Part 1
Copyright (C) 2011 by Bruce Linnell
Note that an accompanying PDF file correctly displays the English and Chinese characters.
Guanzi, Number 49 : Study of Inner Cultivation Translated by Bruce R. Linnell, PhD (2011)
Background ---------- The "Nei Ye" or "Nei Yeh", variously translated as "Inner Enterprise", "Inner Training", "Inner Cultivation", or "Inner Development" (and "Inward" may be substituted for "Inner" in any of the previous), is generally considered to have been written around 350-300 BC (after Confucius, but before the Dao De Jing). Its influence can be seen in many aspects of Daoism (including the Dao De Jing itself) and in traditional Chinese medicine. It is a brief work (only 1/5 as long as the Dao De Jing), written in short, often rhymed, verses. It has been preserved in the "Guanzi", a collection of diverse writings that was compiled during the third century BC. There is no name given for the author.
While available for millennia, the Nei Ye has just started to receive serious scholarly attention in the last few decades. It describes how to build up and store various spiritual forces such as Qi and "essence" (there is no indication that "essence" refers to reproductive fluids, which appeared later in Chinese thought), and how to control one's heart/mind. It shows no influence of any school of Chinese religious or philosophical thought, other than using a few basic Confucian terms. It does have a few concepts in common with the work by Mencius, but as they were probably both written about the same time it is impossible to tell who influenced who (or if they were both influenced by something else).
While the Nei Ye has many similarities, including writing style, with the Dao De Jing, it also differs significantly in its perspective. For instance, there is no social commentary, no political or military advice, nor any explanation of how the universe was created or how it works. There is no mention of yin and yang, "non-action" or "non-being", nor does it advocate a feminine/receptive attitude. It does not criticize Confucianism, nor does it present the sage as a person with some kind of better understanding of reality. Even the terms Dao and De apparently don't mean the same thing in the Nei Ye as they do in the Dao De Jing - for example, both Dao and De are described in some passages as being able to "arrive" and "settle" in a person.
There are two scholarly books that discuss the Nei Ye at length and provide complete translations :
W. Allyn Rickett, "Guanzi : Political, Economic, and Philosophical Essays from Early China", vol. 2, 1985 (revised 1998).
Harold D. Roth, "Original Tao: Inward Training (Nei-yeh) and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism", 1999.
There is also another very recent translation available on the web, that is copyright-free as far as I can determine :
Robert Eno, "Guanzi : The Inner Enterprise", 2005 www.indiana.edu/~p374/Neiye.pdf
Translations often differ significantly because there are at least five early manuscripts to draw upon, dating from around 1300 to 1600 AD. In addition, Chinese scholars in the last few centuries have made many suggested modifications to the existing original sources. Attempting to reverse centuries of possible transcription errors, they replaced many symbols which apparently make no sense with symbols that have a very similar shape and/or sound (often to complete a rhyme), and whose meaning seemed more appropriate. To make matters worse, there are no readily available printed copies of the oldest manuscripts in their original form, so the Chinese symbols used for this work came from various web sites and were cross-referenced against Roth's book (below). Every care has been taken to ensure that the symbols used here are correct, but how accurately they match the original manuscripts is unknown.
The Translation Process ----------------------- Often, translators just try to get the general "feel" of what the Chinese is trying to say, and then write an English sentence that means about the same thing. What I tried to do (for no other reason than to see if it could be done) was to preserve as much of the original Chinese as possible by always using each symbol in the English sentence, and an exact translation of each symbol wherever possible, with as few added English words as possible. This sometimes results in sentences that are somewhat stilted in English, but that I hope retain more of the original Chinese way of thinking. I also tried to use the same English word for the same Chinese symbol whenever possible, so that the English reader could better see what the writer(s) were trying to say. Occasionally more than one English meaning for a symbol fits equally well, and the translator must pick just one. However, I sometimes took both meanings and combined them into a single phrase, such as "heart/mind", or "fair and just". Exact translations are interpreted when they either don't make as much sense literally, or when the resulting phrase would be awkward in English.
The approach used here for the corrected symbols was to always use the original symbol whenever possible, and only use a suggested correction when the original symbol makes no sense.
While I originally intended to present each sentence "as is" (with no additional interpretation of the sentence as-a-whole on my part), there are many sentences which do not seem to make sense without a context. The more I study the Nei Ye, the more I have come to believe that it is talking about aligning the heart/mind, not the physical body, to receive Dao, De, Qi and essence. In particular, I believe that some references to "form" are referring to the "form of the heart/mind" (a phrase which is used explicitly three times), and so have added that phrase in two more places, indicated by [brackets]. In addition, a couple of references to "returning" are assumed to be referring to returning to one's nature (a phrase which is used explicitly once), and they are also indicated by brackets. There are a few more personal assumptions indicated by brackets. Other scholarly and personal interpretations are explained in the footnotes.
The section (---) and sub-section (blank line) divisions are entirely due to the hubris of the translator. As far as I know, there are no section markers in the original manuscripts, because Rickett, Roth, and Eno often use different divisions.
Definitions ----------- Some of the terms that are used repeatedly need to be discussed beforehand for clarity :
Dao (Tao) : in the Dao De Jing, Dao is both the natural way of things and the process of following that way; here, it is something that is essential for life and that can dwell in the heart/mind; it is left untranslated so that the readers may "fill in the blank" for themselves as they read
De (Te) : in the Dao De Jing, De is most often translated as "virtue" or "power" and is described in Chapter 49 as "goodness" or "virtue" and "honesty" or "trust"; here, it is something that can "arrive" in a person and is used daily; it is also left untranslated so that the readers may "fill in the blank" for themselves
"Qi" (Ch'i) : vitality, life force, life energy, vital energy; it can also refer to the breath; here, it is needed for life and dwells in the heart/mind, and is also left untranslated
"essence" : this is also something that can "arrive" and "settle" in a person, and is required for life
It should be noted that "Qi" and "essence" are very intimately linked, if not actually referring to the exact same thing (but then why use two names?). Both Qi and essence are required for life and can dwell within the body, and there are lines apparently referring to the "essence of Qi" and the "Qi of essence".
It seems that the Nei Ye may be saying that Dao, De, Qi, and essence are all-pervasive spiritual things (as opposed to concepts) which are not inherently within us, but which can be obtained by taking (and keeping) certain mental/emotional attitudes. However, it is also possible that the Nei Ye is using these terms to attempt to explain by allegory and metaphor the various feelings experienced as a result of the meditative practices of the writer(s). According to LaFargue, this interpretation is supported by the inconsistent "definitions" given of the various terms (and the relationships between them), and by the sometimes experientially similar descriptions of different terms. The readers can decide for themselves.
"heart/mind" : usually translated as either "heart" or "mind" (the symbol means both), it seems that the ancient Chinese may have considered the heart to be the place of understanding, perception, and awareness, so "heart/mind" seems to be the best translation
"form" : this appears to sometimes refer to the physical body, but often not, because the "form of the heart/mind" is referred to several times
"properly aligned" : literally just "proper" or "correct", this is taken to mean "to bring into a proper or desirable relationship"
"regulated" : to be orderly, well governed, under control; guided by certain rules or principles
"confused" : the opposite of "regulated", and the normal state for most people; caused by getting caught up in the ten thousand things, love and anger, worry and happiness, etc.
"thought", "intent", "desire" : regardless of what it is called, as far as the Nei Ye is concerned, it is sometimes a good thing, sometimes a bad thing; it seems to be a mixture of both thought and feelings (similar to "heart/mind"); "intent" is perhaps best because that has connotations of thought and emotion, but "thought" and "desire" sometimes work better in English
"equable" : while the symbol literally means "even", "equal", "calm", equable means to be steady, free from extremes, serene; not to be confused with "equitable" (unbiased)
"settled" : has connotations of being calm as well as stable or rooted
"proper value" : literally "estimate" (which is the process of judging the worth or value of something), this is taken to mean "to have the proper perspective about the importance of a thing"
"naturally" : something that happens by itself, spontaneously, without being forced ("of itself", "of its own accord", "on its own")
"love" : often translated as "happiness" or "joy" by others, this seems to be happiness due to something or attached to something, so here it is translated as "love"
"heaven" : a complex concept, this symbol has connotations of the sky, nature, and that which is the source of existence, as well as that of being a celestial god-like spirit, and that which controls our destinies
"the world" : literally "heaven under", it is perhaps better thought of as "all things under heaven", but it is translated as "the world" because the grammar sometimes gets awkward using the more accurate phrase
"heaven and earth" : everything, the universe, all that is
"ten thousand creatures" : "ten thousand" as used here does not refer to a specific number, but means "innumerable" or "myriad"; together the symbols are perhaps better thought of as "all creatures and things" (including people)
"duties" : one's personal and business affairs and responsibilities
"sage" : literally "holy person" or "wise man"
"always" : the first symbol of the document, it is used many times throughout the Nei Ye, and always starts a sentence. Some translators just ignore it, but it seemed important to the writer(s), so I wanted to use it, and consistently. The standard translation of "all" or "every" works in some places, but not in many. Another standard translation of "earthly" works everywhere, but sounds strange when referring to Dao ("earthly Dao"), and would seem to postulate a world-view ("earthly Dao" vs. perhaps "heavenly Dao"?) for which there is no other evidence. However, an interpreted translation of "always" works everywhere.
Confucian concepts (marked by a * in the translation) ------------------ "wise, wisdom" : as it says
"kindness" : benevolence, kindheartedness
"righteousness" : doing the right thing, personal honor, knowing right from wrong, being morally upright
"propriety" : proper etiquette, courtesy; being formal, respectful
"respect" : an inner attitude of respectfulness and/or reverence
"noble man" : literally "son of the ruler", it can mean "nobleman" (one who belongs to the nobility), but also one who is noble or moral in character; sometimes translated by others as "gentleman" or "superior man"
References ---------- Robert Eno, "Guanzi : 'The Inner Enterprise'", 2005 Russell Kirkland, "Neiye : Inner Cultivation", 1998 Russell Kirkland, "Varieties of Taoism in Ancient China", 1997 Michael LaFargue, "Tao and Method", 1994 W. Allyn Rickett, "Guanzi : Political, Economic, and Philosophical Essays from Early China", vol. 2, 1985 Harold D. Roth, "Original Tao: Inward Training (Nei-yeh) and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism", 1999 Fabien Simonis, "A Chinese Model of Cognition: the Neiye", Master's Thesis, McGill University, 1998 Arthur Waley, "The Way and its Power", 1958
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Always : the essence of creatures - This then makes them live. Below, it gives birth to the five grains; Above, it acts to arrange the stars. When it flows in the space between heaven and earth We call them ghosts and spirits. When it collects in the center of the breast of people, We call them sages.
Thus the Qi of the citizens : Is it bright? As though ascending to heaven. Is it dark and quiet? As though entering into an abyss. Is it wide and spacious? As though residing in the ocean. Is it close[A]? As though residing in oneself.
Thus this Qi - Can not be brought to rest by using force, But can be calmed by using De. Can not be summoned by using your voice, But can be made welcome by using your intent.
When you can respectfully* maintain it, and never lose it, This is called developed De. When De develops, and wisdom* arises, The bounty of the ten thousand creatures is attained.
Always : the form of the heart/mind is Naturally full, naturally overflowing, Naturally born, naturally complete. The reason that you lose it Is certainly due to worries and happiness, love and anger, desire for profit. If you can leave behind worries and happiness, love and anger, desire for profit, Your heart/mind then returns [to its original nature] successfully.
The nature of that heart/mind Benefits from calmness and the tranquility that comes from it. Do not be troubled, do not be confused, And harmony is then naturally achieved.
Is it very bright? As though located right by your side. Is it very easy to overlook? As though it will never be attained. Is it very remote and indistinct? As though utterly without boundaries.
To examine this, you need not go far : You use De daily.
Now : Dao is the reason that the form [of the heart/mind] is full! But people can not be strong enough to keep it - It goes and does not return, It arrives but does not dwell.
Is it silent? There is no one who can hear its sound. Is it close[A]? It is residing in the heart/mind. Is it very dim and obscure? You can not see its form. Is it very prolific? It gives us all life.
You can not see its form, You can not hear its voice, Yet there is an order to its accomplishments. We call it Dao.
Always : Dao is nowhere to be found, But in a virtuous heart/mind it can calmly dwell. When the heart/mind is still and Qi is regulated, Dao can then stay there.
That Dao is not remote : Citizens attain it by being born. That Dao does not depart : Citizens rely on it for understanding.
Thus : is it close[A]? As though it could be tied together with you. Is it very minute and subtle? As though it is utterly nowhere to be found.
The nature of that Dao Detests thoughts and words about it. But when you cultivate your heart/mind and still your thoughts, Dao can then be attained.
Dao - That which your mouth can not speak! That which your eyes can not see! That which your ears can not hear! It is the reason that we cultivate the heart/mind and properly align [its][B] form! That which when people lose, thus they die. That which when attained, thus they are born! That which when duties lose, thus they fail. That which when attained, thus they are completed!
Always : Dao is Without root, without stalk, Without leaves, without flowers. By means of it the ten thousand creatures are born, By means of it the ten thousand creatures are made complete. This [natural] order, it is called Dao.
That which presides over Heaven is proper alignment, That which presides over Earth is equability, That which presides over people is calmness and stillness.
Spring, autumn, winter, summer - The timing of heaven! Mountains, hills, streams, valleys - The limbs of the earth! Love, anger, taking, giving - The schemes of the people!
Thus the sage : Takes part in the changing of the seasons, but is not transformed; He attends to creatures, but is not changed by them.
When you can be properly aligned and can be still[C] - Then, you can be settled. With a settled heart/mind in your center, Your ears and eyes are acute and clear, Your four limbs are hard and strong, You are able to become a dwelling for essence. This essence - Is essence of Qi!
With Qi and Dao, then there is life; With life, then there is contemplation; With contemplation, then there is understanding; When you reach understanding, then stop! Always : if the form of the heart/mind Has too much understanding, life is lost.
Knowing the Oneness[D] with creatures can transform them, We call this being spirit-like[E]. Knowing the Oneness with your duties can change them, We call this being wise*.
To transform creatures, without altering your Qi; To change duties, without altering your wisdom*;[F] Only a noble man* who maintains Oneness[G] Can do this!
When he maintains Oneness[G] and does not lose it, He can rule[H] the ten thousand creatures. A noble man* uses creatures, He does not allow creatures to use[I] him.
When he attains the regulation of Oneness : A regulated heart/mind resides in his center, Regulated speech comes from his mouth, Regulated duties are assigned to people. Then, the world is regulated!
One word[J] is attained by him, and the world obeys him; One word[J] settles him, and the world listens to him. We call him fair and just!
If the form [of the heart/mind] is not properly aligned, De will not arrive. If the center is not still, The heart/mind will not be regulated.
When the properly aligned form takes in De, The kindness* of heaven and the righteousness* of earth Then naturally arrive, and overwhelmingly.
This highest of spirit-like understanding[K] - Is it illuminating? You will understand the ten thousand creatures.[L]
Maintain the righteousness* of the center, and you will not err : Do not allow creatures to confuse your senses, Do not allow the senses to confuse your heart/mind. This is called attaining the center.
There exists a spirit[-like understanding] naturally located in the self - One moment it goes, one moment it arrives; There is no one who can contemplate it. Lose it and you will certainly be confused, Attain it and you will certainly be regulated.
Respectfully* empty its dwelling[M], And essence will naturally arrive. This essence - consider it and contemplate it, Rather than study ways to regulate it. Keeping a serious appearance, and an attitude of awe and respect*, Essence will arrive and settle.
When you attain it and never let go of it, Your ears and eyes will be restrained, Your heart/mind will have no other plans. With a properly aligned heart/mind located in the center, The ten thousand creatures attain their proper value.
Dao fills the world Every place the citizens are located, But the citizens can not understand this!
With the liberation of one word[J] : Your head can observe what is in heaven, Your lowest extreme is on earth, And your coils fill the nine provinces.[N]
What does it mean to be liberated by it? You will reside in a calm heart/mind. I regulate my heart/mind and my senses are then regulated; I calm my heart/mind and my senses are then calm. That which regulates them is the heart/mind! That which calms them is the heart/mind! The heart/mind thus contains a heart/mind; The center of the heart/mind also has a heart/mind!
In that heart/mind of the heart/mind : Thought thus comes before words; After thought comes form; After form comes words; After words comes manifestation; After manifestation comes regulation. Without regulation, there will certainly be confusion; Confusion, then death.
Where essence exists, there is naturally life - Outside you, calmness flourishes; It collects inside you, thus acting as a primal spring. Like a vast lake[O], it is harmonious and equable.
It thus becomes a fountainhead of Qi. As long as the fountainhead does not dry up, The four limbs are then strong.
When the spring is not used up, The nine bodily openings[P] are then open [to the flow of Qi]. Then you can span the limits of heaven and earth, And cover the four seas[Q].
When the center is without doubt or desire, The outside is without demonic disasters. Those whose heart/mind is whole and complete in the center : Their form is whole and complete on the outside, They do not happen to meet heavenly disasters, They do not encounter people who cause harm - We call them sages.
When people can be properly aligned and still : Their hair and skin are abundant and smooth, Their ears and eyes are acute and clear, Their muscles are supple and their bones are strong.
Then they can support the great circle of heaven, And walk on the great square of earth. They are a reflection of great purity, They see with great clarity.
Respectful* and cautious, they are without error; Each day they renew their De. They understand the whole world Thoroughly out to the four extremes.
They respectfully* develop their fullness; This is called inner attainment. However, if they do not return [to their original nature], This creates errors.
Always : Dao is Certainly complete, certainly all-pervasive, Certainly magnanimous, certainly relaxed, Certainly hard, certainly strong.
Maintain your virtue and never give up; To pursue excess disperses and weakens it. Once you understand the extremes, Return to Dao and De.
When your whole and complete heart/mind is in the center, It can not be hidden or concealed - It is known in your form's appearance, It is seen in your skin's color.
When with virtuous Qi you meet people, They will love you as they would their brothers. When with wicked Qi you meet people, They will harm you with their weapons of war. Because the sound of that which is un-spoken Travels faster than a clap of thunder.