug eekwä-wug, Handsome women. Songedää-wug inine-wug, Brave men. Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug peenasee-wug, Beautiful birds. Ozahwizzi-wug ahm-ög, Yellow bees.

ADJECTIVES INANIMATE.

Singular.

Onishishin mittig, Good tree. Kwonaudj tshemaun, Handsome canoe. Monaudud ishkoda, Bad fire. Weeshkobun aidetaig, Sweet fruit.

Plural.

Onishishin-ön mittig-ön, Good trees. Kwonaudjewun-ön tshemaun-un, Handsome canoes. Monaudud-ön ishkod-än, Bad fires. Weeshkobun-ön aidetaig-in, Sweet fruits.

Peculiar circumstances are supposed to exist in order to render the use of the adjective, in this connection with the noun, necessary and proper. But, in ordinary instances, as the narration of events, the noun would precede the adjective; and oftentimes, particularly where a second allusion to objects previously named became necessary, the compound expressions would be used. Thus, instead of saying "the yellow bee," _wazzahwizzid_ would distinctly convey the idea of that insect, _had the species been before named_. Under similar circumstances, _kain-waukoozzid_, _agausheid_, _söngaunemud_, _mushkowaunemud_, would respectively signify, "a tall tree," "a small fly," "a strong wind," "a hard wind." And these terms would become plural in _jig_, which, as before mentioned, is a mere modification of _ig_, one of the five general animate plural inflections of the language.

_Kägät wahwinaudj abbenöjeeug_, is an expression indicating they are _very handsome children_. But _beeweezheewug monetösug_ denotes _small insects_. _Minno neewugizzi_, is "good tempered," "he is good tempered." _Mawshininewugizzi_, is "bad tempered," both having their plural in _wug_. _Nin nuneenahwaindum_, "I am lonesome." _Nin nuneenahwaindaumin_, "we (excluding you) are lonesome." _Waweea_, is a term generally used to express the adjective sense of round. _Kwy_, is the scalp; _weewikwy_, his scalp. Hence, _weewukwon_, "hat," _wayweewukwonid_, "a wearer of the hat;" and its plural, _wayweewukwonidjig_, "wearers of the hats"--the usual term applied to Europeans, or white men generally. These examples go to prove that under every form in which the adjective can be traced, whether in its simplest or most compound state, it is susceptible of number.

The numerals of the language are converted into adverbs by the inflection _ing_, making one, _once_, &c. The unit exists in duplicate.

Päzhik, One, _general unit_. } Aubeding, Once. Ingoot, One, _numerical unit_. } Neesh, Two. Neeshing, Twice. Niswee, Three. Nissing, Thrice. Neewin, Four. Neewing, Four times. Naunun, Five. Nauning, Five times. N'goodwaswä, Six. N'goodwautsking, Six times. Neeshwauswä, Seven. Neeshwautshing, Seven times. Shwauswe, Eight. Shwautshing, Eight times. Shongusswe, Nine. Shongutshing, Nine times. Metauswe, Ten. Meetaushing, Ten times.

These inflections can be carried as high as they can compute numbers. They count decimally. After reaching ten, they repeat, ten and one, ten and two, &c. to twenty. Twenty is a compound signifying two tens; thirty, three tens, &c.; a mode which is carried up to one hundred--_n'goodwak_. _Wak_ then becomes the word of denomination, combining with the names of the digits until they reach a thousand, _meetauswauk_, literally _ten hundred_. Here a new compound term is introduced, made by prefixing twenty to the last denominator, _neeshtonnah duswak_, which doubles the last term, thirty triples it, forty quadruples it, &c. till the computation reaches to ten thousand, _n'goodwak dushing n'goodwak_, one hundred times one hundred. This is the probable extent of all certain computation. The term _gitshee_ (great), prefixed to the last denomination, leaves the number indefinite.

There is no form of the numerals corresponding to second, third, fourth, &c. They can only further say, _nittum_, first, and _ishkwaudj_, last.

IV.

_Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and Properties of the Pronoun._

INQUIRY 4.

Nature and principles of the pronoun--Its distinction into preformative and subformative classes--Personal pronouns--The distinction of an inclusive and exclusive form in the number of the first person plural--Modifications of the personal pronouns to imply existence, individuality, possession, ownership, position, and other accidents--Declension of pronouns to answer the purpose of the auxiliary verbs--Subformatives, how employed to mark the persons--Relative pronouns considered--Their application to the causative verbs--Demonstrative pronouns--Their separation into two classes, animates and inanimates--Example of their use.

Pronouns are buried, if we may so say, in the structure of the verb. In tracing them back to their primitive forms, through the almost infinite variety of modifications which they assume, in connection with the verb, substantive, and adjective, it will facilitate analysis to group them into preformative and subformative, which include the terms that have already been made use of--pronominal prefixes, and suffixes--and which admit of the further distinction of separable and inseparable. By separable, is intended those forms which have a meaning by themselves, and are thus distinguished from the inflective and subformative pronouns, and pronominal particles, significant only in connection with another word.

1. Of the first class, are the personal pronouns _Neen_ (I), _Keen_ (Thou), and _Ween_ or _O_ (He or She). They are declined, to form the plural persons, in the following manner:--

I, Neen. We, Keen owind. (in.) We, Neen owind. (ex.) Thou, Keen. Ye, Keen owau. He or she, Ween or O. They, Ween owau.

Here the plural persons are formed by a numerical inflection of the singular. The double plural of the first person, of which both the rule and examples have been incidentally given in the remarks on the substantive, is one of those peculiarities of the language which may, perhaps, serve to aid in a comparison of it with other dialects, kindred and foreign. As a mere conventional agreement for denoting whether the person addressed be included or excluded, it may be regarded as an advantage to the language. It enables the speaker, by the change of a single consonant, to make a full and clear discrimination, and relieves the narration from doubts and ambiguity, where doubts and ambiguity would otherwise often exist. On the other hand, by accumulating distinctions, it loads the memory with grammatical forms, and opens a door for improprieties of speech. We are not aware of any inconveniences in the use of a general plural; but, in the Indian, it would produce confusion. And it is, perhaps, to that cautious desire of personal discrimination, which is so apparent in the structure of the language, that we should look for the reason of the duplicate forms of this word. Once established, however, and both the distinction, and the necessity of a constant and strict attention to it, are very obvious and striking. How shall he address the Deity? If he say, "Our Father who art in heaven," the inclusive form of _our_ makes the Almighty one of the suppliants, or family. If he use the exclusive form, it throws him out of the family, and may embrace every living being but the Deity. Yet, neither of these forms can be used very well in prayer, as they cannot be applied directly _to_ the object addressed. It is only when speaking _of_ the Deity, under the name of father, to other persons, that the inclusive and exclusive forms of the word _our_ can be used. The dilemma may be obviated by the use of a compound descriptive phrase, _Wä ö se mig o yun_, signifying, "Thou, who art the father of all," or "universal father." In practice, however, the question is cut short by those persons who have embraced Christianity. It has seemed to them that, by the use of either of the foregoing terms, the Deity would be thrown into too remote a relation to them; and I have observed that in prayer they invariably address Him by the term used by children for the father of a family--that is, _nosa_, "my father."

The other personal pronouns undergo some peculiar changes when employed as preformatives before nouns and verbs, which it is important to remark. Thus _neen_, is sometimes rendered _ne_, or _nin_, and sometimes _nim_. _Keen_, is rendered _ke_, or _kin_. In compound words, the mere signs of the first and second pronouns, _N_ and _K_, are employed. The use of _ween_ is limited; and the third person, singular and plural, is generally indicated by the sign _O_.

The particle _suh_, added to the complete forms of the disjunctive pronouns, imparts a verbal sense to them; and appears, in this instance, to be a succedaneum for the substantive verb. Thus _Neen_, I, becomes _neensuh_, it is I. _Keen_, thou, becomes _keensuh_, it is thou; and _ween_, he or she, _weensuh_, it is he or she. This particle may be also added to the plural forms.

Keenowind suh, It is we. (in.) Neenowind suh, It is we. (ex.) Keenowau suh, It is ye, or you. Weenowau suh, It is they.

If the word _aittah_, be substituted for _suh_, a set of adverbial phrases are formed:--

Neen aittah, I only. Neen aittah wind, We, &c. (ex.) Keen aittah wind, We, &c. (in.) Keen aittah, Thou only. Keen aittah wau, You, &c. Ween aittah, He or she only. Ween aittah wau, They, &c.

In like manner, _nittum_, first, and _ishkwaudj_, last, give rise to the following arrangement of the pronoun:--

Neen nittum, I first. Keen nittum, You or thou first. Ween nittum, He or she first. Keen nittum ewind, We first. (in.) Neen nittum ewind, We first. (ex.) Keen nittum ewau, Ye or you first. Ween nittum ewau, They first.

ISHKWAUDJ.

Neen ishkwaudj, I last. Keen ishkwaudj, Thou last. Ween ishkwaudj, He or she last. Keenowind ishkwaudj, We last. (in.) Neenowind ishkwaudj, We last. (ex.) Keenowau ishkwaudj, Ye or you last. Weenowau ishkwaudj, They last.

The disjunctive forms of the pronoun are also sometimes preserved before verbs and adjectives.

NEEZHIKA. Alone, (_an._)

Neen neezhika, I alone. Keen neezhika, Thou alone. Ween neezhika, He or she alone. Keenowind neezhika, We alone. (in.) Neenowind neezhika, We alone. (ex.) Keenowau neezhika, Ye or you alone. Weenowau neezhika, They alone.

To give these expressions a verbal form, the substantive verb, with its pronominal modifications, must be superadded. For instance, _I am_ alone, &c. is thus rendered:--

Neen neezhika nindyau, I am alone + aumin. Keen neezhika keedyau, Thou art alone + aum. Ween neezhika iyau, He or she is alone, &c. + wug.

In the subjoined examples, the noun OW, body, is changed to a verb, by the permutation of the vowel, changing OW, to AUW; which last takes the letter _d_ before it when the pronoun is prefixed:--

I am a man, Neen nin dauw. Thou art a man, Keen ke dauw. He is a man, Ween ah weeh. We are men, (in.) Ke dauw we min. We are men, (ex.) Ne dauw we min. Ye are men, Ke dauw mim. They are men, Weenowau ah weeh wug.

In the translation of these expressions, "man" is used as synonymous with "person." If the specific term _inine_ had been introduced, in the original, the meaning thereby conveyed would be, in this particular connection, "I am a man," with respect to _courage_, &c. in opposition to effeminacy. It would not be simply declarative of _corporeal existence_, but of existence in a _particular state or condition_.

In the following phrases, the modified forms, or the signs only, of the pronouns are used:

N'debaindaun, I own it. Ke debaindaun, Thou ownst it. O debaindaun, He or she owns it. N'debaindaum-in, We own it. (ex.) Ke debaindaum-in, We own it. (in.) Ke debaindaun-ewau, Ye own it. O debaindaun-ewau, They own it.

These examples are cited as exhibiting the manner in which the _prefixed_ and preformative pronouns are employed, both in their full and contracted forms. To denote possession, nouns specifying the things possessed are required; and, what would not be anticipated had not full examples of this species of declension been given in another place, the purposes of distinction are not affected by a simple change of the pronoun, as _I_ to _mine_, &c., but by a subformative inflection of the _noun_, which is thus made to have a reflective operation upon the pronoun speaker. It is believed that sufficient examples of this rule, in all the modifications of inflection, have been given under the head of the substantive. But as the substantives employed to elicit these modifications were exclusively _specific_ in their meaning, it, may be proper here, in further illustration of an important principle, to present a generic substantive under their compound forms.

I have selected for this purpose one of the primitives. IE-AU´, is the abstract term for matter. It is in the animate form. Its inanimate correspondent is IE-EE´. These are two important roots. And they are found in combination, in a very great number of derivative words. It will be sufficient here, to show their connection with the pronoun, in the production of a class of terms in very general use.

Animate Forms.

Possessive.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nin dyë aum, Mine. Nin dyë auminaun, Ours. (ex.) Ke dyë auminaun, Ours. (in.) Ke dyë aum, Thine. Ke dyë aumewau, Yours.

Objective.

O dyë aum-un, His or Hers. O dyë aumewaun, Theirs.

Inanimate Forms.

Possessive.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nin dyë eem, Mine. Nin dyë eeminaun, Ours. (ex.) Ke dyë eeminaun, Ours. (in.) Ke dyë eem, Thine. Ke dyë eemewau, Yours.

Objective.

O dyë eem. His or Hers. O dyë eemewau, Theirs. (pos. in.)

In these forms the noun is singular throughout. To render it plural, as well as the pronoun, the appropriate general plurals _ug_ and _un_, or _ig_ and _in_, must be superadded. But it must be borne in mind, in making these additions, "that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns (which have no objective case), forms the objective case to animate, which have no number in the third person." (p. 461.) The particle _un_, therefore, which is the appropriate plural for the inanimate nouns in these examples, is only the objective mark of the animate.

The plural of I, is _naun_, the plural of thou and he, _wau_. But as these inflections would not coalesce smoothly with the possessive inflections, the connective vowels _i_ and _e_ are prefixed, making the plural of I, _inaun_, and of thou, &c., _ewau_.

If we strike from these declensions the root IE, leaving its animate and inanimate forms AU and EE, and adding the plural of the noun, we shall then, taking the _animate_ declension as an instance, have the following formula of the pronominal declensions:

---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- Pronoun singular. | Place of the noun. | | Possessive inflection. | | | Objective inflection to the noun singular. | | | | Connective vowel. | | | | | Plural inflection of the | | | | | pronoun. | | | | | | Objective inflection, | | | | | | noun plural. | | | | | | | Plural of the noun. ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- Ne | | aum | | i | naun | | ig Ke | | aum | | e | wau | | g O | | aum | un | | | | O | | aum | | e | wau | n | ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+----

To render this formula of general use, six variations (five in addition to the above) of the possessive inflection are required, corresponding to the six classes of substantives, whereby _aum_ would be changed to _äm_, _eem_, _im_, _öm_, and _oom_, conformably to the examples heretofore given in treating of the substantive. The objective inflection would also be sometimes changed to _een_, and sometimes to _oan_.

Having thus indicated the mode of distinguishing the person, number, relation, and gender, or what is deemed its technical equivalent, the mutations words undergo, not to mark the distinctions of _sex_, but the presence or absence of _vitality_, I shall now advert to the inflections which the pronouns take for _tense_, or rather to form the auxiliary verbs, have, had, shall, will, may, &c.; a very curious and important principle, and one which clearly demonstrates that no part of speech has escaped the transforming genius of the language. Not only are the three great modifications of time accurately marked in the verbal form of the Chippewas, but, by the inflection of the pronoun, they are enabled to indicate some of the oblique tenses, and thereby to conjugate their verbs with accuracy and precision.

The particle _gee_ added to the first, second, and third person singular, of the present tense, changes them to the perfect past, rendering I, thou, he, I did, have, or had; thou didst, hast, or hadst; he or she did, have, or had. If _gah_ be substituted for _gee_, the first future tense is formed, and the perfect past added to the first future, forms the conditional future. As the eye may prove an auxiliary in the comprehension of forms which are not familiar, the following tabular arrangement of them is presented.

First person, I.

Nin gee, I did, have, had. Nin gah, I shall, will. Nin gah gee, I shall have, will have.

Second person, Thou.

Ke gee, Thou didst, hast, hadst. Ke gah, Thou shalt, wilt. Ke gah gee, Thou shalt have, wilt have.

Third person, He or She.

O gee, He or she did, have, had. O gah, He or she did, have, had. O gah gee, He or she shall have, will have.

The present and imperfect tense of the potential mood is formed by _dau_, and the perfect by _gee_ suffixed, as in other instances.

First person, I.

Nin dau, I may, can, &c. Nin dau gee, I may have, can have, &c.

Second person, Thou.

Ke dau, Thou mayst, canst, &c. Ke dau gee, Thou mayst have, canst have, &c.

Third person, He or She.

O dau, He or she may, can, &c. O dau gee, He or she may have, can have, &c.

In conjugating the verbs through the plural person, the singular terms for the pronoun remain, and they are rendered plural by a retrospective action of the pronominal inflections of the verb. In this manner the pronoun-verb auxiliary has a general application, and the necessity of double forms is avoided.

The preceding observations are confined to the formative or _prefixed_ pronouns. The inseparable suffixed or subformative are as follows:--

Yaun, My. Yun, Thy. Id or d, His or hers. Yaung, Our. (ex.) Yung, Our. (in.) Yaig, Your. Waud, Their.

These pronouns are exclusively employed as suffixes, and as suffixes to the descriptive compound substantives, adjectives, and verbs. Both the rule and examples have been stated under the head of the substantives, p. 463, and adjectives, p. 492. Their application to the verb will be shown as we proceed.

2. _Relative Pronouns._--In a language which provides for the distinction of person by particles prefixed or suffixed to the verb, it will scarcely be expected that separate and independent relative pronouns should exist, or if such are to be found, their use, as separate parts of speech, must, it will have been anticipated, be quite limited; limited to simple interrogatory forms of expression, and not applicable to the indicative or declaratory. Such will be found to be the fact in the language under review; and it will be perceived from the subjoined examples, that in all instances requiring the relative pronoun _who_, other than the simple interrogatory forms, this relation is indicated by the inflections of the verb, or adjective, &c. Nor does there appear to be any declension of the separate pronoun corresponding to _whose_ and _whom_.

The word _Ahwaynain_, may be said to be uniformly employed in the sense of _who_, under the limitations we have mentioned. For instance--

Who is there? Ahwaynain e-mah ai-aud? Who spoke? Ahwaynain kau keegoedood? Who told you? Ahwaynain kau weendumoak? Who are you? Ahwaynain iau we yun? Who sent you? Ahwaynain waynönik? Who is your father? Ahwaynain kös? Who did it? Ahwaynain kau tödung? Whose dog is it? Ahwaynain way dyid? Whose pipe is that? Ahwaynain döpwaugunid en-eu? Whose lodge is it? Ahwaynain way weegewomid? Whom do you seek? Ahwaynain nain dau wau bumud? Whom have you here? Ahwaynain oh-amau _ai_ auwaud?

Not the slightest variation is made in these phrases between who, whose, and whom.

Should we wish to change the interrogative, and to say he who is there, he who spoke, he who told you, &c., the separable personal pronoun _ween_ (he) must be used in lieu of the relative; and the following forms will be elicited:--

Ween, kau unnönik, He (who) sent you. Ween, kau geedood, He (who) spoke. Ween, _ai_-aud e-mah, He (who) is there. Ween, kau weendumoak, He (who) told you. Ween, kau tödung, He (who) did it, &c.

If we object that, in these forms, there is no longer the relative pronoun _who_, the sense being simply he sent you, he spoke, &c., it is replied that, if it be intended only to say he sent you, &c., and not he _who_ sent you, &c., the following forms are used:--

Ke gee unnönig, He (sent) you. Ainnözhid, He (sent) me. Ainnönaud, He (sent) him. Iau e-mau, He is there. Ke geedo, He (spoke). Ke gee weendumaug, He (told) you. Ke to dum, He did it.

We reply to this answer of the native speaker, that the particle _kau_ prefixed to a verb, denotes the past tense; that in the former series of terms in which this particle appears, the verbs are in the perfect indicative, and in the latter, they are in the present indicative, marking the difference only between _sent_ and _send_, _spoke_ and _speak_, &c.; and that there is absolutely no relative pronoun in either series of terms. We further observe, that the personal pronoun _ween_, prefixed to the first set of terms, may be prefixed, with equal propriety, to the second set, and that its use or disuse is perfectly optional with the speaker, as he may wish to give additional energy or emphasis to the expression. To these positions, after reflection, discussion, and examination, we receive an assent, and thus the uncertainty is terminated.

We now wish to apply the principle thus elicited to verbs causative, and to other compound terms--to the adjective verbs, for instance--and to the other verbal compound expressions, in which the objective and the nominative persons are incorporated as a part of the verb, and are not prefixes to it. This may be shown in the causative verb--

TO MAKE HAPPY.

Mainwaindumëid, He (who) makes _me_ happy. Mainwaindumëik, He (who) makes _thee_ happy. Mainwaindumëaud, He (who) makes _him_ happy. Mainwaindumëinung, He (who) makes _us_ happy. (in.) Mainwaindumëyaug, He (who) makes _us_ happy. (ex.) Mainwaindumëinnaig, He (who) makes _ye_ or _you_ happy. Mainwaindumëigowaud, He (who) makes _them_ happy.

And so the forms might be continued throughout all the objective persons--

Mainwaindum ë yun, _Thou_ (who) makest me happy, &c.

The basis of these compounds is _minno_, "good," and _aindum_, "the mind." Hence, _minwaindum_, "he happy." The adjective, in this connection, cannot be translated "good," but its effect upon the noun is to denote that state of the mind which is at rest with itself. The first change from this simple compound, is to give the adjective a verbal form; and this is effected by a permutation of the vowels of the first syllable--a rule of very extensive application--and by which, in the present instance, the phrase "he happy," is changed to "he makes happy," (_mainwaindum_.) The next step is to add the suffix personal pronouns, _id_, _ik_, _aud_, &c., rendering the expressions, "he makes _me_ happy," &c. But, in adding these increments, the vowel _e_ is thrown between the adjective-verb and the pronoun suffixed, making the expression, not _mainwaindum-yun_, but _mainwaindum ëyun_. Generally, the vowel e, in this situation, is a connective, or introduced merely for the sake of euphony. And those who maintain that it is here employed as a personal pronoun, and that the relative _who_ is implied by the final inflection, overlook the inevitable inference, that if the marked _e_ stands for _me_ in the first phrase, it must stand for _thee_ in the second, _he_ in the third, _us_ in the fourth, &c. As to the meaning and office of the final inflections _id_, _ik_, &c., whatever they may, in an involuted sense, _imply_, it is quite clear, by turning to the list of _suffixed personal pronouns_, and _animate plurals_, that they mark the persons, I, thou, he, &c., we, ye, they, &c.

Take, for example, _minwaindumëigowaud_, "he (who) makes them happy." Of this compound, _minwaindum_, as before shown, signifies "he makes happy." But as the verb is in the singular number, it implies that but _one person_ is made happy; and the suffixed personal pronouns _singular_, mark the distinctions between _me_, _thee_, and _he_, or _him_.

_Minwaindum-e-ig_ is the verb plural, and implies that several persons are made happy; and, in like manner, the suffixed personal pronouns _plural_, mark the distinctions between we, ye, they, &c.; for it is a rule of the language, that a strict concordance must exist between the number of the verb and the number of the pronoun. The termination of the verb consequently always indicates whether there be one or many objects to which its energy is directed. And as animate verbs can be applied only to animate objects, the numerical inflections of the verb are understood to mark the number of persons. But this number is indiscriminate, and leaves the sense vague until the pronominal suffixes are superadded. Those who, therefore, contend for the _sense_ of the relative pronoun "who" being given in the last-mentioned phrase, and all phrases similarly formed by a succedaneum, contend for something like the following form of translation: "He makes them happy--him!" or "Him--he (meaning 'who') makes them happy."

The equivalent for _what_, is _waygonain_.

What do you want? Waygonain wau iauyun? What have you lost? Waygonain kau wonetöyun? What do you look for? Waygonain nain dahwau bundahmun? What is this? Waygonain ewinain maundun? What will you have? Waygonain kad iauyun? What detained you? Waygonain kau oon dahme egöyun? What are you making? Waygonain wayzhetöyun? What have you there? Waygonain e-mau iauyun?

The use of this pronoun, like the preceding, appears to be confined to simple interrogative forms. The word _auneen_, which sometimes supplies its place, or is used for want of the pronoun _which_, is an adverb, and has considerable latitude of meaning. Most commonly, it may be considered as the equivalent for _how_, in what manner, or at what time.

What do you say? Auneen akeedöyun? What do you call this? Auneen aizheneekaudahmun maundun?(i.) What ails you? Auneen aindeeyun? What is your name? Auneen aizheekauzoyun? Which do you mean, this or that? (an.) Auneen ah-ow ainud, woh-ow gämau ewaidde? Which do you mean, this or that? (in.) Auneen eh-eu ewaidumun oh-oo gämau ewaidde? Which boy do you mean? Auneen ah-ow-ainud?

By adding to this word the particle _de_, it is converted into an adverb of place, and may be rendered _where_.

Where do you dwell? Auneende aindauyun? Where is your son? Auneende ke gwiss? Where did you see him? Auneende ke waubumud? Where did you see it? Auneende ke waubundumun? Where are you going? Auneende azhauyun? Where did you come from? Auneende ka oonjeebauyun? Where is your pipe? Auneende ke döpwaugun? Where is your gun? Auneende ke baushkizzigun?

By a still further modification, it is rendered an adverb of inquiry of the cause or motive.

Why do you do so? Auneeshween eh eu todumun? Why do you say so? Auneeshween eh eu ekeedoyun? Why are you angry? Auneeshween nishkaudizzeyun? Why will you depart? Auneeshween wee matyauyun? Why will you not depart? Auneeshween matyauseewun? Why have you come? Auneeshween ke peëzhauyun? Tell me why? Weendumowishin auneeshween? Wherefore is it so? Auneeshween eh-eu izzhewaibuk? (in.) Wherefore did you strike him? Auneeshween ke pukketaywud?

3. Demonstrative pronouns are either animate or inanimate, and may be arranged as follows:--

ANIMATE. INANIMATE.

Mau-bum (impersonal), } This. Maun-dun (inanimate proper). Woh-ow (personal), } Oh-oo (inanimate conventional). Ah-ow, That. Eh-eu. Mau-mig, These. Mau-min. Ig-eu (personal), } Those. In-eu (inanimate proper). I-goo (impersonal), } O-noo (inanimate conventional).

These words are not always used merely to ascertain the object, but often, perhaps always, when the object is present to the sight, have a substantive meaning, and are used without the noun. It creates no uncertainty, if a man be standing at some distance to say, _Ah-ow_; or if a canoe be lying at some distance, to say, _Eh-eu_; the meaning is clearly, that _person_, or that _canoe_, whether the noun be added or not. Or, if there be two animate objects standing together, or two inanimate objects lying together, the words _maumig_ (a.), or _maumin_ (i.), if they be near, or _ig-eu_, (a.), or _in-eu_ (i.), if they be distant, are equally expressive of the _materiality_ of the objects, as well as their relative position. Under other circumstances the noun would be required, as where two animate objects of diverse character--a man and a horse for instance--were standing near each other; or a canoe and a package of goods were lying near each other--and, in fact, under all circumstances--the noun _may_ be used after the demonstrative pronoun, without violating any rule of grammar, although not without the imputation, in many instances, of being over-formal and unnecessarily minute. What is deemed redundant, however, in oral use, and amongst a people who supply much by sight and gesticulation, becomes quite necessary in writing the language; and, in the following sentences, the substantive is properly employed after the pronoun:--

This dog is very lean, Gitshee bukaukuddoozo woh-ow annemoosh. These dogs are very lean, Gitshee bukaukuddoozowug o-goo annemooshug. Those dogs are fat, Ig-eu annemooshug ween-in-oowug. That dog is fat, Ah-ow annemoosh ween-in-oo. This is a handsome knife, Gagait onishishin maundun mokomahn. These are handsome knives, Gagait wahwinaudj o-noo mokomahnun. Those are bad knives, Monaududön in-euwaidde mokomahnun. Give me that spear, Meezhishin eh-eu ahnitt. Give me those spears, Meezhishin in-eu unnewaidde ahnitteen. That is a fine boy, Gagait kwonaudj ah-ow kweewezains. Those are fine boys, Gagait wahwinaudj ig-euwaidde kweewezainsug. This boy is larger than that, Nahwudj mindiddo woh-ow kweewezains ewaidde dush. That is what I wanted, Meeh-eu wau iauyaumbaun. This is the very thing I wanted, Mee-suh oh-oo wau iauyaumbaun.

In some of these expressions, the pronoun combines with an adjective, as in the compound words _ineuwaidde_ and _igeuwaidde_, _those yonder_ (in.), and _those yonder_ (an.). Compounds which exhibit the full pronoun in coalescence with the adverb _ewaidde_, yonder.

2. NATURAL HISTORY.

V.

ZOOLOGY.

1. _Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the Northwestern parts of the United States._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. (Northwest Journal.)

2. _Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered by Mr. Schoolcraft in the Northwest._ By WILLIAM COOPER. (Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History.)

3. CONCHOLOGY.--_List of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, in the Western and Northwestern Territory._ By WILLIAM COOPER.

HELIX.

1. HELIX ALBOLABRIS, _Say_. Near Lake Michigan.

2. HELIX ALTERNATA, _Say_. Banks of the Wabash, near and above the Tippecanoe. Mr. Say remarks, that these two species, so common in the Atlantic States, were not met with in Major Long's second expedition, until their arrival in the secondary country at the eastern extremity of Lake Superior.

PLANORBIS.

3. PLANORBIS CAMPANULATUS, _Say_. Itasca (or La Biche) Lake, the source of the Mississippi.

4. PLANORBIS TRIVOLVIS, _Say_. Lake Michigan. These two species were also observed by Mr. Say, as far east as the Falls of Niagara.

LYMNEUS.

5. LYMNEUS UMBROSUS, _Say_, Am. Con. iv. pl. xxxi. Fig. 1. Lake Winnipec, Upper Mississippi, and Rainy Lake.

6. LYMNEUS REFLEXUS, _Say_, l. c. pl. xxxi. Fig. 2. Rainy Lake, Seine River, and Lake Winnipec.

7. LYMNEUS STAGNALIS. Lake a la Crosse, Upper Mississippi.

PALUDINA.

8. PALUDINA PONDEROSA, _Say_. Wisconsin River.

9. PALUDINA VIVIPARA, _Say_, Am. Con. i. pl. x. The American specimens of this shell are more depressed than the European, but appear to be identical in species.

MELANIA.

10. MELANIA VIRGINICA, _Say_. Lake Michigan.

ANODONTA.

11. ANODONTA CATARACTA, _Say_. Chicago, Lake Michigan. This species, Mr. Lea remarks, has a great geographical extension.

12. ANODONTA CORPULENTA, _Nobis_. Shell thin and fragile, though less so than others of the genus; much inflated at the umbones, margins somewhat compressed; valves connate over the hinge in perfect specimens; surface dark brown, in old shells; in younger, of a pale dingy green, and without rays, in all I have examined; beaks slightly undulated at the tip. The color within is generally of a livid coppery hue, but sometimes, also, pure white.

Length of a middling sized specimen, four and a half inches, breadth, six and a quarter. It is often eighteen inches in circumference round the border of the valves, with a diameter through the umbones of three inches. Inhabits the Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin.

This fine shell, much the largest I have seen of the genus, was first sent by Mr. Schoolcraft, to the Lyceum, several years ago. So far as I am able to discover, it is undescribed, and a distinct and remarkable species. It may be known by its length being greater in proportion to its breadth than in the other American species, by the subrhomboidal form of the posterior half, and generally, by the color of the nacre, though this is not to be relied on. It appears to belong to the genus SYMPHYNOTA of Mr. Lea.

ALASMODONTA.

13. ALASMODONTA COMPLANATA, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA COMPLANATA, _Lea_. Shell Lake, River St. Croix, Upper Mississippi. Many species of shells found in this lake grow to an extraordinary size. Some of the present collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, measure nineteen inches in circumference.

14. ALASMODONTA RUGOSA, _Barnes_. St. Croix River, and Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River.

15. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River; very large.

16. ALASMODONTA EDENTULA? _Say_. ANODON AREOLATUS? _Swainson_. Lake Vaseux. The specimens of this shell are too old and imperfect to be safely determined.

UNIO.

17. UNIO TUBERCULATUS, _Barnes_. Painted Rock, Upper Mississippi.

18. UNIO PUSTULOSUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien, to Lake Pepin.

19. UNIO VERRUCOSUS, _Barnes_, _Lea_. St. Croix River of the Upper Mississippi.

20. UNIO PLICATUS, _Le Sueur_, _Say_. Prairie du Chien, and River St. Croix.

The specimens of U. PLICATUS sent from this locality by Mr. Schoolcraft have the nacre beautifully tinged with violet, near the posterior border of the shell, and are also much more ventricose than those found in more eastern localities, as Pittsburg, for example; at the same time, I believe them to be of the same species. Similar variations are observed in other species; the specimens from the south and west generally exhibiting a greater development.

21. UNIO TRIGONUS, _Lea_. From the same locality as the last, and like it unusually ventricose.

22. UNIO EBENUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin.

23. UNIO GIBBOSUS, _Barnes_. St. Croix River, Upper Mississippi,

24. UNIO RECTUS, _Lamarck_. U. PRÆLONGUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin, and the River St. Croix. The specimens collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, vary much in the color of the nacre. Some have it entirely white, others rose purple, and others entirely of a very fine dark salmon color. This species inhabits the St. Lawrence as far east as Montreal.

25. UNIO SILIQUOIDEUS, _Barnes_, and U. INFLATUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin. Large, ponderous, and the epidermis finely rayed.

26. UNIO COMPLANATUS, _Lea_. U. PURPUREUS, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River. Lake Vaseux is an expansion of the River St. Mary, a tributary of the upper lakes. This shell does not appear to exist in any of the streams flowing into the Mississippi.

27. UNIO CRASSUS, _Say_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien.

28. UNIO RADIATUS, _Barnes_. Lake Vaseux. The specimen is old and imperfect, but I believe it to be the U. RADIATUS of our conchologists, which is common in Lake Champlain and also inhabits the St. Lawrence.

29. UNIO OCCIDENS, _Lea_. U. VENTRICOSUS, _Say_, Am. Con. U. VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes?_ Wisconsin and St. Croix Rivers, and Shell Lake. Epidermis variously colored, and marked with numerous rays.

30. UNIO VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin and Shell Lake. The varieties of this, and the preceding pass insensibly into each other. Those from Shell Lake are of extraordinary size.

31. UNIO ALATUS, _Say_. SYMPHYNOTA ALATA, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, and Shell Lake. Found also in Lake Champlain, by the late Mr. Barnes.

32. UNIO GRACILIS, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA GRACILIS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, and Shell Lake. The specimens brought by Mr. Schoolcraft are larger and more beautiful than I have seen from any other locality.

VI.

BOTANY.

1. _A List of Species and Localities of Plants collected in the Northwestern Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft of 1831 and 1832._ By DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D., Surgeon to the expeditions.

The localities of the following plants are transcribed from a catalogue kept during the progress of the expeditions, and embrace many plants common to our country, which were collected barely for the purpose of comparison. A more detailed account will be published at some future day.

_Aster tenuifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. " _sericea_, Nuttall. River de Corbeau, Missouri Ter. " _lævis?_ Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. " _concolor_, Willdenow. Fox River, Northwest Ter. " (_N. Spec._). Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter. _Andropogon furcatus_, Willdenow. Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter. _Alopecurus geniculatus_, Linnæus. Sault Ste. Marie, M. T. _Aira flexuosa._ Sault Ste. Marie, M. T. _Allium tricoccum_, Aiton. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior. " _cernuum_, Roth. River de Corbeau to the sources of the Miss. " (_N. Spec._). St. Louis River of Lake Superior. _Amorpha canescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. _Artemisia canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " _sericea_, Nuttall. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. " _gnaphaloides_, Nuttall. Fox River, Northwest Ter. _Arabis hirsuta_, De Candolle. Upper Mississippi. " _lyrata_, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Arundo canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior. _Arenaria lateriflora_, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Alnus glauca_, Mx. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss. _Alliona albida_, Walter. Yellow River, Northwest Ter. _Aronia sanguinea._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Alectoria jubata._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Aletris farinosa._ Prairies of Michigan Ter. _Bidens beckii_, Torrey. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss. _Bunias maritima_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. _Baptisia coerulea_, Michaux. Fox River, Northwest Ter. _Blitum capitatum._ Northwest Ter. _Betula papyracea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " _glandulosa._ Savannah River, Northwest Ter. _Bartramia fontana._ Lake Superior. _Bromus canadensis_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. _Batschia canescens._ Plains of the Mississippi. " " Var. (or _N. Spec._). Lake Superior. _Carex paucifolia._ Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " _scirpoides_, Schkuhr. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " _limosa_, Linn. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " _curata_, Gmelin. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. " (apparently _N. Spec._ allied to _C. scabrata_.) Sources of the Miss. " _washingtoniana_, Dewy. Lake Superior. " _lacustris_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " _oedere_, Ehrhart. Leech Lake. " _logopodioides_, Schkuhr. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. " _rosea_, Var. Lake Superior. " _festucacea_, Schkuhr. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. _Cyperus mariscoides_, Elliott. Upper Mississippi. " _alterniflorus_, Schwinitz. River St. Clair, Mich. Ter. _Cnicus pitcheri_, Torrey. Lakes Michigan and Superior. _Coreopsis palmata_, Nuttall. Prairies of the Upper Mississippi. _Cardamine pratensis._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Calamagrostis coarctata_, Torrey. Lake Winnipec. _Cetraria icelandica._ Lakes Superior and Michigan. _Corydalis aurea_, Willdenow. Cass Lake, Upper Mississippi. " _glauca_, Persoon. Lake Superior. _Cynoglossum amplexicaule_, Michaux. Sault Ste. Marie. _Cassia chamoecrista._ Upper Mississippi. _Corylus americana_, Walter. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " _rostrata_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Cistus canadensis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Cornus circinata_, L'Heritier. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Cypripedium acaule_, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Cymbidium pulchellum_, Swartz. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Corallorhiza multiflora_, Torrey. Lake Superior. _Convallaria borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi. " _trifolia_, Linn. Lake Superior. _Cenchrus echinatus_, Linn. Upper Mississippi. _Cerastium viscosum_, Linn. Lake Superior. " _oblongifolium_, Torrey. Michigan Ter. _Campanula acuminata_, Michaux. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. _Chrysosplenium oppositifolium._ Lake Superior to the Mississippi. _Cinna arundinacea_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. _Drosera linearis_, Hooker. Lake Superior. " _rotundifolia._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " _americana_, Muhlenberg. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Dracocephalum virginicum_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River, Northwest Territory. _Delphinium virescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. _Danthonia spicata_, Willdenow. Mauvais River of Lake Superior. _Dirca palustris_, Willdenow. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior. _Equisetum limosum_, Torrey. Lake Superior. " _palustr_e, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " _variegatum_, Smith. Lake Michigan. _Erigeron integrifolium_, Bigelow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. " _purpureum_, Willdenow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. " (_N. Spec._). Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. _Erigeron heterophyllum_, Var. or (_N. Spec._). Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. _Eryngium aquaticum_, Jussieu. Galena, Ill. _Euphorbia corollata_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River. _Eriophorum virginicum_, Linn. Lake Superior. " _alpinum_, Linn. Lake Superior. " _polystachyon_, Linn. Lake Superior. _Empetrum nigrum_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Erysimum chiranthoides_, Linn. Lake Superior: _Eriocaulon pellucidum_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Euchroma coccinea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. _Elymus striatus_, Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. " _virginicus_, Linn. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. _Festuca nutans_, Willdenow. Lake Winnipec. _Glycera fluitans_, Brown. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. _Gyrophora papulosa_. Lake Superior. _Gentiana crinita_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. _Geranium carolinianum_. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. _Galium lanceolatum_, Torrey. Red Cedar River to the Mississippi. _Gerardia pedicularis_. Fox River, Northwest Ter. " _maritima_, Rafinesque. Lake Michigan. _Galeopsis tetrahit_, Var. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter. _Gnaphalium plantaginium_, Var. Sources of the Mississippi. _Goodyera pubescens_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. _Hippophæ canadensis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " _argentea_, Pursh. Lake Superior. _Hedeoma glabra_, Persoon. Lake Michigan to the sources of the Miss. _Hydropeltis purpurea_, Michaux. Northwest Ter. _Hippuris vulgaris_. Yellow River to sources of the Mississippi. _Hudsonia tomentosa_, Nuttall. Lake Superior. _Hypericum canadense_. Lake Superior. " _prolificum_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. _Hieracium fasciculatum_, Pursh. Pukwàewa Lake, Northwest Ter. _Hierochloa borealis_, Roemer & Schultes. Lake Superior. _Holcus lanatus_. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. _Houstonia longifolia_, Willdenow. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. _Heuchera americana_, Linn. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. _Hypnum crista-castrensis._ Sources of the Mississippi. _Hordeum jubatum._ Upper Red Cedar Lake. _Helianthus decapetalis._ Northwest Ter. " _gracilis_, Torrey. Upper Lake St. Croix, Northwest Ter. _Hyssopus anisatus_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. " _scrophularifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. _Inula villosa_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. _Ilex canadensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Juncus nodosus._ St. Mary's River. " _polycephalus_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Koeleria nitida_, Nuttall. Lake Winnipec. _Lycopodium dendroideum_, Michaux. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi. " _annotinum_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi. _Lonicera hirsuta_, Eaton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " _sempervirens_, Aiton. Lake Superior. _Lechea minor._ Upper Mississippi. _Linhea borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Lathyrus palustris._ Lake Superior. " _decaphyllus_, Pursh. Leech Lake. " _maritimus_, Bigelow. Lake Superior. _Lobelia kalmii_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. " _claytoniana_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. " _puberula?_ Michaux. Yellow River, Northwest Ter. _Liatris scariosa_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. " _cylindrica_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. _Lysimachia revoluta_, Nuttall. Lake Superior. " _thyrsifolia_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Ledum latifolium_, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Myrica gale_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. _Malva (N. Spec.)._ Upper Mississippi. _Monarda punctata_, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi. " _oblongata_, Aiton. Upper Mississippi. _Microstylis ophioglossoides_, Willdenow. Lac la Biche [Itasca]. _Myriophyllum spicatum._ Lake Superior. _Mitella cordifolia_, Lamarck. Lake Superior. _Menyanthes trifoliata._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. _Myosotis arvensis_, Sibthorp. St. Clair River, Mich. Ter. _Nelumbium luteum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. _OEnothera biennis_, Var. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior. " _serrulata_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. _Psoralea argophylla_, Pursh. Falls of St. Anthony. _Primula farinosa_, Var. _Americana_, Torrey. Lakes Huron and Superior. " _mistassinica_, Michaux. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. _Pingwicula_ (_N. Spec._). Presque Isle, Lake Superior. _Parnassia americana_, Muhlenberg. Lake Michigan. _Pedicularis gladiata_, Michaux. Fox River. _Pinus nigra_, Lambert. Lake Superior. " _banksiana_, Lambert. Lake Superior. _Populus tremuloides_, Michaux. Northwest Ter. " _lævigata_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. _Prunus depressa_, Pursh. Lakes Superior and Michigan. _Petalostemon violaceum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. " _candidum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. _Potentilla tridentata_, Aiton. Lake Superior. " _fruticosa_, Linnæus. Lakes Superior and Michigan. _Pyrola uniflora_, Mauvais River of Lake Superior. _Polygonum amphibium_, Linnæus. St. Croix River. " _cilinode_, Michaux. Lake Superior. " _articulatum_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. " _coccinium_, Willdenow. St. Croix River. _Polygala polygama_, Walter. Northwest Ter. _Phlox aristata_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. _Poa canadensis._ Upper Mississippi. _Pentstemon gracile_, Nuttall. Upper Red Cedar Lake. " _grandiflorum_, Nuttall. Falls of St. Anthony. _Physalis lanceolata_, Var. (or _N. Spec._). Lac la Biche [Itasca]. _Quercus coccinea_, Wangenheim. Upper Red Cedar Lake. " _obtusiloba_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. _Ranunculus filiformis_, Michaux. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter. " _pusillus_, Pursh. Mich. Ter. " _prostratus_, Lamarck. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. " _lacustris_, Beck & Tracy. Upper Mississippi. _Rudbeckia hirta_, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi and Michigan Ter. " _digitata_, Aiton. Upper Mississippi. _Rubus parviflorus_, Nuttall. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. " _hispidus_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. " _saxatilis_, Var. _canadensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Rosa gemella_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. " _rubifolia_, Brown. Michigan Ter. _Ribes albinervum_, Michaux. Sources of the St. Croix River. _Saururus cernuus_, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi. _Streptopus roseus_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Sisymbrium brachycarpum_, Richardson. Lake Superior. " _chiranthoides_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. _Swertia deflexa_, Smith. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior. _Silphium terebinthinaceum_, Elliott. Michigan Territory to the Miss. " _gummiferum_. Fox River to the Mississippi. _Stachys aspera_, Var. Michaux. Lake Superior. _Sterocaulon paschale._ Lake Superior. _Struthiopteris pennsylvanica_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. _Scirpus frigetur?_ Lake of the Isles, Northwest Ter. " _palustris_, Linnæus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. _Salix prinoides_, Pursh. Mauvais River of Lake Superior. " _longifolia_, Muhlenberg. Upper Mississippi. _Spiræa opulifolia_, Var. _tomentella_, De Candolle. Lake Superior. _Sorbus americana_, Willdenow. Lake Huron to the head of Lake Superior. _Smilax rotundifolia_ Linnæus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. _Silene antirrhina_, Linnæus. Lac la Biche. _Saxifraga virginiensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Scutellaria ambigua_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. _Solidago virgaurea_, Var. _alpina._ Lake Superior. _Stipa juncea_, Nuttall. Usawa R. _Symphora racemosa_, Michaux. Source of the Miss. R. _Senecio balsamitæ_, Var. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. _Sagittaria heterophylla_, Pursh. Upper Miss. _Tanacetum huronensis_, Nuttall. Lakes Michigan and Superior. _Tussilago palmata_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. _Tofeldia pubens_, Michaux. Lake Superior. _Triglochin maritimum_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. _Thalyctrum corynellum_, De Candolle. St. Louis River. _Triticum repens_, Linnæus. Leech Lake. _Troximon virginicum_, Pursh. Lake Winnipec. _Talinum teretifolium_, Pursh. St. Croix River. _Tradescantia virginica._ Upper Mississippi. _Utricularia cornuta_, Michaux. Lake Superior. " _purpurea_, Walter. Lac Chetac, N. W. Ter. _Uraspermum canadense_, Lake Superior to the Miss. _Viola lanceolata_, Linnæus. Sault Ste. Marie. " _pedata_, Var. (or _N. Spec._). Lac la Biche, sources of the Miss. _Viburnum oxycoccus_, Pursh. Lake Superior. " _lentago._ Lake Superior. _Vernonia novoboracensis_, Willdenow. Upper Miss. _Verbena bracteosa_, Michaux. Upper Miss. " _stricta_, Ventenat. Upper Miss. _Zapania nodiflora_, Michaux. Galena, Illinois. _Zigadenus chloranthus_, Richardson. Sandy shores of Lake Michigan. _Zizania aquatica_, Pursh. Illinois to the sources of the Miss.

VII.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

1. _A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper in the Geological Basin of Lake Superior._ By Dr. D. HOUGHTON.

FREDONIA, N. Y., November 14, 1831.

SIR: In fulfilment of the duties assigned to me in the late expedition into the Indian country, under the direction of H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq., Indian Agent, I would beg leave to transmit to you the following observations relative to the existence of copper in the country bordering on the southern shore of Lake Superior.

It is without doubt true that this subject has long been viewed with an interest far beyond its actual merit. Each mass of native copper which this country has produced, however insulated, or however it may have been separated from its original position, appears to have been considered a sure indication of the existence of that metal in beds; and hence we occasionally see, upon maps of that section of our country, particular portions marked as containing "copper mines," where no copper now exists. But, while it is certain that a combination of circumstances has served to mislead the public mind with regard to the geological situation and existing quantity of that metal, it is no less certain that a greater quantity of insulated native copper has been discovered upon the borders of Lake Superior, than in any other equal portion of North America.

Among the masses of native copper which have engaged the attention of travellers in this section of country, one, which from its great size was early noticed, is situated on the Ontonagon River, a stream which empties its waters into the southern part of Lake Superior, 331 miles above the Falls of the Ste. Marie. The Ontonagon River is, with some difficulty, navigable by batteaux 36 miles, at which place, by the union of two smaller streams--one from an easterly and the other from a westerly direction--the main stream is formed. The mass of copper is situated on the western fork, at a distance of six or eight miles from the junction.

The face of the country through the upper half of the distance from Lake Superior is uneven, and the irregularity is given it by hills of marly clay, which occasionally rise quite abruptly to the height of one or two hundred feet. No rock was observed _in situ_, except in one place, where, for a distance, the red sandstone was observed, forming the bed of the river.

The mass of copper lies, partly covered by water, directly at the foot of a clay hill, from which, together with numerous boulders of the primitive rocks, it has undoubtedly been washed by the action of the water of the river. Although it is completely insulated, there is much to interest in its examination. Its largest surface measures three and a half by four feet, and this, which is of malleable copper, is kept bright by the action of the water, and has the usual appearance of that metal when worn. To one surface is attached a small quantity of rock, singularly bound together by threads of copper, which pass through it in all directions. This rock, although many of its distinctive characters are lost, is evidently a dark colored serpentine, with small interspersed masses of milky quartz.

The mass of copper is so situated as to afford but little that would enable us to judge of its original geological position. In examining the eastern fork of the river, I discovered small water-worn masses of trap-rock, in which were specks of imbedded carbonate of copper and copper black; and with them were occasionally associated minute specks of serpentine, in some respects resembling that which is attached to the large mass of copper; and facts would lead us to infer that the trap formation which appears on Lake Superior east of the Ontonagon River, crosses this section of country at or near the source of that river, and at length forms one of the spurs of the Porcupine Mountains.

Several smaller masses of insulated native copper have been discovered on the borders of Lake Superior, but that upon Ontonagon River is the only one which is now known to remain.

At as early a period as before the American Revolution, an English mining company directed their operations to the country bordering on Lake Superior, and Ontonagon River was one point to which their attention was immediately directed. Traces of a shaft, sunk in the clay hill, near a mass of copper, are still visible--a memento of ignorance and folly.

Operations were also commenced on the southern shore of Lake Superior, near the mouth of a small stream, which, from that circumstance, is called Miners' River. Parts of the names of the miners, carved upon the sandstone rock at the mouth of the river, are still visible. What circumstance led to the selection of this spot does not now appear. No mineral traces are at this day perceptible, except occasional discolorations of the sandstone rock by what is apparently a mixture of the carbonates of iron and copper; and this is only to be observed where water, holding in solution an extremely minute portion of these salts, has trickled slowly over those rocks.

It does not, in fact, appear that the red sandstone, which constitutes the principal rock formation of the southern shore of Lake Superior, is in any instance metalliferous in any considerable degree. If this be true, it would require but little reflection to convince one of the inexpediency of conducting mining operations at either of the points selected for that purpose; and it is beyond a doubt true, that the company did not receive the least inducement to continue their labors.

In addition to these masses of native copper, an ore of that metal has long been known to the lake traders as the green rock, in which the characteristic substances are the green and blue carbonates of copper, accompanied by copper black. It is situated upon Keweena Point, 280 miles above the falls of the Ste. Marie. The ore is embraced by what is apparently a recently formed crag; and, although it is of a kind and so situated as to make an imposing appearance, there is little certainty of its existence in large quantities in this formation. The ore forms a thin covering to the pebbles of which the body of the rock is composed, and is rarely observed in masses separate from it. The crag is composed of angular fragments of trap-rock, and the formation is occasionally traversed by broad and continuous belts of calc. spar, here and there tinged with copper. Although the ore was not observed in any considerable quantity, except at one point, it apparently exists in minute specks through a greater part of the crag formation, which extends several miles, forming the shore of the lake.

This examination of the crag threw new interest upon the trap formation, which had been first observed to take the place of the sandstone at the bottom of a deep bay, called Montreal Bay, on the easterly side of Keweena Point. The trap-rock continues for a few miles, when the crag before noticed appears to lie directly upon it, and to form the extremity of the point; the crag, in turn, disappears, and the trap-rock is continued for a distance of six or eight miles upon the westerly side of the point, when the sandstone again reappears.

The trap-rock is of a compact granular texture, occasionally running into the amygdaloid and toadstone varieties, and is rich in imbedded minerals, such as amethystine quartz, smoky quartz, carnelian, chalcedony, agate, &c., together with several of the ores of copper. Traces of copper ore in the trap-rock were first noticed on the easterly side of Keweena Point, and near the commencement of the trap formation. This ore, which is an impure copper black, was observed in a vein of variable thickness, but not in any part exceeding two and a half inches. It is sufficiently compact and hard to receive a firm polish, but it is rather disposed to break into small irregular masses. A specimen furnished, upon analysis, 47.5 per cent. of pure copper.

On the western side of Keweena Point, the same ore appears under different circumstances, being disseminated through the body of the trap-rock, in grains varying in size from a pin's head to a pea. Although many of these grains are wholly copper black, they are occasionally only depositions of the mineral upon specks of carnelian, chalcedony, or agate, or are more frequently composed, in part, of what is apparently an imperfect steatite. The ore is so connected with, and so much resembles in color the rock, of which it may be said to be a constituent part, that they might easily, during a hasty examination, be confounded. A random specimen of the rock furnished, upon analysis, 3.2 per cent. of pure copper. The rock continues combined with that mineral for nearly the space of three miles. Extremely thin veins of copper black were observed to traverse this same rock; and in enlargements of these were discovered several masses of amorphous native copper. The latter mineral appeared in two forms--the one consisting of compact and malleable masses, varying from four to ten ounces each; and the other, of specks and fasciculi of pure copper, binding together confused masses of copper green, and partially disintegrated trap-rock; the latter was of several pounds' weight. Each variety was closely embraced by the rock, although the action of the water upon the rock had occasionally exposed to view points of the metal. In addition to the accompanying copper green, which was in a disintegrated state, small specks of the oxide of copper were associated in most of the native specimens.

Circumstances would not permit an examination of any portion of the trap formation, except that bordering directly upon the lake. But facts would lead us to infer that that formation extends from one side of Keweena Point to the other, and that a range of thickly wooded hills, which traverses the point, is based upon, if not formed of that rock. An Indian information, which, particularly upon such a subject, must be adopted with caution, would sanction the opinion that the prominent constituents are the same wherever the rock is observed.

After having duly considered the facts which are presented, I would not hesitate to offer, as an opinion, that the trap-rock formation was the original source of the masses of copper which have been observed in the country bordering on Lake Superior; and that, at the present day, examinations for the ores of copper could not be made in that country with hopes of success, except in the trap-rock itself; which rock is not certainly known to exist upon any place upon Lake Superior, other than Keweena Point.

If this opinion be a correct one, the cause of, failure of the mining company in this region is rendered plain. Having considered each insulated mass of pure metal as a true indication of the existence of a bed in the vicinity, operations were directed to wrong points; when, having failed to realize their anticipations, the project was abandoned without further actual investigation. We would be induced to infer that no attempts were made to learn the original source of the metal which was discovered, and thus, while the attention was drawn to insulated masses, the ores, ordinary in appearance, but more important _in sitû_, were neglected; and perhaps, from the close analogy in appearance to the rock with which they were associated, no distinction was observed.

What quantity of ore the trap-rock of Keweena Point may be capable of producing, can only be determined by minute and laborious examination. The indications which were presented by a hasty investigation are here embodied, and with deference submitted to your consideration.

I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient, servant, DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.

Hon. LEWIS CASS, _Secretary of War_.

2. _Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver and Ores of Silver in the Stratification of the Basins of Lakes Huron and Superior._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Traces of this metal which have been found in the drift and boulder stratum of both Lakes Huron and Superior, indicate the existence of the metal in place. During my residence at St. Mary's, two specimens of its occurrence were brought to my notice. The first of these consisted of points of native silver in a moderately large mass of native copper, found in 1823, near the entrance of the _Nama_ or Sturgeon River into Keweena Lake, of the large peninsula of that name, in Lake Superior. Like the majority of such masses of the region, it had no adhering portion of rock or vein stone, from which a judgment might be formed of its original position.

I had, the prior year, set up my mineralogical cabinet in my office, and stated to the Indians, who roved over large tracts, my solicitude to collect specimens of the mineral productions of the country of every description, and, indeed, of its zoology, always acknowledging their comity, in bringing me specimens in any department of natural history, by some small present; and I found this to be a means of extending my inquiries.

Subsequently, I received a boulder specimen from the shores of Lake Huron, containing veins of native silver. Part of the metal had been detached. I submitted these specimens to the Lyceum of Natural History at New York, in 1825. The following remarks are taken from their annals.

_Mineralogical and Chemical Characters._--By examining this mineral, it will be perceived to possess the color, lustre, malleability, and other obvious characters of native silver. It is so soft as to be easily cut by the knife; and in a state of purity which permits it to spread under the hammer. These characters serve to distinguish it from antimonial silver, which is not _malleable_; from native antimony which tarnishes on exposure, &c. The metal occurs in thin, massive veins in the rock. These veins sometimes intersect, but never cross each other. It is also disseminated in small particles through the stone, or spread in flattened masses over its surface. Some of these masses were detached by the discoverer, but have been preserved, and are presented to the Lyceum with the more solid and undisturbed portions.

By submitting a small portion of the metal to the action of nitric acid, I obtained an imperfect solution. On repeating the experiment, and adding a little sulphuric acid, the action was more brisk, and a clear and apparently perfect solution effected. By standing, however, a pulpy, white precipitate appeared at the bottom of the glass. This was collected and submitted to the action of the blowpipe, on a basis of charcoal. The result gave a number of minute, metallic globules, possessing greater lustre, malleability, and ductility, than the original mass. I repeated the latter experiment, adding to the nitro-sulphuric solution muriate of soda. A more perfect precipitation of the white powder was effected; but the results with the blowpipe remained the same.

_Geognostic Position._--It is a rolled mass. An opinion of the specific character of the rock may be dubious, from the smallness of the specimen. It appears to have been detached from a stratum of gneiss, and is essentially composed of quartz. The blackish color of some parts of this latter mineral would, at first glance, lead us to attribute this color to the presence of hornblende; but, on closer examination, it will be perceived to be owing to a dark-colored steatite, which, in certain parts of the rock, is well developed, soft, and easily cut. A little calcspar is intermingled with the steatite.

_Locality._--I am indebted to the politeness of Lieut. Lewis S. Johnston, of the British Indian Department, at Malden (U. C.), for the opportunity of adding this specimen to the mineralogical cabinet of the Lyceum. This gentleman, as he informed me, obtained it from an Indian, who picked it up on the southeastern shores of Lake Huron, near Point aux Barques, in Michigan Territory. That part of Lake Huron was cursorily examined by me, in the year 1820, in the course of the expedition conducted by Gov. Cass, through the upper lakes, &c. I consider it remarkable, even in a region abounding in rolled rocks, for the great number and variety of granite, gneiss, hornblende, and trap boulders, scattered along the shores of the lake. The water here is generally shallow and dangerous to approach in vessels; these boulder stones sometimes extending and presenting themselves above water for a mile or more from land. But we could not satisfy ourselves by an examination necessarily partial, that either of the primitive species mentioned, existed there in any other condition than as rolled masses, or displacements of rock strata, contiguous, perhaps, but not observed. Dr. Bigsby has informed me, that he observed the gneiss _in sitû_, on the northwestern shores of this lake. The nearest rock in place, and that which in fact constitutes the abraded and caverned promontory of Point aux Barques, is gray sandstone.

The occurrence of this metal in the copper-bearing and other metalliferous rocks of this region, may be confidently affirmed.[273]

[273] At the date of this publication, it is known that this metal occurs, both as a constituent of the mass copper in Lake Superior, and is also developed in veins in the stratification.

3. _A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals observed in the Northwest in 1831 and 1832._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

CLASS I. _Bodies not metallic, containing an acid._

1. CALCAREOUS SPAR. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in small globular masses, in the trap-rock; also forming veins in the same formation. Some of the masses break into rhombic forms, and possess a certain but not perfect degree of transparency; others are opaque, or discolored by the green carbonate of copper. Also in the trap-rock between Fond du Lac and Old Grand Portage, Lake Superior, in perfect, transparent rhombs, exhibiting the property of double refraction. Also, at the lead mines, in Iowa County, in the marly clay formation, often exhibiting imperfect prisms, variously truncated.

2. CALCAREOUS TUFA. Mouth of the River Brulé, of Lake Superior. In small, friable, broken masses, in the diluvial soil. Also, in the gorge below the Falls of St. Anthony. In detached, vesicular masses, amidst debris.

3. COMPACT CARBONATE OF LIME. In the calcareous cliffs of horizontal formation, commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony. Carboniferous.

4. SEPTARIA. In the reddish clay soil, between Montreal River and Lapointe, Lake Superior.

5. GYPSUM. In the sandstone rock at the Point of Grand Sable West, Lake Superior. In orbicular masses, firmly imbedded. Not abundant. Granular, also imperfectly foliated.

6. CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. Serpentine rock, at Presque Isle, Lake Superior. Compact.

7. HYDRATE OF MAGNESIA? With the preceding.

CLASS II. _Earthy compounds, amorphous or crystalline._

8. COMMON QUARTZ. Huron Islands, Lake Superior; also the adjoining coast. In very large veins or beds. White, opaque.

9. GRANULAR QUARTZ. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Mississippi. _In sitû._

10. SMOKY QUARTZ. In the trap-rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior, crystallized. In connection with amethystine quartz.

11. AMETHYST. With the preceding. Also, at the Pic Bay, and at Gargontwa, north shore of Lake Superior, in the trap-rock, in perfect crystals, of various intensity of color.

12. CHALCEDONY. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. In globular or orbicular masses, in amygdaloid rock. Often, in detached masses along the shores.

13. CARNELIAN. With the preceding.

14. HORNSTONE. In detached masses, very hard, on the shores of Lake Superior. Also, at Dodgeville, Iowa County, Mich. Ter., in fragments or nodular masses in the clay soil.

15. JASPER. In the preceding locality. Common and striped, exceedingly difficult of being acted on by the wheel. Not observed _in sitû_.

16. AGATE. Imbedded in the trap-rocks of Lake Superior, and also detached, forming a constituent of its detritus. Variously colored. Often made up of alternate layers of chalcedony, carnelian, and cacholong. Sometimes zoned, or in fortification points. Specimens not taken from the rock are not capable of being scratched by quartz or flint, and are incapable of being acted on by the file; consequently, _harder_ than any of the described species.

17. CYANITE. Specimens of this mineral, in flat, six-sided prisms, imbedded in a dark primitive rock, were brought out from Lac du Flambeau outlet, where the rock is described as existing _in sitû_. The locality has not been visited, but there are facts brought to light, within the last two or three years, to justify the extension of the primitive to that section of country.

18. PITCHSTONE. A detached mass of this mineral, very black and lava-like, was picked up in the region of Lake Superior, where the volcanic mineral, trachyte, is common among the rolled masses. Neither of these substances have been observed _in sitû_.

19. MICA. Huron Islands, Lake Superior. In granite.

20. SCHORL. Common. Outlet of Lac du Flambeau. Also, in a detached mass of primitive rock at Green Bay.

21. FELDSPAR. Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior.

22. BASALT. Amorphous. Granite Point, Lake Superior.

23. STILBITE. Amygdaloid rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior.

24. ZEOLITE. Mealy. With the preceding.

25. ZEOLITE. Radiated. Lake Superior. This mineral consists of fibres, so delicate and firmly united as to appear almost compact, radiating from a centre. Some of the masses produced by this radiation measure 2.5 inches in diameter. They are of a uniform, pale, yellowish red. This mineral has not been traced _in sitû_, being found in detached masses of rock, and sometimes as water-worn portions of radii. Its true position would seem to be the trap-rock.

26. ASBESTUS. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. In the serpentine formation.

27. HORNBLENDE. Very abundant as a constituent of the primitive rocks on the Upper Mississippi, and in the basin of Lake Superior. Often in distinct crystals.

28. DIALLAGE, GREEN. Lake Superior. In detached masses, connected with primitive boulders. _Harder_ than the species.

29. SERPENTINE, COMMON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.

30. SERPENTINE, PRECIOUS. With the preceding. Color, a light pistachio green, and takes a fine polish. Exists in veins in the common variety.

31. PSEUDOMORPHOUS SERPENTINE. With the preceding. This beautiful green mineral constitutes a portion of the veins of the precious serpentine. Its crystalline impressions are very distinct.

32. ARGILLITE. River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior. Nearly vertical in its position.

CLASS III. _Combustibles._

33. PEAT. Marine sand formation composing the shore of Lake Superior, between White-fish Point and Grand Marais. Also, on the island of Michilimackinac.

CLASS IV. _Ores and Metals._

34. NATIVE COPPER. West side of Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in a vein with carbonate of copper, and copper black, in the trap-rock.

35. COPPER BLACK. With the preceding.

36. CARBONATE OF COPPER, GREEN. With the preceding.

These two minerals (35 and 36) characterize the trap-rock of the peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior, from Montreal Bay, extending to and around its extremity, west, to Sand-hill Bay. The entire area may be estimated to comprise a rocky, serrated coast of about seventy-five miles in length, and not to exceed seven or eight miles in width. The principal veins are at a point called Roche Verd, and along the coast which we refer to as the Black Rocks. At the latter, native copper is one of the constituents of the vein.

Green and blue carbonate of copper was also observed in limited quantity, in small rounded masses, at one of the lead diggings near Mineral Point, Iowa County.

37. CHROMATE OF IRON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.

38. SULPHURET OF LEAD. Lead mines of Iowa County, Michigan Territory.

39. EARTHY CARBONATE OF LEAD. Brigham's mine, Iowa County, Mich. Ter. Also, in small masses, of a yellowish white, dirty color, and great comparative weight, at several of the lead mines (diggings) in the more westerly and southern parts of the county.

4. _Geological Outline of the Taquimenon Valley of Lake Superior._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

The River Takquimenon originates on a plateau between the northern shores of Lake Michigan and the southeastern coast of Lake Superior. At a central point on this plateau, there lies a lake of moderate size, which, in the translated Indian phrase, is called Heartsblood Lake. A little to the west of this lake, and, perhaps, connected with it, originates the head stream of the North Manistic River of Lake Michigan, running southwest. Towards the northeast the Takwymenon takes its way, winding through level grassy plains, till it reaches the rim of the geological basin that circumscribes Lake Superior. The height of this point is conjectural. It is probably one hundred and fifty feet above the level of the lake.

To comprehend the geography of the region, it is necessary to advert to the fact that the sandstone formation, which appears in the picturesque form of the Pictured Rocks, is last seen in its range eastward at La Pointe des Grande Sable, where its surface is of a compact structure and dull red color. Between this locality and the bold cape of Point Iroquois, at the head of St. Mary's River, there intervenes an extensive formation of gravel, boulders, and sand. The length of this line of coast is about ninety miles, its breadth to the basinic rim, perhaps thirty. It is covered with small pines, spruce, birch, and poplar, with frequent sphagnous tracts and ponds; the lake shore, where the sands are continually accumulated, being higher than the interior portions. It has, from early days, been a favorite resort for beaver, from which it is called by the natives, Namikong, meaning, excellent place of beavers.

This tract of the Namikong is primarily due to diluvial formations, with a comparatively recent hem of lake action, consisting of sands and pebbles pushed up by the waves of Lake Superior. Through this tract, from the plateaux, four small rivers make their way to the lake. They are, in their order, from west to east, the river of Grand Mauvais, the Twin River, the Shelldrake, and the Tacquimenon, which enters the lake fifteen miles from Point Iroquois.

Of these streams, the Tacquimenon carries the largest body of water into the lake. It is already a stream of seventy feet wide, and three feet deep, when it reaches the rim of sandstone rocks referred to. Over these, it is plunged, at a single perpendicular leap, forty feet, falling like a curtain. It drops into a vast concavity in the sand rock, where the water is of unfathomable depth, black and still. I had reached this point in a canoe manned by Indians. They had urged their way up a very rapid brawling bed for six miles above the lower falls, and when we reached this still, deep, and dark basin, they said that care was required to keep from under the suction of the falling sheet.

The lower falls of the stream are probably twelve or fourteen feet. They are broken into several fan-shaped cascades, and present a picturesque appearance--an idea which has also impressed the Chippewas, for they refer to it as a favorite locality of fairies. Hence their name for it. Immediately below these falls the river winds about, making a peninsula, which is covered with deciduous trees and a fertile soil. The amount of water power at this point is such as must command attention whenever the country justifies settlement.

5. _Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of the Deposit of Sandstone Rock at St. Mary's Falls._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

Lake Superior presents to the eye the singular spectacle of a body of pure translucent water, five hundred miles in length from east to west, and one hundred and eighty or two hundred miles wide. This vast mass of water is thought to have an extreme depth--I know not on what principles--of nine hundred feet deep. It lies at an elevation of six hundred feet above the Atlantic ocean, at high water.

From this depth there has been protruded from its bottom two species of formations, which were thus elevated by volcanic forces, namely, the trap and the granitical series. Cones and high mural cliffs, with large rents, make this basis one of great inequalities. To fill up these, the sedimentary rocks, by a natural law of gravitation, let fall the dissolved and suspended matter which constitutes the horizontal strata, such as the neutral and deep-colored sandstones. This process also gives origin to grauwackes and the grauwacke slates and the argillites. But these horizontal deposits do not all retain their horizontality. They were tilted up by other volcanic forces, after the deposition and hardening of the sandstones, as we see them at the north foot of the Porcupine Mountains and along the rugged valley of the St. Louis River.

This secondary upheaval or series of upheavals, is conceived to furnish proof of epochs. Strata of the same mineral constitution and system of formation which are upheaved, are clearly of posterior age to the horizontal. Some of these strata of the secondary, epoch have only had their horizontality disturbed, while others are quite vertical. Yet, the disturbances of an epoch are only relative, and it remains true that any disturbance, however slight, in the fundamental series, throws the epoch beyond the newer fletz and tertiary formations.

Some theory of this kind is necessary in scrutinizing the position of the St. Mary's sandstone, which is manifestly of the palaozoic era. It has felt the impulse of disturbance, although it appears to be little. Evidences of this are most perceptible in the British Channel, on the north side of the Island of St. Joseph. This channel, and, indeed, the entire course of the river up to Lake Superior, is the line of juxtaposition between the rocks of elder and the secondary epoch. At the extreme foot of Sugar Island occurs the remains of a stratum of the sandstone era, consisting of white quartz filled with coarse red jasper pebbles. I observed remains of this stratum of remarkable rock, which have been broken off and swept away in the basin of Lake Huron, deposited in boulder masses on its southern shores.

The sandstone of St. Mary's is, structurally, brittle, fissile, and worthless, as a building material. Its substructure is complicated and made up of thin layers exactly deposited, as if from watery suspension, but deposited without disturbance. These sub-layers of construction, are sometimes cut off by parallel lines at right angles, or by new series of layers diagonally formed, or in echelon.

3. INDIAN TRIBES.

VIII.

CONDITION AND DISPOSITION.

1. _Official Report of an Expedition through Upper Michigan and Northern Wisconsin in 1831._

SAULT STE. MARIE, Sept. 21, 1831.

SIR: In compliance with instructions to endeavor to terminate the hostilities between the Chippewas and Sioux, I proceeded into the Chippewa country with thirteen men in two canoes, having the necessary provisions and presents for the Indians, an interpreter, a physician to attend the sick, and a person in charge of the provisions and other public property. The commanding officer of Fort Brady furnished me with an escort of ten soldiers, under the command of a lieutenant; and I took with me a few Chippewas, in a canoe provided with oars, to convey a part of the provisions. A flag was procured for each canoe. I joined the expedition at the head of the portage, at this place, on the 25th of June; and, after visiting the Chippewa villages in the belt of country between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, in latitudes 44° to 46°, returned on the 4th of September, having been absent seventy-two days, and travelled a line of country estimated to be two thousand three hundred and eight miles. I have now the honor to report to you the route pursued, the means employed to accomplish the object, and such further measures as appear to me to be necessary to give effect to what has been done, and to insure a lasting peace between the two tribes.

Reasons existed for not extending the visit to the Chippewa bands on the extreme Upper Mississippi, on Red Lake, and Red River, and the River De Corbeau. After entering Lake Superior, and traversing its southern shores to Point Chegoimegon, and the adjacent cluster of islands, I ascended the Mauvaise River to a portage of 8-¾ miles into the Kaginogumac, or Long Water Lake. This lake is about eight miles long, and of very irregular width. Thence, by a portage of 280 yards, into Turtle Lake; thence, by a portage of 1,075 yards, into Clary's Lake, so called; thence, by a portage of 425 yards, into Lake Polyganum; and thence, by a portage of 1,050 yards, into the Namakagon River, a branch of the River St. Croix of the Upper Mississippi. The distance from Lake Superior to this spot is, by estimation, 124 miles.

We descended the Namakagon to the Pukwaewa, a rice lake, and a Chippewa village of eight permanent lodges, containing a population of 53 persons, under a local chief called Odabossa. We found here gardens of corn, potatoes, and pumpkins, in a very neat state of cultivation. The low state of the water, and the consequent difficulty of the navigation, induced me to leave the provisions and stores at this place, in charge of Mr. Woolsey, with directions to proceed (with part of the men, and the aid of the Indians) to _Lac Courtorielle_, or Ottowa Lake, and there await my arrival. I then descended the Namakagon in a light canoe, to its discharge into the St. Croix, and down the latter to Yellow River, the site of a trading-post and an Indian village, where I had, by runners, appointed a council. In this trip I was accompanied by Mr. Johnson, sub-agent, acting as interpreter, and by Dr. Houghton, adjunct professor of the Rensselaer school. We reached Yellow River on the 1st of August, and found the Indians assembled. After terminating the business of the council (of which I shall presently mention the results), I reascended the St. Croix and the Namakagon, to the portage which intervenes between the latter and Lac Courtorielle. The first of the series of carrying-places is about three miles in length, and terminates at the Lake of the Isles (_Lac des Isles_); after crossing which, a portage of 750 yards leads to _Lac du Gres_. This lake has a navigable outlet into Ottowa Lake, where I rejoined the advanced party (including Lieutenant Clary's detachment) on the 5th of August.

Ottowa Lake is a considerable expanse of water, being about twelve miles long, with irregular but elevated shores. A populous Chippewa village and a trading-post are located at its outlet, and a numerous Indian population subsists in the vicinity. It is situated in a district of country which abounds in rice lakes, has a proportion of prairie or burnt land, caused by the ravages of fire, and, in addition to the small fur-bearing animals, has several of the deer species. It occupies, geographically, a central situation, being intermediate, and commanding the communications between the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, and between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi. It is on the great slope of land descending towards the latter, enjoys a climate of comparative mildness, and yields, with few and short intervals of extreme want, the means of subsistence to a population which is still essentially erratic. These remarks apply, with some modifications, to the entire range of country (within the latitudes mentioned) situated west and south of the high lands circumscribing the waters of Lake Superior. The outlet of this Lake (Ottowa) is a fork of Chippewa River, called Ottowa River.

I had intended to proceed from this lake, either by following down the Ottowa branch to its junction with the main Chippewa, and then ascending the latter into Lac du Flambeau, or by descending the Ottowa branch only to its junction with the northwest fork, called the Ochasowa River; and, ascending the latter to a portage of sixty _pauses_, into the Chippewa River. By the latter route time and distance would have been saved, and I should, in either way, have been enabled to proceed from Lac du Flambeau to Green Bay by an easy communication into the Upper Ouisconsin, and from the latter into the Menomonie River, or by Plover Portage into Wolf River. This was the route I had designed to go on quitting Lake Superior; but, on consulting my Indian maps, and obtaining at Ottowa Lake the best and most recent information of the distance and the actual state of the water, I found neither of the foregoing routes practicable, without extending my time so far as to exhaust my supplies. I was finally determined to relinquish the Lac du Flambeau route, by learning that the Indians of that place had dispersed, and by knowing that a considerable delay would be caused by reassembling them.

The homeward route by the Mississippi was now the most eligible, particularly as it would carry me through a portion of country occupied by the Chippewas, in a state of hostility with the Sioux, and across the disputed line at the mill. Two routes, to arrive at the Mississippi, were before me--either to follow down the outlet of Ottowa Lake to its junction with the Chippewa, and descend the latter to its mouth, or to quit the Ottowa Lake branch at an intermediate point, and, after ascending a small and very serpentine tributary, to cross a portage of 6,000 yards into Lake Chetac. I pursued the latter route.

Lake Chetac is a sheet of water about six miles in length, and it has several islands, on one of which is a small Chippewa village and a trading-post. This lake is the main source of Red Cedar River (called sometimes the _Folle Avoine_), a branch of the Chippewa River. It receives a brook at its head from the direction of the portage, which admits empty canoes to be conveyed down it two _pauses_, but is then obstructed with logs. It is connected by a shallow outlet with Weegwos Lake, a small expanse which we crossed with paddles in twenty-five minutes. The passage from the latter is so shallow that a portage of 1,295 yards is made into Balsam of Fir or _Sapin_ Lake. The baggage is carried this distance, but the canoes are brought through the stream. Sapin Lake is also small; we were thirty minutes in crossing it. Below this point, the river again expands into a beautiful sheet of water, called Red Cedar Lake, which we were an hour in passing; and afterward into _Bois François_, or Rice Lake. At the latter place, at the distance of perhaps sixty miles from its head, I found the last fixed village of Chippewas on this stream, although the hunting camps, and other signs of temporary occupation, were more numerous below than on any other part of the stream. This may be attributed to the abundance of the Virginia deer in that vicinity, many of which we saw, and of the elk and moose, whose tracks were fresh and numerous in the sands of the shore. Wild rice is found in all the lakes. Game, of every species common to the latitude, is plentiful. The prairie country extends itself into the vicinity of Rice Lake; and for more than a day's march before reaching the mouth of the river, the whole face of the country puts on a sylvan character, as beautiful to the eye as it is fertile in soil, and spontaneously productive of the means of subsistence. A country more valuable to a population having the habits of our northwestern Indians could hardly be conceived of; and it is therefore cause of less surprise that its possession should have been so long an object of contention between the Chippewas and Sioux.

About sixty miles below Rice Lake commences a series of rapids, which extend, with short intervals, 24 miles. The remainder of the distance, to the junction of this stream with the Chippewa, consists of deep and strong water. The junction itself is characterized by commanding and elevated grounds, and a noble expanse of waters. And the Chippewa River, from this spot to its entrance into the Mississippi, has a depth and volume, and a prominence of scenery, which mark it to be inferior to none, and superior to most of the larger tributaries of the Upper Mississippi. Before its junction, it is separated into several mouths, from the principal of which the observer can look into Lake Pepin. Steamboats could probably ascend to the falls.

The whole distance travelled, from the shores of Lake Superior to the mouth of the Chippewa, is, by estimation, 643 miles, of which 138 should be deducted for the trip to Yellow River leaving the direct practicable route 505 miles. The length of the Mauvaise to the portage is 104; of the Namakagon, from the portage, 161; of the Red Cedar, 170; of the Chippewa, from the entrance of the latter, 40. Our means of estimating distances was by time, corrected by reference to the rapidity of water and strength of wind, compared with our known velocity of travelling in calm weather on the lakes. These estimates were made and put down every evening, and considerable confidence is felt in them. The courses were accurately kept by a canoe compass. I illustrate my report of this part of the route by a map protracted by Dr. Houghton. On this map, our places of encampment, the sites and population of the principal Indian villages, the trading-posts, and the boundary lines between the Sioux and Chippewa, are indicated. And I refer you to it for several details which are omitted in this report.

The present state of the controversy between the Sioux and the Chippewas will be best inferred from the facts that follow. In stating them, I have deemed it essential to preserve the order of my conferences with the Indians, and to confine myself, almost wholly, to results.

Along the borders of Lake Superior, comparatively little alarm was felt from the hostile relation with the Sioux. But I found them well informed of the state of the difficulties, and the result of the several war-parties that had been sent out the last year. A system of information and advice is constantly kept up by runners; and there is no movement meditated on the Sioux borders, which is not known and canvassed by the lake bands.

They sent warriors to the scene of conflict last year, in consequence of the murder committed by the Sioux on the St. Croix. Their sufferings from hunger during the winter, and the existence of disease at Torch Lake (_Lac du Flambeau_), and some other places, together with the entire failure of the rice crop, had produced effects, which were depicted by them and by the traders in striking colors. They made these sufferings the basis of frequent and urgent requests for provisions. This theme was strenuously dwelt upon. Whatever other gifts they asked for, they never omitted the gift of food. They made it their first, their second, and their third request.

At Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior (or _La Pointe_, emphatically so called), I held my first and stated council with the Indians. This is the ancient seat of the Chippewa power in this quarter. It is a central and commanding point, with respect to the country lying north, and west, and south of it. It appears to be the focus from which, as radii from a centre, the ancient population emigrated; and the interior bands consequently look back to it with something of the feelings of parental relation. News from the frontiers flies back to it with a celerity which is peculiar to the Indian mode of express. I found here, as I had expected, the fullest and most recent information from the lines. Mozojeed, the principal man at Ottowa Lake, had recently visited them for the purpose of consultation; but returned on the alarm of an attack upon his village.

The Indians listened with attention to the message transmitted to them from the President, and to the statements with which it was enforced. Pezhickee, the venerable and respected chief of the place, was their speaker in reply. He lamented the war, and admitted the folly of keeping it up; but it was carried on by the Chippewas in self-defence, and by volunteer parties of young men, acting without the sanction of the old chiefs. He thought the same remark due to the elder Sioux chiefs, who probably did not sanction the crossing of the lines, but could not restrain their young men. He lived, he said, in an isolated situation, did not mingle in the interior broils, and did not deem himself responsible for acts done out of his own village, and certainly not for the acts of the villages of Torch Lake, Ottowa Lake, and the St. Croix. He had uniformly advised his people to sit still and remain at peace, and he believed that none of his young men had joined the war-parties of last year. The Government, he said, should have his hearty co-operation in restoring peace. He referred to the sub-agency established here in 1826, spoke of its benefits, and wished to know why the agent had been withdrawn, and whether he would be instructed to return? In the course of his reply, he said that formerly, when the Indians lived under the British government, they were usually told what to do, and in very distinct terms; but they were now at a loss. From what had been said and done at the treaty of Fond du Lac, he expected the care and protection of the American government, and that they would advance towards, instead of (as in the case of the sub-agency) withdrawing from them. He was rather at a loss for our views respecting the Chippewas, and he wished much for my advice in their affairs.

I thought it requisite to make a distinct reply to this point. I told him that when they lived under the British government, they were justified in shaping their course according to the advice they received; but that, on the transfer of the country, their allegiance was transferred with it. And when our Government hoisted its flag at Mackinac (1796), it expected from the Indians living within our boundaries the respect due to it; and it acknowledged, at the same time, the reciprocal obligations of care and protection. That it always aimed to fulfil these obligations, of which facts within his own knowledge and memory would afford ample proofs. I referred him to the several efforts the Government had made to establish a lasting peace between the Chippewas and Sioux; for which purpose the President had sent one of his principal men (alluding to Gov. Cass), in 1820, who had visited their most extreme northwestern villages, and induced themselves and the Sioux to smoke the pipe of peace together at St. Peter's. In accordance with these views, and acting on the information then acquired, the President had established an agency for their tribe at Sault Ste. Marie, in 1822. That, in 1825, he had assembled at Prairie du Chien all the tribes who were at variance on the Upper Mississippi, and persuaded them to make peace, and, as one of the best means of insuring its permanency, had fixed the boundaries of their lands. Seeing that the Chippewas and Sioux still continued an harassing and useless contest, he had sent me to remind them of this peace and these boundaries, which, I added, you, Perikee, yourself agreed to, and signed, in my presence. I come to bring you back to the terms of this treaty. Are not these proofs of his care and attention? Are not these clear indications of his, views respecting the Chippewas? The chief was evidently affected by this recital. The truth appeared to strike him forcibly; and he said, in a short reply, that he was now _advised_; that he would hereafter feel himself to be advised, &c. He made some remarks on the establishment of a mission school, &c., which, being irrelevant, are omitted. He presented a pipe, with an ornamented stem, as a token of his friendship, and his desire of peace.

I requested him to furnish messengers to take belts of wampum and tobacco, with three separate messages, viz: to Yellow River, to Ottowa Lake, and to Lac du Flambeau, or Torch Lake; and also, as the water was low, to aid me in the ascent of the Mauvaise River, and to supply guides for each of the military canoes, as the soldiers would here leave their barge, and were unacquainted with the difficulties of the ascent. He accordingly sent his oldest son (Che-che-gwy-ung) and another person, with the messages, by a direct trail, leading into the St. Croix country. He also furnished several young Chippewas to aid us on the Mauvaise, and to carry baggage on the long portage into the first intermediate lake west of that stream.

After the distribution of presents, I left Chegoimegon on the 18th of July. The first party of Indians met at the Namakagon, belonging to a Chippewa village called Pukwaewa; having, as its geographical centre and trading-post, Ottowa Lake. As I had directed part of the expedition to precede me there, during my journey to Yellow River, I requested these Indians to meet me at Ottowa Lake, and assist in conveying the stores and provisions to that place--a service which they cheerfully performed. On ascending the lower part of the Namakagon, I learned that my messenger from Lake Superior had passed, and, on reaching Yellow River, I found the Indians assembled and waiting. They were encamped on an elevated ridge, called Pekogunagun, or the Hip Bone, and fired a salute from its summit. Several of the neighboring Indians came in after my arrival. Others, with their chiefs, were hourly expected. I did not deem it necessary for all to come in, but proceeded to lay before them the objects of my visit, and to solicit their co-operation in an attempt to make a permanent peace with the Sioux, whose borders we then were near. Kabamappa, the principal chief, not being a speaker, responded to my statements and recommendations through another person (Sha-ne-wa-gwun-ai-be). He said that the Sioux were of bad faith; that they never refused to smoke the pipe of peace with them, and they never failed to violate the promise of peace thus solemnly made. He referred to an attack they made last year on a band of Chippewas and half-breeds, and the murder of four persons. Perpetual vigilance was required to meet these inroads. Yet he could assert, fearlessly, that no Chippewa war-party from the St. Croix had crossed the Sioux line for years; that the murder he had mentioned was committed within the Chippewa lines; and although it was said, at the treaty of Prairie du Chien, that the first aggressor of territorial rights should be punished, neither punishment was inflicted by the Government, nor had any atonement or apology thus far been made for this act by the Sioux. He said his influence had been exerted in favor of peace; that he had uniformly advised both chiefs and warriors to this effect; and he stood ready now to do whatever it was reasonable he should do on the subject.

I told him it was not a question of recrimination that was before us. It was not even necessary to go into the inquiry of who had spilt the first blood since the treaty of Prairie du Chien. The treaty had been violated. The lines had been crossed. Murders had been committed by the Chippewas and by the Sioux. These murders had reached the ears of the President, and he was resolved to put a stop to them. I did not doubt but that the advice of the old chiefs, on each side, had been pacific. I did not doubt but that his course had been _particularly_ so. But rash young men, of each party, had raised the war-club; and when they could not go openly, they went secretly. A stop must be put to this course, and it was necessary the first movement should be made _somewhere_. It was proper it should be made here, and be made at this time. Nothing could be lost by it; much might be gained; and if a negotiation was opened with the Sioux chiefs while I remained, I would second it by sending an explanatory message to the chiefs and to their agent. I recommended that Kabamappa and Shakoba, the war-chief of Snake River, should send jointly wampum and tobacco to the Petite Corbeau and to Wabisha, the leading Sioux chiefs on the Mississippi, inviting them to renew the league of friendship, and protesting their own sincerity in the offer. I concluded by presenting him with a flag, tobacco, wampum, and ribbons, to be used in the negotiation. After a consultation, he said he would not only send the messages, but, as he now had the protection of a flag, he would himself go with the chief Shakoba to the Petite Corbeau's village. I accompanied these renewed offers of peace with explanatory messages, in my own name, to Petite Corbeau and to Wabisha, and a letter to Mr. Taliaferro, the Indian agent at St. Peter's, informing him of these steps, and soliciting his co-operation. A copy of this letter is hereunto annexed. I closed the council by the distribution of presents; after which the Indians called my attention to the conduct of their trader, &c.

Information was given me immediately after my arrival at Yellow River, that Neenaba, a popular war-leader from the Red Cedar fork of Chippewa River, had very recently danced the war-dance with thirty men at Rice Lake of Yellow River, and that his object was to enlist the young men of that place in a war-party against the Sioux. I also learned that my message for Ottowa Lake had been promptly transmitted through Neenaba, whom I was now anxious to see. I lost not an hour in reascending the St. Croix and the Namakagon. I purchased two additional canoes of the Indians, and distributed my men in them, to lighten the draught of water, and facilitate the ascent; and, by pushing early and late, we reached Ottowa Lake on the fifth day in the morning. Neenaba had, however, delivered his message, and departed. I was received in a very friendly and welcome manner, by Mozojeed, of the band of Ottowa Lake; Wabezhais, of the Red Devil's band of the South Pukwaewa; and Odabossa, of the Upper Namakagon. After passing the usual formalities, I prepared to meet them in council the same day, and communicate to them the objects of my mission.

In the course of the conference at this place, I obtained the particulars of a dispute which had arisen between the Chippewas of this quarter, which now added to their alarm, as they feared the latter would act in coincidence with their ancient enemies, the Sioux. The reports of this disturbance had reached me at the Sault, and they continued, with some variations, until my arrival here. The following are the material facts in relation to this new cause of disquietude: In the summer of 1827, Okunzhewug, an old woman, the wife of Kishkemun, the principal chief of Torch Lake, a man superannuated and blind, attended the treaty of Butte des Morts, bearing her husband's medal. She was treated with the respect due to the character she represented, and ample presents were directed to be given to her; among other things, a handsome hat. The latter article had been requested of her by a young Menomonie, and refused. It is thought a general feeling of jealousy was excited by her good reception. A number of the Menomonies went on her return route as far as the Clover Portage, where she was last seen. Having never returned to her village, the Chippewas attributed her death to the Menomonies. Her husband died soon after; but she had numerous and influential relatives to avenge her real or supposed murder. This is the account delivered by the Chippewas, and it is corroborated by reports from the traders of that section of the country. Her singular disappearance and secret death at the Clover Portage, is undisputed; and whether caused or not by any agency of the Menomonies, the belief of such agency, and that of the most direct kind, is fixed in the minds of the Chippewas, and has furnished the basis of their subsequent acts in relation to the Menomonie hunting-parties who have visited the lower part of Chippewa River. Two women belonging to one of these parties were killed by a Chippewa war-party traversing that part of the country the ensuing year. The act was disclaimed by them as not being intentional, and it was declared they supposed the women to be Sioux. On a close inquiry, however, I found the persons who committed this act were relatives of Okunzewug, which renders it probable that the murder was intentionally perpetrated. This act further widened the breach between the two hitherto fraternal tribes; and the Chippewas of this quarter began to regard the Menomonie hunting-parties, who entered the mouth of the Chippewa River, as intruders on their lands. Among a people whose means of verbal information is speedy, and whose natural sense of right and wrong is acute, the more than usual friendship and apparent alliance which have taken place between the Menomonies and Sioux, in the contest between the Sacs and Foxes, and the murder by them jointly of the Fox chief White Skin and his companions at a smoking council, in 1830, have operated to increase the feeling of distrust; so much so, that it was openly reported at Chegoimegon, at Yellow River, and Ottowa Lake, that the Menomonies had formed a league with the Sioux against the Chippewas also, and they were fearful of an attack from them. A circumstance that had given point to this fear, and made it a subject of absorbing interest, when I arrived at Ottowa Lake, was the recent murder of a Menomonie chief by a Chippewa of that quarter, and the demand of satisfaction which had been made (it was sometimes said) by the Indian agent at Prairie du Chien, and sometimes by the commanding officer, with a threat to march troops into the country. This demand, I afterward learned from the Indians at Rice Lake, and from a conversation with General Street, the agent at Prairie du Chien, had not been made, either by himself or by the commanding officer; and the report had probably arisen from a conversation held by a subaltern officer in command of a wood or timber-party near the mouth of the Chippewa River, with some Chippewas who were casually met. Its effects, however, were to alarm them, and to lead them to desire a reconciliation with the Menomonies. I requested them to lose no time in sending tobacco to the Menomonies, and adjusting this difference. Mozojeed observed that the murder of the Menomonie had been committed by a person _non compos_, and he deplored the folly of it, and disclaimed all agency in it for himself and his band. The murderer, I believe, belonged to his band; he desired a reconciliation. He also said the measures adopted at Yellow River, to bring about a firm peace with the Sioux, had his fullest approbation, and that nothing on his part should be wanting to promote a result in every view so wise and so advantageous to the Indians. In this sentiment, Wabezhais and Odabossa, who made distinct speeches, also concurred. They confirmed their words by pipes, and all the assembly made an audible assent. I invested Mozojeed with a flag and a medal, that he might exert the influence he has acquired among the Indians beneficially for them and for us, and that his hands might thus be officially strengthened to accomplish the work of pacification. I then distributed presents to the chiefs, warriors, women, and children, in the order of their being seated, and immediately embarked, leaving them under a lively and enlivened sense of the good-will and friendship of the American government, on this first official visit to them, and with a sincere disposition, so far as could be judged, to act in obedience to its expressed and known wishes.

The Indians at Torch Lake being dispersed, and my message to them not having been delivered, from this uncertainty of their location, I should have found reasons for not proceeding in that direction, independent of the actual and known difficulties of the route at that time. I was still apprehensive that my appearance had not wholly disconcerted the war-party of Neenaba, and lost no time in proceeding to his village on the Red Cedar fork. We found the village at Lake Chetac, which in 1824 was 217 strong, almost totally deserted, and the trading-house burnt. Scattering Indians were found along the river. The mutual fear of interruption was such that Mr. B. Cadotte, Sen., the trader at Ottowa Lake, thought it advisable to follow in our train for the purpose of collecting his credits at Rice Lake.

While at breakfast on the banks of Sapin Lake, a returning war-party entered the opposite side of it; they were evidently surprised, and they stopped. After reconnoitring us, they were encouraged to advance, at first warily, and afterward with confidence. There were eight canoes, with two men in each; each man had a gun, war-club, knife, and ammunition-bag: there was nothing else except the apparatus for managing the canoe. They were all young men, and belonged to the vicinity of Ottowa Lake. Their unexpected appearance at this place gave me the first information that the war-party at Neenaba had been broken up. They reported that some of their number had been near the mill, and that they had discovered signs of the Sioux being out, in the moose having been driven up, &c. In a short conference, I recited to them the purpose of the council at Ottowa Lake, and referred them to their chiefs for particulars, enjoining their acquiescence in the proposed measures.

I found at Rice Lake a band of Chippewas, most of them young men, having a prompt and martial air, encamped in a very compact form, and prepared at a moment's notice, for action. They saluted our advance with a smartness and precision of firing that would have done honor to drilled troops. Neenaba was absent on a hunting-party; but one of the elder men pointed out a suitable place for my encampment, as I intended here to put new bottoms to my bark canoes. He arrived in the evening, and visited my camp with forty-two men. This visit was one of ceremony merely; as it was late, I deferred anything further until the following day. I remained at this place part of the 7th, the 8th, and until 3 o'clock on the 9th of August. And the following facts present the result of several conferences with this distinguished young man, whose influence is entirely of his own creation, and whose endowments, personal and mental, had not been misrepresented by the Indians on my route, who uniformly spoke of him in favorable terms. He is located at the most advanced point towards the Sioux borders, and, although not in the line of ancient chiefs, upon him rests essentially the conduct of affairs in this quarter. I therefore deemed it important to acquire his confidence and secure his influence, and held frequent conversations with him. His manner was frank and bold, equally free from servility and repulsiveness. I drew his attention to several subjects. I asked him whether the saw-mill on the lower part of the Red Cedar, was located on Chippewa lands? He said, Yes. Whether it was built with the consent of the Chippewas? He said, No; it had been built, as it were, by stealth. I asked him if anything had been subsequently given them in acknowledgment of their right to the soil? He said, No; that the only acknowledgment was their getting tobacco to smoke when they visited the mill; that the Sioux claimed it to be on their side of the line, but the Chippewas contended that their line ran to a certain bluff and brook below the