CHAPTER X.

Popularity of the Arthurian Romance--Reasons for that Popularity--Affinities of the Mediæval Romances with early Celtic Literature; Importance of the Individual Hero; Knighthood; the _rôle_ of Woman; the Celtic Fairy and the Mediæval Lady; the Supernatural--M. Renan's views--The Quest in English Literature, Malory--The earliest form of the Legend, Chrestien, his continuators--The Queste and its Ideal--The Sex-Relations in the Middle Ages--Criticism of Mr. Furnivall's estimate of the moral import of the Queste--The Merits of the Queste--The Chastity Ideal in the later versions--Modern English Treatments: Tennyson, Hawker--Possible Source of the Chastity Ideal in Popular Tradition--The Perceval Quest in Wolfram; his Moral Conception; the Question; Parzival and Conduiramur--The Parzival Quest and Faust--Wagner's Parsifal--The Christian element in the Legend--Ethical Ideas in the folk-tale originals of the Grail Romances: the Great Fool, the Sleeping Beauty--Conclusion.

Few legends have attained such wide celebrity, or been accepted as so thoroughly symbolical of one master conception, as that of the Holy Grail. Poets and thinkers from mediæval times to our own days have used it as a type of the loftiest goal of man's effort. There must be something in the romances which first embodied this conception to account for the enduring favour it has enjoyed. Nor is it that we read into the old legend meanings and teachings undreamt of before our day. At a comparatively early stage in the legend's existence its capacities were perceived, and the works which were the outcome of that perception became the breviary and the exemplar of their age. There are reasons, both general and special, why the Celtic mythic tales grew as they did, and had such overwhelming vogue in their new shapes. In no portion of the vast Arthurian cycle is it more needful or more instructive to see what these reasons were than in that which recounts the fortunes of the Grail.

The tales of Peredur and Gwalchmai, bound up with the Arthurian romance, shared its success, than which nothing in all literary history is more marvellous. It was in the year 1145 that Geoffrey of Monmouth first made the legendary history of Britain accessible to the lettered class of England and Continent. He thereby opened up to the world at large a new continent of romantic story, and exercised upon the development of literature an influence comparable in its kind to that of Columbus' achievement upon the course of geographical discovery and political effort. Twenty years had not passed before the British heroes were household names throughout Europe, and by the close of the century nearly every existing literature had assimilated and reproduced the story of Arthur and his Knights. Charlemagne and Alexander, the sagas of Teutonic tribes, the tale of Imperial Rome itself, though still affording subject matter to the wandering jongleur or monkish annalist, paled before the fame of the British King. The instinct which led the twelfth and thirteenth centuries thus to place the Arthurian story above all others was a true one. It was charged with the spirit of romance, and they were pre-eminently the ages of the romantic temper. The West had turned back towards the East, and, although the intent was hostile, the minds of the western men had been fecundated, their imagination fired by contact with the mother of all religions and all cultures. The achievements of the Crusaders became the standard of attainment to the loftiest and boldest minds of Western Christendom. For these men Alexander himself lacked courage and Roland daring. The fathers had stormed Jerusalem, and the sons' youth had been nourished on tales of Araby the Blest and Ophir the Golden of strife with the Paynim, of the sorceries and devilries of the East. Nothing seemed impossible to a generation which knew of toils and quests greater than any minstrel had sung, which had beheld in the East sights as wondrous and fearful as any the jongleur could tell of. Moreover, the age was that of Knight Errantry, and of that phase of love in which every Knight must qualify himself for the reception of his lady's favours by the performance of some feat of skill and daring. Such an age and such men demanded a special literature, and they found it in adaptations of Celtic tales.

The mythic heroic literature of all races is in many respects alike. The sagas not only of Greek or Persian, of Celt or Hindu, of Slav or Teuton, but also of Algonquin or Japanese, are largely made up of the same incidents set in the same framework. But each race shapes this common material in its own way, sets upon it its own stamp. And no race has done this more unmistakably than the Celtic. Stories which go back to the first century, stories taken down from the lips of living peasants, have a kinship of tone and style, a common ring which no one who has studied this literature can fail to recognise. What stamps the whole of it is the prevailing and abiding spirit of romance. To rightly urge the Celtic character of the Arthurian romances would require the minute analysis of many hundred passages, and it would only be proving a case admitted by everyone who knows all the facts. It will be more to the point to dwell briefly upon those outward features which early (_i.e._, pre-eleventh century) Celtic heroic literature has in common with the North French romances of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, especially as we thus gain a clue to much that is problematic in the formal and moral growth of the Arthurian cycle in general and of the Grail cycle in particular.

In Celtic tradition, as little as in mediæval romance, do we find a record of race-struggles such as meets us in the Nibelungenlied, in the Dietrich saga, or the Carolingian cycle.[144] In its place we have a glorification of the individual hero. The reason is not far to seek. The Celtic tribes, whether of Ireland or Britain, were surrounded by men of their own speech, of like institutions and manners. The shock of opposing nations, of rival civilisations, could not enter into their race-tradition. The story-teller had as his chief theme the prowess and skill of the individual "brave," the part he took in the conflicts which clan incessantly waged with clan, or his encounters with those powers of an older mythic world which lived on in the folk-fancy. To borrow Mr. Fitzgerald's convenient terminology, the "constants" of this tradition may be the same as in that of other Aryan races, the "resultants" are not. To give one instance: the conception of a chief surrounded by a picked band of warriors is common to all heroic tradition, but nowhere is it of such marked importance, nowhere does it so mould and shape the story as in the cycles of Conchobor and the Knights of the Red Branch, of Fionn and the Fianna, and of Arthur and his Knights. The careers of any of the early Irish heroes, the single-handed raids of Cét mac Magach or Conall Cearnach, above all the fortunes of Cuchullain, his hero's training in the Amazon-isle, his strife with Curoi mac Daire, his expeditions to fairy-land, his final holding of the ford against all the warriors of Erinn, breathe the same spirit of adventure for its own sake, manifest the same subordination of all else in the story to the one hero, that are such marked characteristics of the Arthurian romance.

Again, in the bands of picked braves who surround Conchobor or Fionn, in the rules by which they are governed, the trials which precede and determine admission into them, the duties and privileges which attach to them, we have, it seems to me, a far closer analogue to the knighthood of mediæval romance than may be found either in the Peers of Carolingian saga or in the chosen warriors who throng the halls of Walhalla.

In the present connection the part played by woman in Celtic tradition is perhaps of most import to us. In no respect is the difference more marked than in this between the twelfth century romances, whether French or German, and the earlier heroic literature of either nation. The absence of feminine interest in the earlier _chansons de geste_ has often been noted. The case is different with Teutonic heroic literature, in which woman's _rôle_ is always great, sometimes pre-eminently so. But a comparison of the two strains of traditions, Celtic and Teutonic, one with the other, and again with the romances, may help to account for much that is otherwise inexplicable to us in the mediæval presentment of the sex-feelings and sex-relations.

The love of man, and immortal, or, if mortal, semi-divine maid is a "constant" of heroic tradition. Teuton and Celt have handled this theme, however, in a very different spirit. In the legends of the former the man plays the chief part; he woos, sometimes he forces the fairy maiden to become the mistress of his hearth. As a rule, overmastered by the prowess and beauty of the hero, she is nothing loth. But sometimes, as does Brunhild, she feels the change a degradation and resents it. It is otherwise with the fairy mistresses of the Celtic hero; they abide in their own place, and they allure or compel the mortal lover to resort to them. Connla and Bran and Oisin must all leave this earth and sail across ocean or lake before they can rejoin their lady love; even Cuchullain, mightiest of all the heroes, is constrained, struggle as he may, to go and dwell with the fairy queen Fand, who has woed him. Throughout, the immortal mistress retains her superiority; when the mortal tires and returns to earth she remains, ever wise and fair, ready to welcome and enchant a new generation of heroes. She chooses whom she will, and is no man's slave; herself she offers freely, but she abandons neither her liberty nor her divine nature. This type of womanhood, capricious, independent, severed from ordinary domestic life, is assuredly the original of the Vivians, the Orgueilleuses, the Ladies of the Fountain of the romances; it is also one which must have commended itself to the knightly devotees of mediæval romantic love. Their "_dame d'amour_" was, as a rule, another man's wife; she raised in their minds no thought of home or child. In the tone of their feelings towards her, in the character of their intercourse with her, they were closer akin to Oisin and Neave, to Cuchullain and Fand, than to Siegfried and Brunhild, or to Roland and Aude. Even where the love-story passes wholly among mortals, the woman's _rôle_ is more accentuated than in the Teutonic sagas. She is no mere lay-figure upon a fire-bound rock like Brunhild or Menglad, ready, when the destined hero appears, to fall straightway into his arms. Emer, the one maiden of Erinn whom Cuchullain condescends to woo, is eager to show herself in all things worthy of him; she tests his wit as well as his courage, she makes him accept her conditions.[145] In the great tragic tale of ancient Ireland, the Fate of the Sons of Usnech, Deirdre--born like Helen or Gudrun, to be a cause of strife among men, of sorrow and ruin to whomsoever she loves--Deirdre takes her fate into her own hands, and woos Noisi with outspoken passionate frankness. The whole story is conceived and told in a far more "romantic" strain than is the case with parallel stories from Norse tradition, the loves of Helgi and Sigrun, or those of Sigurd and Brunhild-Gudrun. And if the lament of Deirdre over her slain love lacks the grandeur and the intensity with which the Norse heroines bewail their dead lords, it has, on the other hand, an intimate, a personal touch we should hardly have looked for in an eleventh century Irish epic.[146]

Another link between the Celtic sagas and the romances is their treatment of the supernatural. Heroic-traditional literature is made up of mythical elements, of scenes, incidents, and formulas which have done service in that account of man's dealings with and conceptions of the visible world which we call mythology. All such literature derives ultimately from an early, wholly animistic stage of culture. Small marvel, then, if in the hero-tales of every race there figure wonder-working talismans and bespelled weapons, if almost every great saga has, as part of its _dramatis personæ_, objects belonging to what we should now call the inanimate world. Upon these a species of life is conferred, most often by power of magic, but at times, it would seem, in virtue of the older conception which held all things to be endowed with like life. All heroic literatures do not, however, accentuate equally and similarly this magic side of their common stock. Celtic tradition is not only rich and varied beyond all others in this respect, it often thus secures its chief artistic effects. The talismans of Celtic romance, the fairy branch of Cormac, the Ga-bulg of Cuchullain, the sounding-hammer of Fionn, the treasures of the Boar Trwyth after which Prince Kilhwch sought, the glaives of light of the living folk-tale, have one and all a weird, fantastic, half-human existence, which haunts and thrills the imagination. No Celtic story-teller could have "mulled" the Nibelung-hoard as the poet of the Nibelungenlied has done. How different in this respect the twelfth century romances are from the earlier German or French sagas, how close to the Irish tales is apparent to whomsoever reads them with attention.[147]

I do not for one moment imply that the romantic literature of the Middle Ages was what it was, wholly or even mainly in virtue of its Celtic affinities. That literature was the outcome of the age, and something akin to it would have sprung up had Celtic tradition remained unknown to the Continent. The conception of feudal knighthood as a favoured class, in which men of different nations met on a common footing; the conception of knightly love as something altogether disassociated from domestic life, must in any case have led to the constitution of such a society as we find portrayed in the romances. What is claimed is that the spirit of the age, akin to the Celtic, recognised in Celtic tales the food it was hungering for. It transformed them to suit its own needs and ideas, but it carried out the transformation on the whole in essential agreement with tradition. In some cases a radical change is made; such a one is presented to us in the Grail cycle.

The legend thus started with the advantages of belonging to the popular literature of the time, and of association through Brons with Christian tradition. Its incidents were varied, and owing to the blending of diverse strains of story vague enough to be plastic. The formal development of the cycle has been traced in the earlier chapters of these studies; that of its ideal conceptions will be found to follow similar lines. Various ethical intentions can be distinguished, and there is not more difference between the versions in the conduct of the story than in the ideals they set forth.

To some readers it may have seemed well nigh sacrilegious to trace that

... vanished Vase of Heaven That held like Christ's own Heart an Hin of Blood,

to the magic vessels of pagan deities. In England the Grail-legend is hardly known save in that form which it has assumed in the Queste. This French romance was one of those which Malory embodied in his _rifacimento_ of the Arthurian cycle, and, thanks to Malory, it has become a portion of English speech and thought.[148] In our own days our greatest poet has expressed the quintessence of what is best and purest in the old romance in lines of imperishable beauty. As we follow Sir Galahad by secret shrine and lonely mountain mere until

Ah, blessed vision! Blood of God, The spirit beats her mortal bars, As down dark tides the glory slides, And star-like mingles with the stars.

we are under a spell that may not be resisted. And yet of the two main paths which the legend has trodden that of Galahad is the least fruitful and the least beautiful. Compared with the Perceval Quest in its highest literary embodiment the Galahad Quest is false and antiquated on the ethical side, lifeless on the æsthetic side.

As it first meets us in literature the legend has barely emerged from its pure and simple narrative stage. There is a temptation to exaggerate Chrestien's skill of conception when speculating how he would have finished his work, but we know enough, probably, to correctly gauge his intentions. It has been said he meant to portray the ideal knight in Perceval. As was formerly the wont of authors he presents his hero in a good light, and he may be credited with a perception of the opportunity afforded him by his subject for placing that hero in positions wherein a knight could best distinguish himself. In so far his work may be accepted as his picture of a worthy knight. But I can discover in it no scheme of a quest after the highest good to be set forth by means of the incidents at his command. Perceval is brave as a matter of course, punctual in obeying the counsels of his mother and of his teachers, Gonemans and the hermit-uncle, unaffectedly repentant when he is convicted of having neglected his religious duties. But it cannot be said that the hermit's exhortations or the hero's repentance, confession, and absolution mark, or are intended to mark, a definite stage in a progress towards spiritual perfection. The explanation of the hero's silence as a consequence of his sin in leaving his mother, shows how little real thought has been bestowed upon the subject. This explanation, whether wholly Chrestien's, as I am tempted to think, or complacently reproduced from his model, gives the measure of his skill in constructing an allegory. Beyond insistence upon such points (the hero's docility) as were indicated to him by his model, or, as in the case of his religious opinions, were a matter of course in a work of the time, Chrestien gives Perceval no higher morality, no loftier aims than those of the day. The ideal of chastity, soon to become of such importance in the development of the legend, is nowhere set forth. Perceval, like Gawain, takes full advantage of what _bonnes fortunes_ come in his way. And if the Quest connotes no spiritual ideal, still less does it one of temporal sovereignty. Had Chrestien finished his story he would have made Perceval heal the Maimed King and win his kingdom, but that kingdom would not have been a type of the highest earthly magnificence. We have seen reason to hold that Chrestien made one great change in the story as he found it in his model; he assigns the Fisher-King's illness to a wound received in battle. This he did, I think, simply with a view to shortening the story by leaving out the whole of the Partinal episode. No mystical conception was floating in his mind. Yet, as we shall see, the shape which he gave to this incident strongly influenced some of the later versions, and gave the hint for the most philosophical _motif_ to be found in the whole cycle.

The immediate continuators of Chrestien lift the legend to no higher level. I incline to think that Gautier, with less skill of narrative and far greater prolixity, yet trod closely in Chrestien's footsteps. In the love episodes he is as full of charm as the more celebrated poet. The second meeting of Perceval and Blanchefleur is told with that graceful laughing _naïveté_ of which French literature of the period has the secret. But of a plan, an animating conception even such slight traces as Chrestien had introduced into the story are lacking. Here, as in Chrestien, the mysterious talismans themselves in no way help forward the story. Chrestien certainly had the Christian signification of them in his mind, but makes no use of it. The Vessel of the Last Supper, the Spear that pierced Christ's side might be any magic spear or vessel as far as he is concerned. The original Pagan essence is retained; the name alone is changed.

Thus far had the legend grown when it came into the hands of the author of the Queste. The subject matter had been partly shaped and trimmed by a master of narrative, the connection with Christian tradition had been somewhat accentuated. It was open to the author of the Queste to take the story as it stood, and to read into its incidents a deep symbolical meaning based upon the Christian character of the holy talismans. He preferred to act otherwise. He broke entirely with the traditional framework, dispossessed the original hero, and left not an incident of his model untouched. But his method of proceeding may be likened to a shuffle rather than to a transformation. The incidents reappear in other connection, but do not reveal the author's plan any more than is the case in the Conte du Graal. The Christian character of the talismans is dwelt upon with almost wearisome iteration, the sacramental act supplies the matter of many and of the finest scenes, and yet the essence of the talismans is unchanged. The Holy Grail, the Cup of the Last Supper, the Sacramental Chalice is still when it appears the magic food-producing vessel of the old Pagan sagas. What is the author's idea? Undoubtedly to show that the attainment of the highest spiritual good is not a thing of this world; only by renouncing every human desire, only by passing into a land intermediary between this earth and heaven, is the Quest achieved. In the story of the prosecution of that Quest some attempt may be traced at portraying the cardinal virtues and deadly sins by means of the adventures of the questers, and of the innumerable exhortations addressed to them. But no skill is shown in the conduct of this plan, which is carried out chiefly by the introduction of numerous allegorical scenes which are made a peg for lengthy dogmatic and moral expositions. In this respect the author compares unfavourably with Robert de Borron, who shapes his story in full accord with his conception of the Grail itself, a conception deriving directly from the symbolic Christian nature he attributed to it, and who makes even such unpromising incidents as that of the Magic Fisher subserve his guiding idea.[149]

If the author's way of carrying out his conception cannot be praised, how does it stand with the conception itself? The fact that the Quest is wholly disassociated from this earth at once indicates the standpoint of the romance. The first effect of the Quest's proclamation is to break up the Table Round, that type of the noblest human society of the day, and its final achievement brings cheer or strengthening to no living man. The successful questers alone in their unhuman realm have any joy of the Grail. The spirit in which they prosecute their quest is best exemplified by Sir Bors. When he comes to the magic tower and is tempted of the maidens, who threaten to cast themselves down and be dashed to pieces unless he yield them his love, he is sorry for them, but unmoved, thinking it better "they lose their souls than he his." So little had the Christian writer apprehended the signification of Christ's most profound saying. The character of the principal hero is in consonancy with this aim, wholly remote from the life of man on earth. A shadowy perfection at the outset, he remains a shadowy perfection throughout, a bloodless and unreal creature, as fit when he first appears upon the scene as when he quits it, to accomplish a quest, purposeless, inasmuch as it only removes him from a world in which he has neither part nor share. Such human interest as there is in the story is supplied by Lancelot, who takes over many of the adventures of Perceval or Gawain in the Conte du Graal. In him we note contrition for past sin, strivings after a higher life with which we can sympathise. In fine, such moral teaching as the Queste affords is given us rather by sinful Lancelot than by sinless Galahad.

But the aversion to this world takes a stronger form in the Queste, and one which is the vital conception of the work, in the insistence upon the need for physical chastity. To rightly understand the author's position we must glance at the state of manners revealed by the romances, and in especial at the sex-relations as they were conceived of by the most refined and civilised men and women of the day. The French romances are, as a rule, too entirely narrative to enable a clear realisation of what these were. Wolfram, with his keener and more sympathetic eye for individual character--Wolfram, who loves to analyse the sentiments and to depict the outward manifestations of feeling of his personages--is our best guide here. The manners and customs of the day can be found in the French romances; the feelings which underlie them must be sought for in the German poet.

The marked feature of the sex-relations in the days of chivalry was the institution of _minnedienst_ (love-service). The knight bound himself to serve a particular lady, matron or maid. To approve himself brave, hardy, daring, patient, and discreet was his part of the bargain, and when fulfilled the lady must fulfil hers and pay her servant. The relation must not for one moment be looked upon as platonic; the last favours were in every case exacted, or rather were freely granted, as the lady, whether maid or wedded wife, thought it no wrong thus to reward her knight. It would have been "bad form" to deny payment when the service had been rendered, and the offender guilty of such conduct would have been scouted by her fellow-women as well as by all men. Nothing is more instructive in this connection than the delightfully told episode of Gawain and Orgueilleuse. The latter is unwedded, a great and noble lady, but she has already had several favoured lovers, as indeed she frankly tells Gawain. He proffers his service, which she hardly accepts, but heaps upon him all manner of indignity and insult, which he bears with the patient and resourceful courtesy, his characteristic in mediæval romance. Whilst the time of probation lasts, no harsh word, no impatient gesture, escapes him. But when he has accomplished the feat of the Ford Perillous he feels that he has done enough, and taking his lady-love to task he lectures her, as a grave middle-aged man might some headstrong girl, upon the duties of a well-bred woman and upon the wrong she has done knighthood in his person. To point the moral he winds up, at mid-day in the open forest, with a proposition which the repentant scornful one can only parry by the naïve remark, "Seldom she had found it warm in the embrace of a mail-clad arm." Not only was it the lady's duty to yield after a proper delay, but at times she might even make the first advances and be none the worse thought of. Blanchefleur comes to Perceval's bed with scarce an apology.[150] Orgueilleuse, overcome with admiration at the Red Knight's prowess, offers him her love. True, she has doubts as to the propriety of her conduct, but when she submits them to Gawain, the favoured lover for the time being, he unhesitatingly approves her--Perceval's fame was such that had he accepted her proffered love she could have suffered naught in honour.

Customs such as these, and a state of feelings such as they imply, are so remote from us, that it is difficult to realise them, particularly in view of the many false statements respecting the nature of chivalrous love which have obtained currency. But we must bear in mind that the age was pre-eminently one of individual prowess. The warlike virtues were all in all. That a man should be brave, hardy, and skilful in the use of his weapons was the essential in a time when the single hero was almost of as much account as in the days of Achilles, Siegfried, or Cuchullain. That _minnedienst_ tended to this end, as did other institutions of the day which we find equally blamable, is its historical excuse. Even then many felt its evils and perceived its anti-social character. Some, too, there were who saw how deeply it degraded the ideal of love.

A protest against this morality was indeed desirable. Such a one the Queste does supply. But it is not enough to protest in a matter so profoundly affecting mankind as the moral ideas which govern the sex-relations. Not only must the protest be made in a right spirit, and on the right lines, but a truer and loftier ideal must be set up in place of the one attacked. In how far the Queste fulfils these conditions we shall see. Meanwhile, as a sample of the feelings with which many Englishmen have regarded it, and as an attempt to explain its historical and ethical _raison d'être_, I cannot do better than quote Mr. Furnivall's enthusiastic words: "What is the lesson of it all? Is the example of Galahad and his unwavering pursuit of the highest spiritual object set before him, nothing to us? Is that of Perceval, pure and tempted, on the point of yielding, yet saved by the sight of the symbol of his Faith, to be of no avail to us? Is the tale of Bohors, who has once sinned, but by a faithful life ... at last tasting spiritual food, and returning to devote his days to God and Good--is this no lesson to us?... On another point, too, this whole Arthur story may teach us. Monkish, to some extent, the exaltation of bodily chastity above almost every other earthly virtue is; but the feeling is a true one; it is founded on a deep reverence for woman, which is the most refining and one of the noblest sentiments of man's nature, one which no man can break through without suffering harm to his spiritual life."

It would be hard to find a more striking instance of how the "editorial idol" may override perception and judgment. He who draws such lofty and noble teachings from the Queste del Saint Graal, must first bring them himself. He must read modern religion, modern morality into the mediæval allegory, and on one point he must entirely falsify the mediæval conception. Whether this is desirable is a question we can have no hesitation in deciding negatively. It is better to find out what the author really meant than to interpret his symbolism in our own fashion.

The author of the Queste places the object and conditions of his mystic quest wholly outside the sphere of human action or interest; in a similar spirit he insists, as an indispensable requirement in the successful quester, upon a qualification necessarily denied to the vast majority of mankind. His work is a glorification of physical chastity. "Blessed are the pure--in body--for they shall inherit the Kingdom of Heaven," is the text upon which he preaches. In such a case everything depends upon the spirit of the preacher, and good intent is not enough to win praise. His conception, says Mr. Furnivall, is founded upon a deep reverence for woman. This is, indeed, such a precious thing that had the mediæval ascetic really felt it we could have forgiven the stupidity which ignores all that constitutes the special dignity and pathos of womanhood. But he felt nothing of the kind. Woman is for him the means whereby sin came into the world, the arch stumbling-block, the tool the devil finds readiest to his hands when he would overcome man. Only in favour of the Virgin Mother, and of those who like her are vowed to mystical maidenhood, does the author pardon woman at all. One single instance will suffice to characterize the mediæval standpoint. When the Quest of the Holy Grail was first proclaimed in Arthur's Court there was great commotion, and the ladies would fain have joined therein, "car cascune dame ou damoiselle (qui) fust espousée ou amie, dist à son chiualer qu'ele yroit od lui en la queste." But a hermit comes forward to forbid this; "No dame or damsel is to accompany her knight lest he fall into deadly sin." Wife or leman, it was all one for the author of the Queste; woman could not but be an occasion for deadly sin, and the sin, though in the one case less in degree (and even this is uncertain), was the same in kind. Fully one-half of the romance is one long exemplification of the essential vileness of the sex-relation, worked out with the minute and ingenious nastiness of a Jesuit moral theologian. The author was of his time; it was natural he should think and write as he did, and it would be uncritical to blame him for his degrading view of womanhood or for his narrow and sickly view of life. But when we are bidden to seek example of him, it is well to state the facts as they are.[151]

If his transformation of the story has been rudely effected without regard to its inherent possibilities, if the spirit of his ideal proves to be miserably ascetic and narrow, what then remains to the Queste, and how may we account for its popularity in its own day, and for the abiding influence which its version of the legend has exercised over posterity. Its literary qualities are at times great; certain scenes, especially such as set forth the sacramental nature of the Grail, are touched with a mystical fervour which haunts the imagination. It has given some of the most picturesque features to this most picturesque of legends. But I see in the idea of the mystic quest proclaimed to and shared in by the whole Table Round the real secret of the writer's success. This has struck the imagination of so many generations and given the Queste an undeserved fame. In truth the conception of Arthur's court, laying aside ordinary cares and joys, given wholly up to one overmastering spiritual aim, is a noble one. It is, I think, only in a slight degree the outcome of definite thought and intent but was dictated to the writer by the form into which he had recast the story. Galahad had supplanted Perceval, but the latter could not be suppressed entirely. The achievement of the quest involved the passing away out of this world of the chief heroes, hence a third less perfect one is joined to them to bring back tidings to earth of the marvels he had witnessed. Lancelot, to whom are assigned so many of Perceval's adventures, cannot be denied a share in the quest; it is the same with Gawain, whose character in the older romance fits him, moreover, excellently for the _rôle_ of "dreadful example." By this time the Arthurian legend was fully grown, and the mention of these Knights called up the names of others with whom they were invariably connected by the romance writers. Well nigh every hero of importance was thus drawn into the magic circle, and the mystic Quest assumed, almost inevitably, the shape it did.

This conception, to which, if I am right, the author of the Queste was led half unconsciously, seems to us the most admirable thing in his work. It was, however, his ideal of virginity which struck the idea of his contemporaries, and which left its mark upon after versions. An age with such a gross ideal of love may have needed an equally gross ideal of purity. Physical chastity plays henceforth the leading part in the moral development of the cycle. With Robert de Borron it is the sin of the flesh which brings down upon the Grail host the wrath of Heaven, and necessitates the display of the Grail's wondrous power. Here may be noted the struggle of the new conception with the older form of the story. Alain, the virgin knight, would rather be flayed than marry, and yet he does marry in obedience to the original model. Robert is consistent in all that relates to the symbolism of the Grail, but in other respects, as we have already seen, he is easily thrown off his guard. In the Didot-Perceval, written as a sequel to Robert's poem, the same struggle between old and new continues, and the reconciling spirit goes to work in naïve and unskilful style. The incidents of the Conte du Graal are kept, although they accord but ill with the hero's ascetic spirit. In the portion of the Conte du Graal itself which goes under Manessier's name, along with adventures taken direct from Chrestien's model, and far less Christianised than in the earlier poet's work, many occur which are simply transferred from the Queste. No attempt is made at reconciling these jarring elements, and the effect of the contrast is at times almost comic. In two of the later romances of the cycle the fusion has been more complete, and the result is, in consequence, more interesting. The prose Perceval le Gallois keeps the original hero of the Quest as far as name and kinship are concerned, but it gives him the aggressive virginity and the proselytising zeal of Galahad. Gerbert's finish to the Conte du Graal is, perhaps, the strangest outcome of the double set of influences to which the later writers were exposed. Without doubt his model differed from the version used by Gautier and Manessier. It is more Celtic in tone, and is curiously akin to the hypothetical lost source of Wolfram von Eschenbach. The hero's absence from his lady-love is insisted upon, and the need of returning to her before he can find peace. The genuineness of this feature admits of little doubt. Many folk-tales tell of the severance of lover and beloved, and of their toilful wanderings until they meet again; such a tale easily lends itself to the idea that separation is caused by guilt, and that, whilst severed, one or other lover must suffer misfortune. Often, as in the case of Diarmaid and the Daughter of King Under the Waves (_supra_, p. 194), definite mention is made of the guilt, as a rule an infringed taboo. Such an incident could scarcely fail to assume the ethical shape Gerbert has given it. Thus he had only to listen to his model, to take his incidents as he found them, and he had the matter for a moral conception wholly in harmony with them. The chastity ideal has been too strong for him. His lovers do come together, but only to exemplify the virtue of continence in the repulsive story of their bridal night. After Gerbert the cycle lengthens, but does not develop. The Queste retains its supremacy, and through Malory its dominant conception entered deeply into the consciousness of the English race.

How far the author of the Queste must be credited with the new ideal he brought into the legend is worth enquiry. Like so much else therein, it may have its roots in the folk and hero tales which underlie the romances. The Castle of Talismans visited by Perceval is the Land of Shades. In popular tradition the incident takes the form of entry into the hollow hill-side where the fairy king holds his court and hoards untold riches. Poverty and simplicity are the frequent qualifications of the successful quester; oftener still some mystic birthright, the being a Sunday's child for instance, or a seventh son; or again freedom from sin is required, and, perhaps, most frequently maidenhood.[152] The stress which so many peoples lay upon virginity in the holy prophetic maidens, who can transport themselves into the otherworld and bring thence the commands of the god, may be noted in the same connection. No Celtic tale I have examined with a view to throwing light upon the Grail romances insists upon this idea, but some version, now lost, may possibly have done so. Celtic tradition gave the romance writers of the Middle Ages material and form for the picture of human love; it may also have given them a hint of the opposing ideal of chastity.[153]

All this time it should be noted that no real progress is made in the symbolical machinery of the legend. The Holy Grail becomes superlatively sacrosanct, but it retains its pristine pagan essence, even in the only version, the Grand St. Graal, which knew of Borron and of his mystical conception.

Such, then, had been the growth of the legend in one direction. The original incidents were either transformed, mutilated, or, where they kept their first shape, underwent no ethical deepening or widening. The talismans themselves had been transferred from Celtic to Christian mythology, but their fate was still bound up with the otherworld. He who would seek them must turn his back upon this earth from which the Palace Spiritual and the City of Sarras were even more remote than Avalon or Tir-na n-Og. Was no other course open? Could not framework and incidents of the Celtic tales be retained, and yet, raised to a loftier, wider level, become a fit vehicle for philosophic thought and moral exhortation? One side of popular tradition figured the hero as wresting the talismans from the otherworld powers for the benefit of his fellow men. Could not this form of the myth be made to yield a human, practical conception of the Quest and Winning of the Holy Grail?

We are luckily not reduced to conjecture in this matter. A work largely fulfilling these hypothetical requirements exists in the Parzival of Wolfram von Eschenbach. On the whole it is the most interesting individual work of modern European literature prior to the Divina Commedia, and its author has a better claim than any other mediæval poet to be called a man of genius. He must, of course, be measured by the standard of his time. It would be useless to expect from him that homogeneity of narrative, that artistic proportion of style first met with 150 years later in Italy, and which from Italy passed into all European literatures. Compared with the unknown poets who gave their present shape to the Nibelungenlied or to the Chanson de Roland he is an individual writer, but he is far from deserving this epithet even in the sense that Chaucer deserves it. His subject dominates him. Even when his philosophic mind is conceiving it under a new aspect he anxiously holds to the traditional form. Hence great inconsistencies in his treatment of the theme, hence, too, the frequent difficulty in interpreting his meaning, the frequent doubt as to how far the interpretation is correct. Here, as in the discussion respecting the _origines_ of the Grail legend, resort must often be had to conjecture, and any solution of the fascinating problems involved is necessarily and largely subjective.

Wolfram's relation to his predecessors must be taken into account in estimating the value of the Parzival. The earlier portion of his work differs entirely, as we have seen, from any existing French romance; so does the finish in so far as it agrees with the opening. The greater part of the story is closely parallel to Chrestien; there are points of contact, peculiar to these two writers, with Gerbert. Little invention, properly so called, of incident can be traced in the Parzival. The part common to it and Chrestien is incomparably fuller and more interesting in the German poet, but the main outlines are the same. Wolfram has, however, been at some pains to let us know what was his conception of the legend. That much is allowed to remain at variance therewith is a clear proof of his timidity of invention.

Doubt, he says, is the most potent corrupter of the soul. Whoso gives himself over to unfaith and unsteadfastness treadeth in truth the downward path. God Himself is very faithfulness. Strife against Him, doubt of Him, is the highest sin. But humility and repentance may expiate it, and he who thus repents may be chosen by God for the Grail Kingship, the summit of earthly holiness. Peace of soul and all earthly power are the chosen one's; alone, unlawful desire and the company of sinners are denied him by the Grail.

How is this leading conception worked out? The framework and the march of incidents are the same as in the Conte du Graal. One capital change at once, however, lifts the story to a higher level. The Fisher King suffers from a wound received in the cause of unlawful love, in disobedience to those heavenly commands which govern the Grail community. The healing question can be put only by one worthy to take up the high office Amfortas has dishonoured, in virtue of having passed through the strife of doubt, and become reconciled to God by repentance and humble trust. If Parzival neglected to put the question on his first arrival at the Grail Castle, it was that in the conceit of youth he fancied all wisdom was his. Childish insistence upon his mother's counsels had brought down reproof upon him; he had learnt the world's wisdom from Gurnemanz, he had shown himself in defence of Conduiramur a valiant knight, worthy of power and woman's love. When brought into contact with the torturing sorrow of Amfortas, he is too full of himself, of his teacher's wisdom, to rightly use the opportunity.

The profound significance of the question which at once releases the sinner, and announces the one way in which the sin may be cancelled, namely, by the coming of a worthier successor, is due, if we may credit Birch-Hirschfeld, to an accident. Wolfram only knew Chrestien. The latter never explains the real nature of the Grail, and the German poet's knowledge of French was too slight to put him on the right track. The question, "Whom serve they with the Grail?" which he found in Chrestien, was necessarily meaningless to him, and he replaced it by his, "Uncle, what is it tortures thee?" The change _may_ be the result of accident as is so much else in this marvellous legend, but it required a man of genius to turn the accident to such account. It is the insistence upon charity as the herald and token of spiritual perfection that makes the grandeur of Wolfram's poem, and raises it so immeasureably above the Queste.

The same human spirit is visible in the delineation of the Grail Kingship as the type of the highest good. Wolfram's theology is distinctively antinomian--no man may win the Grail in his own strength; it choseth whom it will--and has been claimed on the one hand[154] as a reflex of orthodox Catholic belief, on the other as a herald of the Lutheran doctrine of grace.[155] Theological experts may be left to fight out this question among themselves. Apart from this, Wolfram has a practical sense of the value of human effort. With him the Quest is not to be achieved by utter isolation from this earth and its struggles. The chief function of the Grail Kingdom is to supply an abiding type of a divinely ordered Society; it also trains up leaders for those communities which lack them. It is a civilising power as well as a Palace Spiritual.

In the relation of man to Heaven, Wolfram, whilst fully accepting the doctrines of his age, appeals to the modern spirit with far greater power and directness than the Queste. In the other great question of the legend, the relation of man to woman, he is likewise nearer to us, although it must be confessed that he builds better than he knows. To the love ideal of his day, based wholly upon passion and vanity and severed from all family feeling, he opposes the wedded love of Parzival and Conduiramur. The hero's recollection of the mother of his children is the one saving influence throughout the years of doubt and discouragement which follow Kundrie's reproaches. Whilst still staggering under this blow, so cruelly undeserved as it seems to him, he can wish his friend and comrade, Gawain, a woman chaste and good, whom he may love and who shall be his guardian angel. The thought of Conduiramur holds him aloof from the offered love of Orgeluse. In his last and bitterest fight, with his unknown brother, when it had nigh gone with him to his death, he recalls her and renews the combat with fresh strength. She it is for whom he wins the highest earthly crown, of which her pure, womanly heart makes her worthy. Reunion with her and with his children is Parzival's first taste of the joy that is henceforth to be his.

Passages may easily be multiplied that tally ill with the ideas of the poem as here briefly set forth. But the existence of these ideas is patent to the unprejudiced reader. Despite its many shortcomings, the poem which contains them is the noblest and most human outcome of that mingled strain of Celtic fancy and Christian symbolism whose history we have traced.[156]

In Wolfram, equally with the majority of the French romance writers, there is little consistency in the formal use of the mystic talismans. Be the reason what it may, Wolfram certainly never thought of associating the Grail with the Last Supper. But its religious character is, at times, as marked with him as with Robert de Borron or the author of the Queste. It is the actual vehicle of the Deity's commands; it restrains from sin; it suffers no unchaste servant; it may be seen of no heathen; the simple beholding of it preserves men from death. This last characteristic would be thought in modern times a sufficient tribute to the original nature of the old pagan cauldron of increase and rejuvenescence. But Wolfram was of his time, and followed his models faithfully. Along with the lofty spiritual attributes of his Grail, he pictures in drastic fashion its food-dispensing powers. The mystic stone, fallen from Heaven itself, renewed each Good Friday by direct action of the Spirit, becomes all at once a mere victual producing machine. We can see how little Wolfram liked this feature of his model, and how he felt the contrast between it and his own more spiritual conception. But here, as elsewhere in the poem, he allowed much to stand against which his better judgment protested. His own share in the development of the legend must be gauged by what is distinctively his, not by what he has in common with others. Judged thus, he must be said to have developed the Christian symbolic side of the legend as much as the human philosophic side. If in Robert de Borron the Grail touches its highest symbolic level through its identification with the body of the dead and risen Lord, we can trace in Wolfram the germ of that approximation of the Grail-Quester to the earthly career of the Saviour which Wagner was to develop more than 600 years later.[157]

What influence Wolfram's poem, with its practical, human enthusiasm, its true and noble sexual morality, might have had on English literature is an interesting speculation. It would have appealed, one would think, to our race with its utilitarian ethical instinct, with its lofty ideal of wedded love. The true man, Parzival, should, in the fitness of things, be the English hero of the Quest, rather than the visionary ascetic Galahad. Mediæval England was dominated by France and knew nothing of Germany, and when in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries we can trace German influence on English thought and writ, taste had changed, and the Parzival was well-nigh forgotten in its own land. It remained so almost until our own days. The Quest after Perfection still haunted the German mind, but it was conceived of on altogether different lines from those of the twelfth century poet. The nation of scholars pictured the quester as a student, not as a knight. When it took shape in the dreary period of Protestant scholasticism the quest is wholly cursed. Faust's pursuit of knowledge is unlawful, a rebellion against God, which dooms him irrevocably. Not until Goethe's day is the full significance of the legend perceived, is the theme widened to embrace the totality of human striving. Thus the last glimpse we have of Faust is of one devoted to the service of man; the last words of the poem are a recognition of the divine element in the love of man and woman.[158]

In Germany, as in England, the old legend has appealed afresh to poets and thinkers, and then, as was natural, they turned to Germany's greatest mediæval poet. Wagner's Parsifal would, in any case, be interesting as an expression of one of the strongest dramatic geniuses of the century. Considered purely as a work of literature, apart from the music, it has rare beauty and profound significance. The essentially dramatic bent of Wagner's mind, the stage destination of the poem, must be borne in mind when considering it. Wolfram's conception--youthful folly and inexperience chastised by reproof, followed by doubt and strife, cancelled by the faithful steadfastness of the full-grown man--is obviously unsuited for dramatic purposes. At no one point of Wolfram's poem do we find that clash of motives and of characters which the stage requires. In building up _his_ conception Wagner has utilised every hint of his predecessor with wonderful ingenuity. Klinschor, the magician, becomes with him the active opponent of the Grail King, Amfortas, from whom he has wrested the holy spear by the aid of Kundry's unholy beauty. Kundry is Wagner's great contribution to the legend. She is the Herodias whom Christ for her laughter doomed to wander till He come again. Subject to the powers of evil, she must tempt and lure to their destruction the Grail warriors. And yet she would find release and salvation could a man resist her love spell.[159] She knows this. The scene between the unwilling temptress, whose success would but doom her afresh, and the virgin Parsifal thus becomes tragic in the extreme. How does this affect Amfortas and the Grail? In this way. Parsifal is the "pure fool," knowing nought of sin or suffering. It had been foretold of him he should become "wise by fellow-suffering," and so it proves. The overmastering rush of desire unseals his eyes, clears his mind. Heart-wounded by the shaft of passion, he feels Amfortas' torture thrill through him. The pain of the physical wound is his, but far more, the agony of the sinner who has been unworthy his high trust, and who, soiled by carnal sin, must yet daily come in contact with the Grail, symbol of the highest purity and holiness. The strength which comes of the new-born knowledge enables him to resist sensual longing, and thereby to release both Kundry and Amfortas.

In the latest version of the Perceval Quest, as in the Galahad Quest, the ideal of chastity is thus paramount. This result is due to Wagner's dramatic treatment of the theme. The conception that knowledge of sin and fellowship in suffering are requisite to enable man to resist temptation, and that thus alone does he acquire the needful strength to assist his fellows, however true and profound, can obviously only be worked out on the stage through the medium of one form of sin and suffering. The long psychological process of Wolfram's poem, the slow growth of the unthinking youth into the steadfast, faithful man, is replaced by a mystic, transcendental conversion. From out a world of human endeavour, human motive, we have stepped into one wholly ascetic and symbolical. The love of man for woman only appears in the guise of forbidden desire; the aims and needs of this world are not even thought of. Every incident has been remoulded in accord with Christian tradition. Wagner fully accepts the sacramental nature of the Grail, and the Grail feast is with him a faithful reproduction of the Last Supper. Holiness and purity are the essence of the Grail, which is cleared from every taint of its pagan origin. And whilst Wagner, following the French models, identifies the Grail with the most sacred object of Christian worship, he also, developing hints of Wolfram's, reshapes the career of his Grail-seeker in accord with that of Christ. Parsifal, the releaser of sin-stricken Kundry, of sin-stricken Amfortas--Parsifal, the restorer of peace and holiness to the Grail Kingdom--becomes a symbol of the Saviour.

In the reasoned, artistic growth of the legend, the plastic, living element is that supplied by Christian tradition. From the moment that the Celtic lord of the underworld is identified with the evangelist of Britain we see the older complex of tales acquire consistency, life, and meaning. Even where the direct influence of the intruding element is slightest, as in the Conte du Graal, we can still perceive that it is responsible for the germs of after development. Sometimes violently and unintelligently, sometimes with a keen feeling for the possibilities of the original romance, sometimes with the boldest introduction of new matter, sometimes with slavish adherence to pre-Christian conceptions, the transformation of the Celtic tales goes on. The cauldron of increase and renovation, the glaive of light, the magic fish, the visit to the otherworld, all are gradually metamorphosed until at last the talisman of the Irish gods becomes the symbol of the risen Lord, its seeker a type of Christ in His divinest attributes.

The ethical teaching of the legend becomes also purely Christian as the Middle Ages conceived Christianity. Renunciation of the world and of the flesh is its key-note. Once only in Wolfram do we find an ideal human in its essence, though dogmatic in form; the path thus opened is not trodden further, and the legend remains as a whole, on the moral side, a monument of Christian asceticism.

We have seen reason to surmise that the folk-tales which underlie the romances themselves gave the hint for the most characteristic manifestation of this ascetic ideal. It is worth enquiry if these tales have developed themselves independently from the Christianised legend, and if such development shows any trace of ethical conceptions comparable with those of the legend. Can we gather from the tales as fashioned by the folk teaching similar to that of the preachers, philosophers, and artists by whom the legend has been shaped? Few enquiries can be more interesting than one which traces such a conception as the Quest after the highest good as pictured by the rudest and most primitive members of the race.

Many of the tales which formed a part of the (hypothetical) Welsh original of the earliest Grail romances have been shown to come under the Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula (_supra_, Ch. VI). Among most races this formula has connected itself with the national heroes, and has given rise to hero-tales in which the historical element outweighs the ethical. Sometimes, as in the tale of Perseus, the incidents are so related as to bring out an ethical _motif_; Perseus is certainly thought of as avenging his mother's undeserved wrongs. I cannot trace anything of the kind among the Celts. All the incidents of the formula in Celtic tradition which I know of are purely historical in character. This element of the old Saga-mass thus yields nothing for the present enquiry. Others are more fruitful. Perceval is akin not only to Fionn, but also to the Great Fool. The Lay of the Great Fool was found to tally closely with adventures in the Mabinogi and in the Conte du Graal (_supra_, Ch. VI). It also sets forth a moral conception that admits of profitable comparison with that of the Grail romances.

Ultimately, the Lay is, I have little doubt, one of the many forms in which a mortal's visit to the otherworld was related. Wandering into the Glen of Glamour, the hero and his love encounter a magician; the hero drinks of the proffered cup, despite his love's remonstrances, and forthwith loses his two legs. This is obviously a form of the widely-spread myth which forbids the visitant to the otherworld to partake of aught there under penalty of never returning to earth. But this mythical _motif_ has taken an ethical shape in popular fancy. According to Kennedy's version, it is the hero's excess in draining the cup to the dregs which calls for punishment. This change is of the same nature as that noted with regard to a similar incident in the Grail romances. There, the old mythic taboo of sleeping or speaking in the otherworld called at last for an explanation, and found one in Wolfram's philosophic conception. The parallel does not end here. Perceval may retrieve his fault, and so may the Great Fool; Wolfram makes his hero win salvation by steadfast faith, the folk-tale makes its hero in the face of every form of temptation a pattern of steadfast loyalty to the absent friend and to the pledged word. It may, or may not, be considered to the advantage of the folk-tale that, unlike the mediæval romance, it deals neither in mysticism nor in asceticism. The sin and atonement of the Great Fool are such as the popular mind can grasp; he is an example of human weakness and human strength. The woman he loves is no temptress, no representative of the evil principle--on the contrary, she is ever by his side to counsel and to cheer him.

When it is remembered that the two off-shoots, romantic-legendary and popular, from the one traditional stem have grown up in perfect independence of each other, the kinship of moral idea is startling. The folk-lorist has often cause to wonder at the spontaneous flower-like character of the object of his study; folk-tradition seems to obey fixed laws of growth and to be no product of man's free thought and speech. The few partisans of the theory that folk-tradition is only a later and weakened echo of the higher culture of the race are invited to study the present case. A Celtic tale, after supplying an important element to the Christianised Grail legend, has gone on its way entirely unaffected by the new shape which that legend assumed, and yet it has worked out a moral conception of fundamental likeness to one set forth in the legend. It would be difficult to find a more perfect instance of the spontaneous, evolutional character of tradition contended for by what, in default of a better name, must be called the anthropological school of folk-lorists.

We must quit Celtic ground to find another example of an element in the originals of the Grail romances, embodying a popular ethical idea. This instance is such an interesting one that I cannot pass it by in silence. As was shown in Chapter VII, one of the many forms of the hero's visit to the otherworld has for object the release of maidens held captive by an evil power. A formal connection was established between this section of the romance and the folk-tale of the Sleeping Beauty. As a whole, too, this tale admits of comparison with the legend. Its origin is mythic without a doubt. Whether it be regarded as a day or as a year myth, as the rescue of the dawn from night, or of the incarnate spring from the bonds of winter, it equally pictures a victory of the lord of light and heat and life over the powers of darkness, cold, and death. With admirable fidelity folk-tradition has preserved the myth, so that its true nature can be recognised without fail. It would be wrong, though, to conclude that retention of the mythic framework implied any recognition of its mythic character on the part of those who told or listened to the story. Some investigators, indeed, hold it idle to consider it otherwise than as a tale told merely for amusement. But a story, to live, must appeal to moral as well as to æsthetic emotions. In the folk-mind this story sets forth, dimly though it may be, that search for the highest human felicity which is likewise a theme of the Grail romances. What better picture of this quest could be found than the old mythic symbol of the awakening of life and increase beneath the kiss of the sun-god. The hero of the folk-tale makes his way through the briars and tangle of the forest that he may restore to the deserted castle life and plenty; so much has the tale retained of the original mythic signification. As regards the quester himself, the maiden he thus woos is his reward and the noblest prize earth has to offer him. Where the romance writers made power, or riches, or learning, or personal salvation the goal of man's effort, the folk-tale bids him seek happiness in the common human affections.

Such, all too briefly sketched, has been the fate and story of these tales, first shaped in a period of culture wellnigh pre-historic, gifted by reason of their Celtic setting with a charm that commended them to the romantic spirit of the middle ages, and made them fit vehicles for the embodiment of mediæval ideas. Quickened by Christian symbolism they came to express and typify the noblest and the most mystic longings of man. The legend, as the poets and thinkers of the twelfth century fashioned it, has still a lesson and a meaning for us. It may be likened to one of the divine maidens of Irish tradition. She lives across the western sea. Ever and again heroes, filled with mysterious yearning for the truth and beauty of the infinite and undying, make sail to join her if they may. They pass away and others succeed them, but she remains ever young and fair. So long as the thirst of man for the ideal endures, her spell will not be weakened, her charm will not be lessened. But each generation works out this Quest in its own spirit. This much may be predicted with some confidence: henceforth, whosoever would do full justice to the legend must take pattern by Wolfram von Eschenbach rather than by any of his rivals; he must deal with human needs and human longings; his ideal must be the widening of human good and human joy. Above all, he must give reverent yet full expression to all the aspirations, all the energies of man and of woman.

FINIS.

APPENDIX A.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH AND CHRESTIEN.

The various arguments for and against the use of any other French source than Chrestien by Wolfram have been clearly summed up by G. Bötticher, Die Wolfram Literatur seit Lachmann, Berlin, 1880. The chief representative of the negative opinion is Birch-Hirschfeld, who first gives, Chapter VIII. of his work, a useful collection of passages relating to the Grail, the Castle, and the Quest, from both authors. His chief argument is this:--The Grail in all the romances except in Wolfram is a cup or vessel, but in Wolfram a stone, a peculiarity only to be explained by Wolfram's ignorance of any source than Chrestien, and by the fact that the latter, in accordance with his usual practice of leaving objects and persons in as mysterious an atmosphere as possible, nowhere gives a clear description of the Grail. He undoubtedly would have done so if he had finished his work. Such indications as he gave led Wolfram, who did not understand the word _Graal_, to think it was a stone. It is inconceivable that Kyot, if such a personage existed, should have so far departed from all other versions as not to picture the Grail as a vessel, inconceivable, again, that his account of it should have been just as vague as Chrestien's, that he should have afforded Wolfram no hint of the real nature of the object. In Chrestien Perceval's question refers to the Grail, but Wolfram, missing the significance of the holy vessel owing to the meagreness of the information respecting it given to him by Chrestien, was compelled to transform the whole incident, and to refer it solely to the sufferings of the wounded King. Again, Chrestien meant to utilise the sword, and to bring Gawain to the Grail Castle; but his unfinished work did not carry out his intention, and in Wolfram Gawain also fails to come to the Grail Castle; the sword is passed over in silence in the latter part of the poem.--Simrock, jealous for the credit of Wolfram, claimed for him the invention of all that could not be traced to Chrestien, resting the claim chiefly upon consideration of a sentimental patriotic nature.--In opposition to these views, although the fact is not denied that Wolfram followed Chrestien closely for the parts common to both, it is urged to be incredible that he, a German poet, should invent a prologue to Chrestien's unfinished work connecting with an Angevin princely genealogical legend. It was also pointed out, with greatest fulness by Bartsch, Die Eigennamen im Parcival und Titurel, Germanist. Studien, II., 114, _et seq._, that the German poet gives a vast number of proper names which are not to be found in Chrestien, and that these are nearly all of French, and especially Southern French and Provençal origin.--Simrock endeavoured to meet this argument in the fifth edition of his translation, but with little success.--Bötticher, whilst admitting the weight of Birch-Hirschfeld's arguments, points out the difficulties which his theory involves. If Wolfram simply misunderstood Chrestien and did not differ from him personally, why should he be at the trouble of inventing an elaborately feigned source to justify a simple addition to the original story? If he only knew of the Grail from Chrestien, what gave him the idea of endowing it, as he did, with mystic properties? Martin points out in addition (Zs. f. d. A., V. 87) that Wolfram has the same connection of the Grail and Swan Knight story as Gerbert, whom, _ex hypothesi_, he could not have known, and who certainly did not know him.--In his Zur Gralsage, Martin returned to the question of proper names, and showed that a varying redaction of a large part of the romance is vouched for by the different names which Heinrich von dem Türlin applies to personages met with both in Chrestien and in Wolfram. If, then, one French version, that followed by Heinrich, who is obviously a translator, is lost, why not another?

The first thorough comparison of Chrestien and Wolfram is to be found in Otto Küpp's Unmittelbaren Quellen des Parzival, (Zs. f. d. Ph. XVII., l). He argues for Kyot's existence. Some of the points he mentions in which the two poems differ, and in which Wolfram's account has a more archaic character, may be cited: The mention of Gurnemanz's sons; the food producing properties of the Grail on Parzival's first visit; the reproaches of the varlet to Parzival on his leaving the Grail Castle, "You are a goose, had you but moved your lips and asked the host! Now you have lost great praise;"[160] the statement that the broken sword is to be made whole by dipping in the Lake Lac, and the mention of a sword charm by virtue of which Parzival can become lord of the Grail Castle; the mention that no one seeing the Grail could die within eight days. In addition Küpp finds that many of the names in Wolfram are more archaic than those of Chrestien. On the other hand, Küpp has not noticed that Chrestien has preserved a more archaic feature in the prohibition laid upon Gauvain not to leave for seven days the castle after he had undergone the adventure of the bed.

Küpp has not noticed that some of the special points he singles out in Wolfram are likewise to be found in Chrestien's continuators, _e.g._, the mention of the sons of Gurnemanz, by Gerbert.

I believe I have the first pointed out the insistence by both Wolfram and Gerbert upon the hero's love to and duty towards his wife.

The name of Parzival's uncle in Wolfram, Gurnemanz, is nearer to the form in Gerbert, Gornumant, than to that in Chrestien, Gonemant.

The matter may be summed up thus: it is very improbable that Wolfram should have invented those parts of the story found in him alone; the parts common to him and Chrestien are frequently more archaic in his case; there are numerous points of contact between him and Gerbert. All this speaks for another French source than Chrestien. On the other hand, it is almost inconceivable that such a source should have presented the Grail as Wolfram presents it.

I cannot affect to consider the question decidedly settled one way or the other, and have, therefore, preferred to make no use of Wolfram. I would only point out that if the contentions of the foregoing studies be admitted, they strongly favour the genuineness of the non-Chrestien section of Wolfram's poem,[161] though I admit they throw no light upon his special presentment of the Grail itself.

APPENDIX B.

THE PROLOGUE TO THE GRAND ST. GRAAL AND THE BRANDAN LEGEND.

I believe the only parallel to this prologue to be the one furnished by that form of the Brandan legend of which Schröder has printed a German version (Sanct Brandan) at Erlangen, in 1871, from a MS. of the fourteenth century, but the first composition of which he places (p. 15) in the last quarter of the twelfth century. The text in question will be found pp. 51, _et seq._: Brandan, a servant of God, seeks out marvels in rare books, he finds that two paradises were on earth, that another world was situated under this one, so that when it is here night it is day there, and of a fish so big that forests grew on his back, also that the grace of God allowed some respite every Saturday night to the torments of Judas. Angry at all these things he burnt the book. But the voice of God spake to him, "Dear friend Brandan thou hast done wrong, and through thy wrath I see My wonders lost." The holy Christ bade him fare nine years on the ocean, until he see whether these marvels were real or a lie. Thereafter Brandan makes ready a ship to set forth on his travels.

This version was very popular in Germany. Schröder prints a Low German adaptation, and a chap book one, frequently reprinted during the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. But besides this form there was another, now lost, which can be partially recovered from the allusions to it in the Wartburg Krieg, a German poem of the thirteenth and early fourteenth century, and which is as follows:--An angel brings Brandan a book from heaven: Brandan finds so many incredible things in it that he taxes book and angel with lying, and burns the book. For his unfaith he must wander till he find it. God's grace grants him this at last; an angel gives him the sign of two fires burning, which are the eyes of an ox, upon whose tongue he shall find the book. He hands it to Uranias, who brings it to _Scotland_ (_i.e._, of course Ireland) Schröder, p. 9.

The closeness of the parallel cannot be denied, and it raises many interesting questions, which I can here only allude to. The Isle of Brandan has always been recognized as a Christian variant of the Celtic Tír-na n-Og, the Land of the Shades, Avalon. Schröder has some instructive remarks on this subject, p. 11. The voyage of Brandan may thus be compared with that of Bran, the son of Febal (_supra_, p. 232), both being versions of the wide-spread myth of a mortal's visit to the otherworld. It is not a little remarkable that in the Latin legend, which differs from the German form by the absence of the above-cited prologue, there is an account (missing in the German), of a "conopeus" ("cover" or "canopy,") _cf._ Ducange and Diez, _sub voce_; the old French version translates it by "Pavillon of the colour of silver but harder than marble, and a column therein of clearest crystal." And on the fourth day they find a window and therein a "calix" of the same nature as the "conopeus" and a "patena" of the colour of the column (Schröder, p. 27, and Note 41).

Thus there is a formal connection between the Brandan legend and the Grail romances in the prologue common to two works of each cycle, and there is a likeness of subject-matter between the Brandan legend and the older Celtic traditions which I have assumed to be the basis of the romances. But German literature likewise supplies evidence of a connection between Brandan and Bran. Professor Karl Pearson has referred me to a passage in the Pfaffe Amis, a thirteenth century South German poem, composed by Der Stricker, the hero of which, a prototype of Eulenspiegel, goes through the world gulling and tricking his contemporaries. In a certain town he persuades the good people to entrust to him their money, by telling them that he has in his possession a very precious relic, the head of St. Brandan, which has commanded him to build a cathedral (Lambl's Edition, Leipzig, 1872, p. 32). The preservation of the head of Bran is a special feature in the Mabinogi. I have instanced parallels from Celtic tradition (Branwen, p. 14), and Professor Rhys has since (Hibb. Lect., p. 94) connected the whole with Celtic mythological beliefs. This chance reference in a German poem is the only trace to my knowledge of an earlier legend in which, it may be, Bran and Brandan, the visitor to and the lord of the otherworld, were one and the same person.

It is highly desirable that every form of or allusion to the Brandan legend should be examined afresh, as, perhaps, able to throw fresh light upon the origin and growth of the Grail legend. In Pseudo-Chrestien Perceval's mother goes on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Brandan.

INDEX I.

DRAMATIS PERSONÆ.

[This Index is to the Summaries contained in Chapter II, and the references are not to page and line, but to Version and Incident. The Versions are distinguished by the following abbreviations:--

Conte du Graal =Co=, Pseudo-Chrestien =PC=, Chrestien =C=, Gautier =G=, Manessier =Ma=, Gerbert =Ge=, Wolfram =W=, Heinrich von dem Türlin =H=, Mabinogi of Peredur =M=, Thornton MS. Sir Perceval =T=, Didot-Perceval =D=, Borron's poem =B=, Queste =Q= (=Q={1} and =Q={2} refer to the different drafts of the romance distinguished p. 83) Grand St. Graal =GG=. With the less important entries, or when the entries are confined to one version, a simple number reference is given. But in the case of the more important personages, notably Perceval, Gawain, and Galahad, an attempt has been made to show the life history, by grouping together references to the same incident from different versions; in this case each incident group is separated from other groups by a long dash ----. Any speciality in the incident presented by a version is bracketed _before_ the reference initial, and, when deemed advisable, reference has been made to allied as well as to similar incidents. This detail, to save space, is, as a rule, given only once, as under Perceval, and not duplicated under other headings, the number reference alone being given in the latter cases. The fullest entry is Perceval, which practically comprises such entries as Fisher King, Grail, Sword, Lance, etc.]

=ABEL= =Q=37, =GG=24.

=ABRIORIS= =G=9.

=ACHEFLOUR= =T=1.

=ADAM= =Q=37, =GG=24.

=ADDANC OF LAKE= =M=16, 19.

=AGARAN= =Q=23.

=AGRESTES= =GG=40.

=AGUIGRENONS= =Co=, _Kingrun_ =W=, anonymous =M=, =C=6, =W=, =M=8.

=ALAINS=, Celidoine's son =GG=43.

=ALAINS= or =ALEIN= (=li Gros= =D=, =Q=, =GG=) =B=12----=Dprol=, 1, 6, 12, =Q=26, =GG=30, 43, 45, 51, 58, 59.

=ALEINE=, Gawain's niece, =D=1.

=ALFASEM= =GG=51, 58.

=AMANGONS= =PC=1, 2, 4.

=AMFORTAS=, see Fisher King.

=AMINADAP= =GG=58.

=ANGHARAD= Law Eurawc, =M=12, 14.

=ANTIKONIE=, see Facile Damsel.

=ARGASTES= =Q=27.

=ARIDES= of Cavalon =Ma=14, 16 (a King of Cavalon mentioned =C=12 corresponds to _Vergulat_ of Askalon in =W=).

=ARTHUR= =PC=2, 3, 5, =C=1, =Dprol=----arrival of Perceval at his court =C=3, =W=, =M=3, =T=4, =Dprol=----=C=6, 9, 10, =W=, =M=9, 10, 11----=M=13, 14----=C=11, =W=, =M=20----=T=7----=C=18, =W=----=G=1, =W=----=G=2, 3, 6, 9, 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, =Ma=10, 16, 23, =Ge=5, =H=, =D=1, 3, 5, 8, 14, 16, =M=25, =Q=3, 5, 13, =GG=33, 45, 48.

=AUGUSTUS CÆSAR= =GG=11.

=AVALON= or =AVARON= =B=12, 13, =D=9.

=BAGOMMEDES= =G=19, 20.

=BANDAMAGUS= =Q=5, 6, 43.

=BANS= =Q=26, =GG=30, 59.

=BEAU MAUVAIS=, le, =G=11, =D=8.

=BEDUERS= =D=2.

=BLAISE= =Dprol=, 14.

=BLANCHEFLEUR= =Co=, Conduiramur =W=, anonymous =M=, _cf._ Lufamour =T=----Perceval's cousin =Co=, =W=----first meeting with Perceval =C=6, =W=, =M=8----second meeting with Perceval =G=10----third meeting =Ma=13-16----third meeting and marriage with Perceval =Ge=8-10, _cf._ =W=.

=BLIHIS= =PC=1 = Blaise?

=BLIHOS BLIHERIS= =PC=2.

=BLIOCADRANS= (of Wales, Perceval's father), =PC=6.

=BORS, BOHORS, BOORT= =Q=1, 3, 13, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, =Ma=18----=Q=35, 48-52.

=BRANDALIS= =G=1, 2.

=BRIOS= =G=16.

=BRONS, BRON=, or =HEBRON=. =B=7, 8, 12, 14, =Dprol=, 6, 16, =GG=41, 42, _cf._ p. 19.

=BRUILLANT= =GG=58 = Urlain =Q=35.

=BRUN DE BRANLANT= =G=1.

=CAIN= =Q=37, =GG=24.

=CAIPHAS= =GG=2, 3.

=CAIUS= =GG=3.

=CALIDES= =Ma=9.

=CALOGRENANT= =Q=33. =CALOGRINANT= =Ma=18----_Calocreant_ in =H=, one of the three Grail-seekers.

=CARAHIES= =G=5.

=CARCHELOIS= =Q=39.

=CARDUEL= =C=3----_Carduel_ of Nantes =G=1.

=CASTRARS= =PC=4.

=CATHELOYS= =GG=58.

=CAVALON= =C=12----=Ma=14, 16.

=CELIDOINE= =GG=22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 39, 59, =Q=26.

=CHANAAN= =GG=45, 47.

=CHESSBOARD CASTLE= =G=7, =D=4, =M=24----=G=14----=G=18, =D=13.

=CHRIST= =B=1-3, 5, 6, 8, 11, =Q=7, 10, 13, 15, 20, 26, 50, =Dprol=, 16, =Ge=15, =GG=1-4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 21, 23, 30, 37, 41, 45.

=CLAMADEX= =C=6, Clamide =W=, the earl =M=8 = the Sowdane =T=7.

=CLARISSE= =Co= Mons MS. or _Clarissant_ Montpellier MS., ITONJE =W=----=C=18, =G=1, =W=.

=CLAUDIUS= =GG=3.

=CLAUDIUS=, son of Claudas =Q={2}51.

=CORBENIC= =Q=, =GG=, =CORBIÈRE= =Ma=23, =Q=13, 43, 48, =GG=51.

=CORSAPIAS= =GG=22.

=COWARD KNIGHT= =Ma=17, 19.

=CRUDEL= =Q=6, 15, =Ge=15, =GG=36-38.

=DAVID= =Q=37.

=DODINEL= =Ma=14.

=ELIEZER= =Q=27.

=EMPTY SEAT=, see Seat Perillous.

=ENYGEUS=, =ENYSGEUS=, or =ANYSGEUS= =B=7, 8, 11, 12.

=EREC= =D=2.

=ERNOUS= =Q=39.

=ESCORANT= =Q={2}51.

=ESCOS= =GG=47.

=ESPINOGRE= =Ma=5.

=ESTROIS DE GARILES= =Q={2}51.

=ETLYM GLEDDYV COCH= =M=16-18.

=EVALACH.= Evalach li mescouncus =GG=, Eualac =Q= (Anelac 26), Evelac =Ma=, =Ge=. Overcoming Tholomes =GG=6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, =Q=6, 15, 26, =Ma=3, =Ge=15, name changed to _Mordrains_, which see.

=EVE= =Q=37, =GG=24.

=FACILE DAMSEL=, Anonymous =Co=, =H=, =M=, _Antikonie_ =W=, =C=14, =W=, =H=, =M=21.

=FEIREFIZ= =W=.

=FELIX= =GG=3, 11.

=FISHER KING.= Anonymous =Co=, Amfortas =W=, Brons =B=, =D=, Alain =GG=. Anonymous (?), =Q={1}, Pelles =Q={2}. In =M= the Fisher corresponds to Gonemans. In all the French works of the cycle the adjective rich is commonly applied to the Fisher. Splendour of court =PC=1----learned in black art =PC=3----old and sick =Dprol=, First meeting with Perceval =C=7, =W=, =D=11, _cf._ =PC=3, =M=6----=C=8, =W=, _cf._ =D=2, 12----=C=11, =W=, _cf._ =D=15, =M=21----=G=7, 8, 9, 16, 18, 19, 20----Second meeting with Perceval =G=22, =Ma=1-7 or =Ge=1-5, =D=16, _cf._ =M=25----=Ma=10----Third meeting with Perceval =Ma=22, =Ge=22, =W=----Grandfather of Galahad =Q={1}2, 26. See also Maimed King.

Surname given to Brons =B=12, to Alain =GG=43.

Vessel given to him =D=1----commanded to go to the West =D=6.

=FLEGENTYNE= =GG=22, 29, 31, 37, 59.

=GAHMURET= =W=.

=GALAHAD= (GALAAD). _Father_: Lancelot =Q=, =GG=----_Mother_: daughter of King Pelles =Q={1}, =GG=, or Fisher King =Q={2}----Seat Perillous =Q=2----Sword =Q=3----Quest proclaimed =Q=5----Evelac's Shield =Q=6, =GG=50----Devil-inhabited tomb =Q=7, _cf._ =Ge=17----Melians' discomforture =Q=8----Castle of Maidens =Q=9----overcoming of Lancelot and Perceval =Q=11----destined achiever of Quest =Q=13----rescue of Perceval =Q=16----Genealogy =Q=26, =GG=21, 30, 58----likening to a spotless bull =Q=29----overcoming of Gawain =Q=34----stay on ship =Q=35, 36----sword =Q=36----Maimed King =Q={2} 36----capture of Castle Carchelois =Q=39----stag and lions =Q=40, _cf._ =GG=45----castle of the evil custom =Q=41----stay with father =Q=42----healing of Mordrains =Q=44, _cf._ =GG=39----cooling of fountain =Q=45----making white the Cross =GG=40----release of Symeu =Q=46, =GG=49----making whole sword =GG=44----release of Moys =GG=46----five years' wanderings =Q=47----arrival at King Peleur's =Q={1}, Maimed King's =Q={2}, witnessing of Grail and healing of Maimed King =Q=48-50----Sarras, crowning, death =Q=51, 52.

=GALAHAD= (GALAAD) son of Joseph =GG=8, 31, 34----King of Hocelice and ancestor of Urien =GG=49----founding of abbey for Symeu =GG=49.

=GANSGUOTER= =H=.

=GANORT= =GG=33, 35.

=GARALAS= =G=13.

=GAWAIN.= Gauvain =Co=, =Q=, =GG=, Gwalchmai =M=, Gawan =W=, Gawein =H=, Gawayne or Wawayne =T=----of the seed of Joseph of Arimathea =GG=48, Arthur's nephew =Co=, =Q=----conquers Blihos Bliheris =PC=2----allusion to his finding the Grail =PC=3----one of the knights met by Perceval in wood =M=1, =T=2----helps Perceval to disarm Red Knight =T=4----meeting with Perceval after blood-drops incident =C=10, =W=, =M=11----vow to release imprisoned maiden =C=11, =M=20----reproached by Guigambresil =C=12, (Kingrimur) =W=, (anonymous) =M=20----tournament at Tiebaut's =C=13, (Lippaot) =W=, (Leigamar) =H=, _cf._ =D=15, where Perceval is hero but Gawain best knight after him----adventure with the facile damsel =C=14, (Antikonie) =W=, =H=, =M=21----injunction to seek bleeding lance =C=14, =W=, (Grail) =H=----adventure with Griogoras =C=16, (Urjan) =W=, (Lohenis) =H=----meeting with scornful damsel, Orgeuilleuse, arrival at ferryman's =C=16, =W=----Magic Castle =C=17, =W=, _cf._ =GG=51----may not leave castle =C=17----second meeting with Orgueilleuse =C=18, =W=, (Mancipicelle) =H=----Ford Perillous, Guiromelant =C=18, (Gramoflanz) =W=, (Giremelanz) =H=----marriage with Orgueilleuse =W=, (?) =C=18----arrival of Arthur to witness combat with Guiromelant =C=18 continued by =G=1, =W=, =H=----fight with Perceval =W=, _cf._ =T=7----reconciliation with Guiromelant =G=1, =W=, =H=----departure on Grail Quest and winning various talismans =H=----[first arrival at Grail Castle according to Montpellier MS. of =Co=]----Brun de Branlant, Brandalis =G=1 and 2----slaying of unknown knight and Quest to avenge him =G=3----Chapel of Black Hand =G=3----arrival at Grail Castle (first according to Mons MS. of =Co=), half successful =G=3, wholly successful =H=, _cf._ =M=25 found by Peredur at Castle of Talismans, and reference in =Q=51 Welsh version----greetings of country folk =G=3, _cf._ =Ge=3----meeting with his son =G=4----Mount Dolorous Quest =G=19----renewed Grail Quest, reproached for conduct at Fisher King's, slaying of Margon =Ma=10----rescue of Lyonel =Ma=18----rescue by Perceval =Ge=16.

Joins in search for Grail with remainder of Table Round =D={2}, =Q=, betraying knowledge of Maimed King =Q=5.

Meeting with Ywain, Gheheris and confession to hermit =Q=10.

Meeting with Hector de Mares =Q=29.

Overcoming at Galahad's hand =Q=34.

=GHEHERIES= =Q=10.

=GIFLÈS= =C=11, =G=2.

=GONEMANS= or =GONEMANT= =Co=, Gornumant =Ge=, Gurnemanz =W=, Fisher Uncle =M=, =C=5, =W=, =M=5, uncle to Blanchefleur =C=6, =C=7, =W=, second meeting with Perceval =Ge=8-9, _cf._ =T=6.

=GOON DESERT= =Ma=4.

=GRAIL=, Early History of. Last Supper cup given to Joseph =B=2, 3, 4, =GG=2, =Q=50, =Ma=3----Solace of Joseph =B=5, 6, =GG=2, =D=16, =Ma=3 (Montpellier MS.)----Grail and Fish =B=8, 9 _cf._ =GG=43----Directs Joseph what to do with Alain =B=12, _cf._ =GG=42, confided to Brons =B=14,15, =Dprol= 6, (Alain) =GG=51----=D=6, 10----feeds host =GG=5, =Q=13, also =GG=32----Blinding of Nasciens =GG=16, 21, 23, 30, passage to England 31, =D=6, =Q=6, 13, 15----Crudel =GG=38, =Q=15, =Ge=15----Blinding of Mordrains =GG=38, 39, 42, only feeds the sinless 43, 44, refuses meat to Chanaan and Symeu 47, resting-place, Castle Corbenic =GG=51.

Book of, revealed to hermit =GG=2.

=GRAIL=, Quest of _by Perceval_: first seen at Fisher King's =PC=3, =C=7, =W=, =D=11----properties of =C=8, =W=, =D=12----=C=11, =W=----=C=15, =W=----lights up forest =G=14----=G=21----seen for second time =G=22-=Ma=1-7 or =Ge=1-3, =D=16----heals Hector and Perceval =Ma=20----taken from earth =Ge=6, _cf._ =W=----opposed by witch, =Ge=8, 9----connection with Shield =Ge=13----seen for third time =Ma=23, 24, =Ge=22; _by Gawain_: =H= and =G=3; _by Lancelot_: =Q=12, 22, 43; _by Galahad_: =Q=2, feeds Arthur's court =Q=4, quest proclaimed =Q=5, feeds host =Q=13, =GG=32, denied to Gawain and Hector =Q=29, 30, accomplished =Q=50-52.

=GRAIL-MESSENGER=, see Loathly Damsel.

=GRAMOFLANZ= see Guiromelant.

=GRIOGORAS= =C=16 = Lohenis =H=.

=GUIROMELANT= =Co=, Gramoflanz =W=, Giremelanz =H=, =C=18-=G=1, =W=, =H=.

=HECTOR= (de =MARES= =Q=) =Q=29, 34, 43, =Ma=20.

=HELAIN= =Q=27.

=HELICORAS= =GG=22.

=HELYAB= =GG=2, 8, 34.

=HELYAS= =Q=26 = Ysaies =GG=30, 38.

=HERZELOYDE= =W=.

=HUDEN= =PC=4.

=HURGAINS= or =HURGANET= =D=2, 3.

=JONAANS= =Q=26, =JONANS= =GG=30, =JONAS= =GG=59.

=JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA.= D'Arymathye =B=, de Arimathie =GG=, d'Abarimathie or d'Arimathie =Q=, de Barimacie =G=, and =Ma= (Montpellier MS.), Josep (without mention of town =Ma=, Mons MS.), de Barismachie =Ge=----care of Christ's body, captivity, solace, release =B=2-7, =GG=2, 3, =D=16, _cf._ =Q=6, =Ma=2----stay in Sarras =GG=4-11, =Q=6, 26, =Ge=15, =Ma=3----=B=7----Passage to England =GG=31, =Q=6----feeding by Grail =GG=32, =Q=13, _cf._ =B=8, 9----Moys =B=11, 12, =Dprol=, _cf._ =GG=41----=B=12-15----=GG=34, 36, =Q=15, =Ge=15----=GG=38, 44, 45, 48, 50--=D=1, 6, 12.

=JOSEPHES=, =JOSEPHE=, =JOSEPHUS=, or =JOSAPHES=, son of Joseph of Arimathea, =GG=2, 5, 9, 10, 11 =Q=6, 13, 14, 16, 17, 31 =Q=6, 13 and 32, 36 =Q=6, 38 =Q=6 and 15, 40, 41 =Q=13 _cf._ =D=6, 42, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50 =Q=6, =Q=50, 51.

=JOSUE= =GG=51, 58.

=KALAFIER= =GG=20, 22.

=KARDEIZ= =W=.

=KAY.= Kex =Co=----=T=2----=C=3, =W=, =M=3----=C=4, =W=, =M=4----=C=6, =C=9----=C=10, =W=, =M=11----=M=14----=T=7----=G=3, 19, =Ma=10, =Ge=21, =D=8----one of the three Grail-questers =H=.

=KLINSCHOR= =W.=

=LABAN= =Q=35 (query variant of Lambar?).

=LABEL= =GG=26.

=LABEL'S DAUGHTER= =GG=28, 29, 37, 39.

=LAMBAR= or =LABRAN= =Q=35, =LAMBOR= =GG=58.

=LANCE= (Spear) =PC=3, 4, =C=7, 8, =M=6, =C=11, 14, 15, =G=3, 22, =Ma=1, 2, 24, =Ge=22, =H=, =D=11, 12, 16, =Q=50, 51, =GG=9, 15, 16.

=LANCELOT=, Lancelot of Lake's grandfather =Q=26, =GG=30, 59.

=LANCELOT.= Galahad's father =Q=, =GG=, =Q=1, 2, 4 (_cf._ =C=11), 5, 11, 12 (_cf._ =C=7 and =G=3), 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 (_cf._ =GG=58) 27, 28, 29, 42, 43, =GG=30, 33, 40, 45, 58, 59, =PC=4.

=LEUCANS= =GG=10.

=LIONEL Q=1, 3, attacks Bors =Q=33, =Ma=18.

=LOATHLY DAMSEL.= Anonymous =Co=, Kundrie =W=, Perceval's cousin =M=, reproaches Perceval =C=11, =W=, =M=20----announces end of Quest, =Ma=23, =M=25.

=LOGRES= =PC=1, =G=3, =Q=12, 35, 47.

=LOHENIS= =H= = Griogoras =C=16.

=LOHERANGRIN= =W=.

=LONGIS= =PC=4, =Ma=2, =D=16.

=LOT= =GG=48.

=LUCES= =GG=48.

=LUFAMOUR= =T=7, _cf._ Blanchefleur.

=MAIDENS' CASTLE= =PC=5, =G=12=a=, =Ge=6----=Q=9.

=MAIMED= or =LAME KING=. Same personage as Fisher King. Designated in this way _only_ =M=, almost entirely so =Q={2} (5, 13, also =Q={1} 36, 39, 47, 50), never so =B=, =D=. =GG=58 applies the designation to Pelleans.

=MANAAL= =GG=58.

=MANCIPICELLE=, see Orgueilleuse.

=MARGON= =Ma=10.

=MARIE LA VENISSIENNE= =GG=3 = Verrine, =B=6, =W=.

=MARPUS= (=WARPUS= =Q=26) =GG=30, 59.

=MEAUX= =GG=11.

=MELIANS=, Galahad's companion =Q=8, 10.

=MELIANS DE LIS= =C=13, =D=15.

=MERLIN= (see p. 64D) =G=20, =Dprol=, 14, 15, =Q=13.

=MORDRAINS= =GG=, Mordains =Q=, _once_ Noodrans =Ma=, _once_ Mordrach =Ge=----Baptism =GG=14, 15, =Q=6, 26, =Ma=3 =Ge=15----=GG=16, 17, vision of descendants 18, =Q=26----=GG=19, 20, stay on island 21, _cf._ =Q=19----=GG=27, =Q=36----=GG=29 Crudel, and blinding by Grail 37, 38, =Q=15, =Ge=15----retires to hermitage =GG=39, =Q=44----his shield =GG=50, =Q=6.

=MORDRED= =GG=45.

=MORDRET= =Ge=6, 7.

=MORGHE LA FÉE= =G=18.

=MORONEUS= =Q={2}26.

=MORS DEL CALAN= =PC=4.

=MOUNT DOLOROUS= =G=19, 20, =Ge=5.

=MOYS=, =MOYSES= (=B=). Seat Perillous =B=10, 11, 12, =Dprol=, 1, =GG=41, 46.

=NASCIENS= =GG=, =Q=, Natiien =Ma=----Baptism =GG=14, =Q=6, 26, =Ma=3----Blinded by Grail =GG=16----=GG=18, 19, 20, 21, 22, turning isle and Solomon's ship, 23-27, =Q=35-37----=GG=28, 29, 30, 32, 33, Crudel 37, 38, (called Seraphe) =Q=15----=GG=39----his tomb =GG=50----death =GG=59----appears as hermit in Arthur's time =Q=4, 5, 6, 29.

=NASCIENS=, son of Celidoine, =GG=39.

=NASCIENS=, grandson of Celidoine =GG=30, 59.

=NICODEMUS= =B=3, 4, 5.

=NOIRONS=, _i.e._, Nero =GG=3.

=ORCANZ= =GG=48.

=ORGUEILLEUSE.= Orguellouse =C=, Orgeluse =W= = Mancipicelle =H=, =C=16----=G=1, =W=, =H=.

=OWAIN= =M=, =EWAYNE= =T=, =YONES= =C=4, =YWAIN= "li aoutres" =Q=6, 9, 10, 29, =GG=49----meets Perceval =M=1, =T=2----helps him =M=3, =C=4.

=PARTINAL= =Ma=5, 8, 21, 22.

=PECORINS= =PC=4.

=PELEUR= =Q={1}5, 47, 48.

=PELLEANS= =GG=58.

=PELLEHEM= =Q={2}35.

=PELLES= =Q={2}1-3, 14, 27, 36, 44, 48, 50, =GG=59.

=PERCEVAL= =Co=, =D=, =Q=, =GG=; PARZIVAL =W=, =H=; PEREDUR =M=; PERCYVELLE =T=.--_Father_: Bliocadrans =PC=; anonymous =Co=, =Q=; Alain =D=; Gahmuret =W=; Evrawe =M=; Percyvelle =T=; Pellehem =Q={2}. _Mother_: Anonymous =Co=, =D=, =Q=, =M=; Herzeloyde =W=; Acheflour (Arthur's sister) =T=----brought up in wood =C=1, =W=, =M=, =T=1----meets knights (5) =C=1, =W=, (3) =M=1, =T=2----leaves mother =C=1, =W=, =D=, =M=1, =T=2----first meeting with lady of tent =C=2, (Ieschute) =W=, =M=2, =T=3----arrival at Arthur's Court =C=3, =W=, =D=, =M=3, =T=4----laughing prophetic damsel =C=3, =W=, dwarves =M=3----slays _red_ knight =C=4, (Ither of Gaheviez) =W=, (colour not specified) =M=3, =T=4----overcomes 16 Knights =M=4----burns witch =T=5----arrival at house of first uncle, Gonemans =C=5, Gurnemanz =W=, Anonymous =M=5, and (different adventure partly corresponding to =Ge=8) =T=6----first arrival at castle of lady love, Blanchefleur =C=5, Conduiramur =W=, Anonymous =M=8, Lufamour =T=7----first arrival at Fisher King's =C=7, =W=, =D=11, =M=6----is reproached by wayside damsel, cousin: (Anonymous) =C=8, (Sigune) =W=, =D=12, foster sister =M=7----second meeting with lady of tent =C=9, =W=, =M=9----overcoming of Sorceresses of Gloucester =M=10----blood drops in the snow =C=10, =W=, =M=11----Adventures with Angharad Law Eurawc; at the castle of the huge grey man; serpent on the gold ring; Mound of Mourning; Addanc of the Lake; Countess of Achievements =M=12-19----reproaches of the loathly damsel =C=11, (Kundrie) =W=, =M=20----Good Friday incident and confession to uncle =C=15, (Trevrezent) =W=, =D=14, =M=22----the Castle of the Horn =G=6----the Castle of the Chessboard =G=7, =D=4, =M=24----meeting with brother of Red Knight =G=8----Ford _amorous_ =G=9, _perillous_ =D=9----second meeting with Blanchefleur =G=10----meeting with Rosette and Le Beau Mauvais =G=11, =D=8----meeting with sister and visit to hermit =G=12, =D=5 and 6----the Castle of Maidens =G=12=a=----meeting with the hound-stealing damsel =G=13, =D=13, =M=24----meeting with the damsel of the white mule =G=14----tournament at Castle Orguellous =G=16 = =D=15 (Melianz de Lis) and =M=19 (?)----Deliverance of knight in tomb =G=17----second visit to the Castle of the Chessboard =G=18, =D=13----delivery of Bagommedes =G=19----arrival at Mount Dolorous =G=20----the Black Hand in the Chapel =G=21----second arrival at Grail Castle =G=22-=Ma=1-7 and =Ge=1, =D=16, (with final overcoming of Sorceresses of Gloucester) =M=25.

Puts on red armour for love of Aleine, accomplishes the feat of the Seat Perillous, and sets forth on Quest =D=1 and 2.

Slays the red knight, Orgoillous Delandes, =D=3.

Overcomes Black Knight, slays giant and finds mother =T=9.

Perceval and Saigremors =Ma=8----Second visit to Chapel of the Black Hand =Ma=11----the demon horse =Ma=12, =Q=18----Stay on the island =Q=19, and 20, and temptation by damsel 21, =Ma=13----Delivery of Dodinel's lady love =Ma=14----Tribuet =Ma=15----third meeting with Blanchefleur =Ma=16----meeting with coward knight =Ma=17----combat with Hector =Ma=20----slaying of Partinal =Ma=21----third arrival at Grail Castle =Ma=22----learns death of his uncle the Fisher King from loathly damsel =Ma=23, =W=----retires into wilderness =Q=52, =Ma=24----dies =Q=52, goes to Palestine and dies (?) =T=.

Encounter, unknown to either, with Galahad =Q=11. Meeting with recluse aunt =Q=13.

Assistance at the hands of the Red Knight =Q=16.

Adventure of the ship =Q=33, essay to draw sword =Q=35.

Receives Galahad's sword =Q=41, bears Galahad company for five years =Q=47----adjusts the sword at the Court of Pelles =Q={2}48.

Breaking of sword at the Gate of Paradise =Ge=2----Blessings of the country folk for putting question =Ge=3----Mending of sword at forge of the serpent =Ge=4----Accomplishment of the feat of the Perillous Seat =Ge=5----adventures at sister's Castle, with Mordret, and at cousin's, Castle of Maidens =Ge=6----encounter with Kex, Gauvain, and Tristan =Ge=7, _cf._ =T=7----meeting with Gornumant =Ge=8 (_cf._ =T=6) and fight with the resuscitating hag----third arrival at Blanchefleur's Castle, marriage =Ge=9----deliverance of maiden, abolition of evil custom, knight on fire =Ge=10-12----obtains the promised shield =G=13----combat with the Dragon King =Ge=14----arrival at abbey and story of Mordrains =Ge=15, =Q=15----the swan-drawn coffin =Ge=16----Devil in tomb =Ge=17, _cf._ =Q=7----deliverance of maiden from fountain =Ge=18----punishment of traitress damsel =Ge=19----combat with giant =Ge=20, _cf._ =T=9----encounters Kex =Ge=21----third arrival at Grail Castle =Ge=22.

=PERCEVAL'S AUNT= =Q=13, 14.

=PERCEVAL'S SISTER=, daughter to Pellehem =Q={2}, =G=12, =D=5-7, =Q=35, 36, 38, 41, 42----_cf._ =M=7.

=PERCEVAL'S UNCLE=, see Gonemans, Fisher King.

=PETRONE= =GG=29.

=PETRUS= =B=8, 12, 13, 14, =PETER= =GG=43, =PIERRON= =GG=45, 47, 48.

=PHILOSOPHINE= =Ge=6, 15.

=PILATE= =B=1, =GG=2, =B=3, 6.

=PRIADAM THE BLACK= =Q=30.

=QUIQUAGRANT= =Ma=5.

=RED KNIGHT.= Slain by Perceval =C=3, 4, =T=1, 5, who takes his arms, and is mistaken for him =C=6, =T=6, transferred to Galahad when latter takes Perceval's place =Q=14, 16----=G=8, 9.

=ROSETTE=, Loathly Maiden, =G=11, =D=8.

=SAIGREMORS= =C=10, =Ma=8, 9, 18, =D=2.

=SARRAQUITE= =GG=13, 16, 22, 28, 29, 59.

=SARRAS= =GG=5, 11, 13, 15, 18, =Ma=3, =Q=26, 41, 50, =GG=30.

=SEAT PERILLOUS= (empty) =B=10, =Dprol=, 1----=Q=2, =GG=41, =Ge=5, =Q=13.

=SERAPHE= =GG=, =Q=, =Ge=, _once_ Salafrès =Ma=----Battle with Tholomes =GG=12, 14, =Q=6, 26, =Ma=3, =Ge=15, renamed _Nasciens_, which see.

=SEVAIN OF MEAUX= =GG=11.

=SOLOMON'S SHIP= =Q=35-38, =GG=24, 27, 30, 58.

=SOLOMON'S SWORD= =Q=35, 38, =GG=27, _cf._ =Q=48.

=SORCERESSES OF GLOUCESTER= =M=10, 25.

=STAG HUNT= =G=7, 8, 16, 18, =D=4, 13, =M=24.

=SWORD= =PC=3, =C=7, 8, =M=6, =G=3, 12, 22, =Ma=5, 22, =Ge=1, 2, 4, 15, 22, =H=, =Q=2, 3, 48, =GG=33, 44, 58. See also Solomon's sword.

=SYMEU= =Q=46, =GG=31, 47, 49.

=THOLOMES= =Q=6, =Ge=15, =GG=11, 12, 14.

=THOLOME CERASTRE= =GG=11.

=TIBERIUS CÆSAR= =GG=3, 11, =Ma=3.

=TITUS= =GG=3.

=TREBUCET= or =TRIBUET= =C=8, =W=, =Ma=15.

=URBAN OF THE BLACK THORN= =D=9, =Co=.

=URLAIN= or =URBAN= =Q=35 = Bruillant =GG=58.

=UTHER PENDRAGON= =GG=9, _cf._ p. 64D.

=VERRINE= =B=6 = Marie la Venissienne =GG=3.

=VESPASIAN= =B=6, =GG=3, 4, =Ma=3, =Q=7.

=WASTE CITY=, King of the, =Ge=8.

=WASTE LAND= =PC=1, (forest) 6, =Q=13, 35, =GG=58.

=YSAIES= =GG=30, 59 = Helyas, =Q=26.

=YWAIN=, see Owain.

INDEX II.

[This Index comprises the whole of the work with exception of the Summaries, for which see Index I. The references are to the pages. The entries apply solely to the page number or page group-number which they immediately precede, and not to all the pages between themselves and the next entry. In the majority of cases a simple number reference is given, and the fuller entries are to those points which the author wishes specially to emphasise.]

Abundia and Herodias, 100.

Adonis, 101.

Alain (son of Brons), 66, 77, 79, 82, 83, 84, 89, 109, 112, 123, as Fisher King, 208, 210, 218, 222, 245.

Amfortas, Fisher King in Wolfram, 249, in Wagner's Parsifal, 253-55, 263.

Aminadap, 84.

Arbois de Jubainville, 184-85, 188, 192-93.

Arthur, Arthur saga, Arthurian romance or legend, 108, 114, 116, 117, Martin's interpretation of, 122-24, 130, 134, 136, 144, 147, 148, 153, 155, 156, 188, A's waiting, 197-98, A and Potter Thompson, 198, 205, 218, 219, 221, 222, popularity of, 228-29, Celtic character of, 230, 231, 236, 243, 244, 245.

Avalon (Avaron), 77, punning explanation of, 78, parallel to the Grail, 122-23 and 188, with the Magic Castle, 191, 198, 218, 222, connection with Glastonbury, 223, 248, parallel with Brandan's isle, 264.

Baldur, 100.

Ban, 83, 84.

Baring-Gould, 98.

Bartsch, 261.

Battle of Magh Rath, 185, 186.

Bergmann's San Grëal, 104.

Bespelled Castle in Celtic tradition, 190-206.

Birch-Hirschfeld, 4, 5, 6, 38, 52, 64_d_, 84, full analysis of his work, 108-121, Martin's criticism, 121-23, 124, objections to his hypothesis, 125-126, 128, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 145, 151, 168, 171, 174, 207, 217, 220, 250, Wolfram and Chrestien, 261-62.

Blaise, 113.

Blanchefleur, 92, 114, 115, 133, comparison of Chrestien and Mabinogi, 135, 140, 147, 204, 238, example of sex-relations of the time, 241.

Blood-drops in the snow, 137-38.

Books of Rights and Geasa, 213.

Borron, Robert de, author of the Joseph d'Arimathie, bibliographical details, 2, MS. statements respecting, 4-6, 19, passage of Grail to England, 79-80, 94, 95, 96, Hucher's views, 105-6, relation to other versions according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 111-115, 116, 118-20, Martin's views, 121-124, 125, 131, 171, secret words, 186, 188, Fisher King in, 207-9, 220, 221, 222, his conception, 239, chastity ideal in, 245, 247, 251, 252.

Bors, 66, exemplification of spirit of Queste, 239.

Bötticher, Wolfram and Chrestien, 261.

Bran (the Blessed), 108, and Cernunnos, 211, connection with conversion of Britain, 218-20, 226, connection with Brandan legend, 265.

Bran the Son of Febal, 192, 194, 232, 265.

Brandan legend, 264-65.

Branwen (Mabinogi of), 76, 97, 108, 167, 168, cauldron, 186, 211, 219, 260.

Britain, evangelisation of, 80, 91, 95, 105-106, 107, 124, 218, connection with the Brons and Joseph legends, 219-24.

Brons, 66, 70, 72, 75, 77, special form of Early History, 78-79, 80, 81, two accounts respecting, 82-83, 84, 85, 86, 88, in the Didot-Perceval, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 106, 109, 112, 113, 123, 124, 125, 182, as Fisher King, 208-11, as Apostle of Britain, 218-26, 235.

Bruillans, 84.

Brunhild, 232.

Bundling, 135.

Caesarius of Heisterbach, 122.

Campbell, J. F., 102-03, 152, 159-60, cup of healing, 187, 210.

Campbell, No. 1 Young King of Easaidh Ruadh, 187; No. 10 The Three Soldiers, 195-96; No. 41 The Widow and her Daughters, 187; No. 47 Mac Iain Direach, 187, 212; No. 51 The Fair Gruagach, 213; No. 52 The Knight of the Red Shield, 156-57, the resuscitating carlin, 166-67; No. 58 The Rider of Grianaig, 157, 209; No. 76 Conall Gulban, 167, 187; No. 82 How the Een was set up, 158, 189; No. 84 Manus, 189-90; No. 86 The Daughter of King Under the Waves, 194-95, 246.

Campbell, J. G., Muilearteach, 167.

Catheloys, 84.

Celidoine, 83, 84.

Celtic tradition, origin of or elements in Grail legend, 7, how affected by placing of versions, 68-69, opinions of previous investigators, 97-107, Birch-Hirschfeld, 111-113-14-15-17-20, Martin, 121-24, Hertz, 125, Grail apparently foreign to, 151, 164-65, Carlin in, 167-69, 170-71, 181, 183-84, Vessel in, 184-88, Sword in, 188-90, 191, 195, 197, 199, 208, origin of legend, 215-18, 223-27, relation to mediæval romance, 230, individualism in, 231, woman in, 231-33, the supernatural in, 234, 235, chastity ideal, 247, 248, 251, transformation of, 255, 265.

Ceridwen, 186, 210-11.

Cernunnos, 211.

Cét mac Magach, 231.

Chanson de Roland, 248.

Charlemagne, Carolingian Saga, 197, 229, 230, 231.

Chastity ideal in the Queste, 243-44, in later versions, 245-46, in popular and Celtic tradition, 246-47.

Chessboard Castle, 127-30, 139-41.

Chrestien, bibliographical description, 1, 2, statements of MSS. respecting, 4, 5, 8, 66, 69, 70, 74, 76, 80, 81, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93, 95, views of previous investigators, 98-108, Birch-Hirschfeld, 108-121, 122, 124, 125, 126, relation to Didot-Perceval, 127-131, to Mabinogi, 132-145, nature of model, 145-46, relation to Sir Perceval, 147-51, relation to Great Fool, 155-56-58-59, 164, 168, visit to Grail Castle in, 171-74, 175, represents mainly feud quest, 180-82, 199, 207, 208, 211, 218, his ideal, 237-38, 245, 249, 250, relation to Wolfram, 261-63.

Christian origin of or elements in Grail legend, Christian tradition, legend, etc.; as affected by placing of versions, 68, 80, 123, 143, 146, 165, 170-73, 179, 181, 186, 209, as affected by my hypothesis, 215-18, 220, 224, 226-27, relation to the talismans, 238-39, 251-52, influence on the legend as a whole, 255.

Chronological arrangement of versions, 6, Author's, 95-96, Zarncke's, 107, Birch-Hirschfelds', 120-21.

Conall Cearnach, 231.

Conan's delusions, 200.

Conchobor, 192, 231, 233.

Conduiramur, 204, and Parzival, 249-51.

Connla, 188, 194, 196, 232.

Constituent elements in the romances, 215-16.

Corbenic, 83, 84.

Cormac's visit to the otherworld, 193-94, 234.

Counsels, the, in the romances, 150.

Crestiens, p. 83 = Nasciens, p. 84.

Cuchulainn, 153, 185, 188, 189, conception of, 192, _gess_ of, 214, parallel of legend to mediæval romances, 231-34.

Cumhall, father of Fionn, 158-59.

Curoi mac Daire, 231.

Cynewulf, 221.

Dagda, the, and the cauldron, 184-85, 192.

Deirdre, 137, and the Sons of Usnech, 233.

Diarmaid, 202, _gess_ of, 214.

Didot-Perceval, prose sequel to Borron's poem, numbered as C 2, 65, 66, 68, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, the Quest in, 89-91, 92, 93, 94, 96, Zarncke's opinion of, 107, Authorship of according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 112-15, 117, 120, 121, 125, 126, relationship to Conte du Graal, 127-30, origin of, 131, 138, 139, stag hunt in, 141-42, 145-46, 172-73, 179, 182, 191, 198-99, 208, 245.

Dietrich Saga, 230.

Domanig, Parzival-Studien, 250.

Duvau, 192.

Dwarves incident in Chrestien and Mabinogi, 134.

Elton, 219.

Emer, wooing of, 232-33.

Encyclopædia Britannica, 126.

England, arrival of Grail in 76-80, Birch-Hirschfeld 116, Joseph legend in 221-22.

Enygeus (Brons' wife), 81, 82.

Evangelium Nicodemi, 221-22.

Espinogre, 142.

Expulsion and Return Formula (Aryan), 144, 153-54, 156, 159, 163-64, 190, 210, 225, 256.

Fand, 232.

Faust, 253.

Fenian saga or cycle, sword in, 188-90, 230.

Feud-Quest in the romances and in Celtic tradition, 181-90.

Finn-eges, 209-11, 220.

Fionn (Finn), Fionn-saga, 153-54, 157, connection with Great Fool and boyhood of Peredur, 158-59, 163-64, Fionn's enchantment, 186-87, and sword, 189-90, 195, in the otherworld, 200-03, and salmon, 209-11, 214, 220, 224, 231, 234, 256.

Fish, according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 112, Martin, 123-24, 224. See also Salmon.

Fisher King, Fisher or Rich Fisher, 77, 78, as Grail-Keeper, 80-86, relation the Promised Knight, 87-89, 107, 110, 113, 115, accounted for by Birch-Hirschfeld, 117, 123, 124, 134, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 180, 206, Author's explanation of, 207-11, 237, in Wolfram, 249.

Fisher King's daughter, 140-42.

Fisher King's father, 74, 81, 110, 191.

Fitzgerald, 198, 231.

Fomori, 188, 230.

Förster on Peredur, 132.

Frederick II, 122, in the Kyffhäuser, 196-97.

Frederick I (Barbarossa), 196-97.

Furnivall, 2, 3, 102-03, estimate of Queste criticised, 242-43.

Gaelic talismans = Grail and lance, 103.

Gaidoz, 219.

Galahad, Galahad Quest, 66, 67, 83-86, as Promised Knight, 90-94, 102, 104, 106, 108, 109, 113, 131, 149, 226, comparison with Perceval Quest, 236, morality of, 240, 245-46, 252, 254.

Gaston Paris on relation between Chrestien and Mabinogi, 132.

Gautier (de Doulens), Pseudo-Gautier, numbered A II., 1-2, statements respecting in MS., 4, Berne MS. of, 19, 69-70, 72, 74-75, 76-77, 81, 87, 92-95, 101, 106, 110, 113, 114, 120-21, relation to Didot-Perceval, 128-30, to Mabinogi ,133 and 140-44, 145, 146, visit to Grail Castle in, 171-72, Gawain Quest in, 174 and 178-79, 182, 189, 199, 237, 246.

Gautier (Walter) de Montbeliart and Borron, 5, 103, 105, 120, 121.

Gawain (Gauvain), 2, 67, 69, visit to Grail King, 87, 92, 101, Martin's view of, 122 and 124, 125, 164, 172, special form of Quest, 176-78, 180, 189, 191, visit to Magic Castle, 199-200, in Heinrich, 203-05, 237, and Orgueilleuse, 240-41, 245, 251, 261-62.

Geasa, 212-14.

Geoffrey of Monmouth, 91, 119, 219, 229.

Gerald (Giraldus Cambrensis), testimony respecting Map's authorship, 117-18, 122.

Gerbert, numbered A IV., 1, 5, 69, love _motif_ in, 92, 95, 110, 121, 126, the witch who brings the dead to life in, 165-69, 172, 174-75, 179, 180, 199, chastity ideal in, 246, 249, relation to Wolfram, 262-63.

Gervasius of Tilbury, 122, 197.

Glastonbury, Skeat's view, 105, Zarncke, 107, 220, and Avalon, 223-25.

Goethe, 253.

Gonemans, 130-34, and Fisher King, 138, 140, and the witch, 165-68, advice to Perceval, 211-12. See also Gurnemanz.

Goon Desert, 81, 142.

Grail, 66, hypothetical Christian origin of, 68, first possessor of, 69-70, solace of Joseph, 70-72, connection with Sacrament, 71 and 73, and Trinity, 72, properties and effect of, 74-76, name, 76, arrival in England, 76-79, 83-84, 89-90, 94, 96, 99, 100-112, phraseology used by romances in mentioning it, 113, 114-16, symbol of Christ's body, 117, 120, symbol of Avalon, 123, 124-26, 136, 140-142, absence of from Mabinogi and Thornton Sir P., 164, apparently foreign to Celtic legend, 165, 169, various forms of visit to castle of, 170-79, double nature of, 182-83, parallel to magic vessel of Celtic tradition, 185-96, and Fionn, 202, 218, 221, mode of transformation, 224, 245, 247, in Wolfram, 250-52, in Wagner, 254-55, 261-63.

Grail (Early History of), two forms, 65-66, Joseph form, 67, relation to Christian origin hypothesis, 68, 69, Brons form, 80, 86, two forms in French romances, 93-94, later than Queste, 93, 95-96, 103, according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 108-21, 151, 208, origin of, 218 and 224.

Grail (Quest of), two forms, 65-67, Perceval form, 67, relation to Celtic origin hypothesis, 68, 69, 80, 83, 86, object of according to different versions, 88-90, original form of, 91, 92, Perceval form older, 93-94, 95-96, 105-06, 109-26, 131, 138, Mabinogi form of, 139-44, 151, inconsistency of accounts respecting, 180-81, two formulas fused in, 181, constituent elements in, 215-16, mode of transformation, 220, 237-39, 243, 245, 248, 251, 252.

Grail legend, romance or cycle, origin of according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 120, 159, Christian element in, 217, genesis and growth of, 225-27, popularity of, 228, 230, development of ethical ideas in, 235 _et seq._, 248, future of, 259, 265.

Grail-Keeper and Promised Knight, 80-81.

Grail-Messenger and Rosette, 114. See also Loathly Damsel.

Graine, 214.

Gramoflanz, 193.

Grand St. Graal, numbered E 3, authorship ascribed to Borron, 5, Helinandus' testimony, 52, 65-67, 70, 72-73, 75-76, 79, conflicting accounts respecting Promised Knight in, 84-86, 90, 91, 93, 94-96, 99, 102-112, 117, authorship of, 119-20, 121, 126, 146, 207-08, 219, 220, 247, prologue of and Brandan legend, 264-65.

Great Fool, lay or tale of the, 101-02, 144, prose opening, 152-53, comparison with romances, 154-56, originality of, 158, relation to Fionn legend, 159, Lay, 159-162, 163, 164, ethical import of, 256-57.

Gregory of Tours and Evangelium Nicodemi, 221.

Greloguevaus, 81.

Grimm, No. 122, Der Krautesel, 195, 197, 198, 204-05, 247.

Gudrun, 233.

Guinevere, 83.

Gurnemanz, 113, 115, 249, 262-63. See also Gonemans.

Guyot = Kiot, 104.

Gwalchmai, 225-26, 228. See Gawain.

Gwion and Fionn, 210.

Hahn, J. G. von, 153-54.

Halliwell, 98, 147.

Haunted Castle, 204-05.

Hawker, 244.

Hebron, 108 = Brons, which see.

Hector, 187.

Heinrich von dem Türlin, numbered K, 4, citation of Chrestien, 6, 69, 91, Martin's view of, 122, 125, visit to Grail Castle in, 172-73 and 178, double origin, 182, 191, special form of Quest, 198-99 and 203, parallel with Sleeping Beauty, 203.

Hélie de Borron, 105-06, testimony of, 118-19, 121.

Helinandus, 52, 95, 103, 121.

Helyas, 83 = Ysaics, 84.

Hennessy, 159.

Henry II, 118-19.

Herodias, 100, 254.

Hertz' views, 124-25.

How the Great Tuairsgeul etc., 212.

Hucher, 2, attempt to harmonise conflicting accounts in Borron, 82, statement of views, 105-06, criticised by Birch-Hirschfeld, 111 and 118, 130, and cauldron, 184.

Iduna, apples of, 182.

John the Baptist, 100.

Jonaans, 83, 84.

Joseph of Arimathea, Joseph legend, 65-67, 69, 70, and Grail, 70-73, 74, 77, and England, 78-80, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 94, 99, 100, 104-109, 112-117, 124, 146, and the Fisher, 208, 218, Apocryphal legend of, 220-24, 226.

Joseph, Metrical, poem by Robert de Borron, numbered B 2, author of, 5, 65-66, 68, 70-73, 74-76, 77-80, two accounts in, 81-82, 88, 91, 93-94, 102-103, relation to Didot-Perceval according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 112-14, 125.

Josephes (son of Joseph), and Veronica, 79, 84-86, 109.

Josue, 66, 84, 85.

Kay, 130.

Keating and the treasures of the Tuatha de Danann, 184.

Kennedy's Fellow with the Goat-skin, 134, Castle Knock, 159, Great Fool, 159-61, Son of Bad Counsel, 199-200, Fionn's visit to Cuana, 201, haunted castle tale, 204, 257.

Kiot, 6, San Marte's view, 99-100, 107-08, 121, and Wolfram, 261-63.

Klinschor, 253, 263.

Knight Errantry, 229.

Knighthood, prototype of in Celtic tradition, 231.

Knights of the Red Branch, 231.

Knowles' Said and Saiyid, 196.

Koch, Kyffhäuser Sage, 197.

Köhler, 195.

Kundry in Wagner, 254-55, 263. See Loathly Damsel.

Küpp on Pseudo-Chrestien, 8, 126, and the branch, 193, 262.

Kynddelw, 219.

Lambar, 83-84, 86, 183.

Lame King, see Maimed King.

Lance, 109, and Grail legend according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 111, 113, 121.

Lancelot, 83, 84, 108, 110, 112, 118, 119, 123, 172-173, 180, 240, 245.

Latin original of French romances probable, 122.

Liebrecht, 197-98.

Llyr Llediath, 219-20.

Loathly Damsel, 87, and Rosette, 114, in Mabinogi and Chrestien, 136, hero's cousin, 139-41, double origin of in romances, 205-06, and Wagner, 254.

Longis, 70.

Luces de Gast, 118-19.

Luces (Lucius), 91, 219.

Lufamour, 147.

Lug Lamhfhada, 184, 189, 192.

Mabinogi of Peredur (generally Mabinogi sometimes Peredur) numbered H 3, 5, 66, 68, 69, Villemarqué on, 97-98, 89, Simrock on, 100, 101, Nash, 102, 104, Hucher, 106, lateness of according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 114-115, 125-26, relation to Conte du Graal, 131-37, dwarves incident in, 134, greater delicacy in Blanchefleur incident, 135, blood drops incident, 137-38, differences with Chrestien, 138-39, machinery of Quest in, 139-42, relation to Manessier, 142-44, origin and development of, 143-145, special indebtedness to Chrestien, 145, 146, relation to Sir Perceval, 148-49, counsels in, 150, apparent absence of Grail from, 151, comparison with Great Fool tale, 154-57, with Great Fool Lay, 161-62, 164, with Gerbert's witch incident, 168-69, 171, visit to Talismans Castle in, 172-73 and 176, 180, 181, 183, 184, 190, 216, fusion of numerous Celtic tales in, 225-26, Sex-relations in, 241, 256.

Maidens' Castle, parallels to in Celtic tradition, 191-94.

Maimed or Lame or Sick King, 66, 83-88, 90, 91, 109, parallel with Arthur, 122, probable absence from Proto Mabinogi, 145, belongs to Feud Quest, 198, parallel to Fionn, 202, 237.

Malory, 236.

Manaal, 84.

Manannan mac Lir, 192-94, 208, and Bran, 219.

Manessier, numbered A III, 1-2, date etc., 4-5, 69-71, 73-74, 77, 81, 88, 92, 95, 110, 121, 138, relation to the Mabinogi, 142-46, 168-69, 171, 175, disregard of question, 180-82, 199, 245-46.

Manus, 189-90.

Mapes or Map, 5, 104, 105, not author of Queste or Grand St. Graal according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 117-19.

Martin's views, 121-26, Kyffhäuser hypothesis criticised, 197, 198, Wolfram and Gerbert, 262.

Meaux, 120.

Menglad, 232.

Merlin, 92, 114, 124.

Merlin, Borron's poem, 2, 64D, 105, 106, 112-13, 117.

Meyer, Kuno, 209, 233.

Minnedienst, 240-41.

Modred, 122.

Montsalvatch, 66.

Mordrains, 90, 109-10, 120, 173.

Morgan la Fay, 122.

Morvan lez Breiz, 148, 158, 162.

Moys or Moses, 88-90, 106, 109, 112, 116.

Mythic conceptions in the romances, 205.

Nasciens, 76, 83, 85, 120.

Nash, 102.

Nibelungenlied, 230, 234, 248.

Nicodemus, 71.

Noisi, 137, 233.

O'Daly, 159-61, 163.

Odin, 100-01.

O'Donovan, 185, 209, 213.

Oengus of the Brug, 191-92, and swanmaid, 196.

O'Flanagan, 233.

Ogma, 188.

Oisin, 195, 200, and Gwion, 210, 232.

O'Kearney, 201.

Orgueilleuse, Celtic character of, 124 and 232, illustrates mediæval morality, 240-41, 263.

Osiris, 101.

Pagan essence of Grail etc. in the Christianised romances, 238.

Partinal, 81, 88, 142-43.

Parzival, 101, 252-53. See Perceval and Wolfram.

Paulin-Paris, 5, explanation of word Grail, 103, 111, 116-17, 119.

Pearson on the Veronica legend, 222, and St. Brandan, 265.

Peleur, 83.

Pelleans or Pellehem, 83-86, 90.

Pelles, 83-86, 90.

Perceval, Perceval-Quest, type hero of Quest, 66-67, 72, 78, relation to the Grail-keeper, 80-86, 88-89, 91-92, oldest hero of Quest, 93, 94, 98, 101, 102-04, according to Birch-Hirschfeld, 110-119, 125, in Didot-Perceval and Conte du Graal, 127-31, in Mabinogi and Conte du Graal, 131-45, relation to (bespelled) cousin, 139-42, relation of existing versions to earliest form, 146, in the Thornton MS. romance, 147-51, hero of Expulsion and Return Formula, 153-56, parallel with Highland folk-tales, 157-58, relation to Twin Brethren folk-tale and dualism in, 162-64, 169, versions of Quest, 171-76, visit to the Maidens' Castle, 178-79, 180, 181, significance of Didot-Perceval form, 182, 187, and sword, 189, Castle of Maidens, 191, 195, 199, parallel with Diarmaid, 202, possible hero of Haunted Castle form, 204-05, relation to Fisher, 207, his silence, 211-14, 226, superiority to Galahad Quest, 236, 237-38, 240-41, 245, 247, 254, 256, 261-62. See also Parzival and Peredur.

Perceval's aunt, 79.

Perceval's sister, 83-84, 163.

Perceval's uncle, 78.

Perceval le Gallois, numbered G 3, authorship, 6, 65-66, 69, 104, 121, 126, 246.

Peredur (hero of Mabinogi = Perceval), Peredur-saga, 106, mother of, 115, 132-36, parallel to Tom of the Goat-skin, 134, the sword test, 138, hero of the stag hunt, 139-42, 143, original form of saga, 144-45, 153-54, 157, 162, 163, 164, 168-69, and Fionn, 187 and 203, 220, fish absent from, 224, genesis and growth of, 225-227, 228, Blanchefleur incident in, 241. See Perceval.

Peronnik l'idiot, 125, 158.

Perseus, 256.

Petrus, 77, 82, 88-90, 106, 109, 112, connection with Geoffrey conversion legend, 219.

Pfaffe Amis, 265.

Pilate, 65, 70.

Potter Thompson and Arthur, 198, 262.

Potvin, 1, 2, 6, his views, 104, 174, 177.

Prester John, 100.

Procopius, 191.

Promised or Good Knight, and Grail Keeper, 80-86, Galahad as, 85-86 work of, 86-91, qualifications of, 92-93, 107, 109.

Prophecy incident in Grail romances, 156.

Pseudo-Chrestien, 8, 209.

Pseudo-Gautier, numbered AII_a_, 2, 15-16, 70, 72, 74, 77, 79, 81, 95.

Pseudo-Manessier, numbered AIII_a_, 2, 19, 72-73.

Queste del St. Graal, numbered D 2-3, varying redactions distinguished typographically, 38, 65-67, 72, 75-76, 79, three drafts of, 83-86, 90-91, glorification of virginity in, 93, 95, 103, 107, relation to Grand St. Graal, 108-09, to Conte du Graal, 110-11, 112, 113, authorship of, 117-20, 121, 126, 131, 146, visit to Grail Castle in, 172-73, 180, 183, 186, 207, 218, 220, 222, 224, 226, 236, ideal of, 238-40 and 243-44, ideal criticised, 243-44, merits of, 244-45, 246, inferiority to Wolfram, 250, 251.

Question, Birch-Hirschfeld's opinion, 171, 180, belongs to Unspelling Quest, 181-82, 191, 196, 203, Wolfram's presentment, 249-50.

Red Knight, 147-49, 155-56, 162, 189.

Renan on Celtic poetry, 234-35.

Rhys, 198, 209, 211, Bran legend, 219-20, 265.

Rich Fisher or King. See Fisher King.

Riseut, 141.

Robert de Borron. See Borron.

Rochat, 19, his views, 101-02.

Roland, 229, 232.

Roménie, 118.

Rosette, 130, 141. See Loathly Damsel.

Salmon of Wisdom, 209-10.

San Marte, views, 99-100, 101-02, and Wolfram, 250-5.

Sarras, 72, 77, 79.

Schröder, Brandan legend, 264-65.

Seat, empty or Perillous, 81-82, 88-90.

Secret words, 73, 89, 179.

Seraphe, 108.

Sex-relations in Middle Ages, 240-42.

Siegfried, 157, 162, 203, 210, 232-33.

Simei, 90.

Simrock, views, 100-101, 103, 132, 134, 164, 251, 261-62.

Skeat, 104.

Skene, 219-20.

Sleep and the Magic Castle myth, 202-03.

Sleeping Beauty, parallel with Heinrich's version, 203, ethical import of, 258.

Solomon's sword, 84. See Sword.

Sons of Usnech, 137, 233.

Sorceresses of Gloucester, 101, 139, 156.

Spontaneity of folk tradition, 254, 257-58.

Stag Hunt in Conte du Graal and Mabinogi, 139-40, in Didot-Perceval, 141, parallel with Lay of Great Fool, 162.

Steinbach on Sir Perceval, 147-50.

Stephens, 219-20.

Stokes, 188, 200, 233.

Suetonius, 116.

Sword, 113, 142, belongs more to Feud Quest, 180-82, found also in Unspelling Quest, 183, of Lug, 184, in Celtic myth, 187-90, 198-99.

Taboo and Geasa, 214.

Taliesin, 97, 186, and Oisin, 210-11.

Templars, 100.

Tennyson, 236, 244.

Tethra, 188.

Thor, Irish parallels to, 200-01.

Thornton MS. Sir Perceval (often simply Sir Perceval), numbered I 4, 66, 68-69, 101-02, 125, 126, Steinbach's theory of, 147-50, criticised, 149, absence of Grail from, 151, connection with Great Fool tale, 154-58, 162, 164-65, witch incident, 169, 190, 225.

Tír-na n-Og, 191, 195, 223, 248, 264.

Titurel, 66.

Titus, 107.

Trinity, symbolizing of, 88.

Tuatha de Danann, treasures of, 184-85, 189-92, 223, 230.

Two Brothers tale, 157, 162-63.

Ultonian cycle, 185.

Unspelling Quest, 181, Celtic parallels to, 190-206, 208.

Urban (Urlain), 83, 84, 183.

Van Santen, 252.

Vanishing of Bespelled Castle, 202-03.

Veronica (Verrine), 79, 116, Ward's theory, 222.

Vespasian, 107, 116.

Vessel in Celtic myth, 184, in Ultonian cycle, 185, in Welsh myth, 186, in Celtic folk-tales, 187. See Grail.

Villemarqué, views 97-98, 101, 131, 148.

Virginity, 247.

Wagner, 252-54.

Ward, 220, 222.

Wartburg Krieg and Brandan legend, 264.

William of Malmesbury, 105, Zarncke's opinion of, 107, 115, Ward's opinion of, 220.

Windisch, 188, 219.

Witch who brings the dead to life, 165-69.

Wolfram von Eschenbach, numbered F 3, sources, 6, 25-26, 65-67, 69, and Gerbert, 92, 99-102, 104, 107, 121-25, 150, 157, brother incident in, 164, 172-73, branch in, 193, magician lord, 199, account of mediæval morality, 240-41, 246, ideal of, 248-52, 254, 255, 256, pattern for future growth of legend, 261, relation to Chrestien, 261-63.

Woman in Celtic tradition, 231-33.

Wülcker, Evangelium Nicodemi, 220-21.

Zarncke, views, 106-07, 115, 132, 220.

HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HER MAJESTY, ST. MARTIN'S LANE, LONDON.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Fully described by Potvin, VI, lxix, etc.

[2] Potvin, VI, lxxv, etc.

[3] Birch-Hirschfeld: Die Sage vom Gral, 8vo., Leipzig, 1877, p. 81.

[4] Birch-Hirschfeld, p. 89.

[5] Birch-Hirschfeld, p. 110.

[6] Birch-Hirschfeld, p. 232, quoting the colophon of a Paris MS., after Paulin Paris, Cat. des MSS. français, vol. ii, pp. 361, etc.

[7] Birch-Hirschfeld, p. 143.

[8] This prologue is certainly not Chrestien's work; but there is no reason to doubt that it embodies a genuine tradition, and affords valuable hints for a reconstruction of the original form of the story. _Cf._ Otto Küpp in Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, vol. xvii., No. 1.

[9] Potvin's text, from the Mons MS., is taken as basis.

[10] Several MSS. here intercalate the history of Joseph of Arimathea: Joseph of Barimacie had the dish made; with it he caught the blood running from the Saviour's body as it hung on the Cross, he afterwards begged the body of Pilate; for the devotion showed the Grail he was denounced to the Jews, thrown into prison, delivered thence by the Lord, exiled together with the sister of Nicodemus, who had an image of the Lord. Joseph and his companions came to the promised land, the White Isle, a part of England. There they warred against them of the land. When Joseph was short of food he prayed to the Creator to send him the Grail wherein he had gathered the holy blood, after which to them that sat at table the Grail brought bread and wine and meat in plenty. At his death, Joseph begged the Grail might remain with his seed, and thus it was that no one, of however high condition, might see it save he was of Joseph's blood. The Rich Fisher was of that kin, and so was Greloguevaus, from whom came Perceval.

It is hardly necessary to point out that this must be an interpolation, as if Gauvain had really learnt all there was to be told concerning the Grail, there would have been no point in the reproaches addressed him by the countryfolk. The gist of the episode is that he falls asleep before the tale is all told.

[11] The existence of this fragment shows the necessity of collating all the MSS. of the Conte du Graal and the impossibility of arriving at definite conclusions respecting the growth of the work before this is done. The writer of this version evidently knew nothing of Queste or Grand St. Graal, whilst he had knowledge of Borron's poem, a fact the more remarkable since none of the other poets engaged upon the Conte du Graal knew of Borron, so far, at least, as can be gathered from printed sources. It is hopeless in the present state of knowledge to do more than map out approximately the leading sections of the work.

[12] It is by no means clear to me that Gerbert's portion of the Conte du Graal is an interpolation. I am rather inclined to look upon it as an independent finish. As will be shown later on, it has several features in common with both Mabinogi and Wolfram, features pointing to a common prototype.

[13] In the solitary MS. which gives this version, it follows, as has already been stated, prose versions of Robert de Borron's undoubted poems, "Joseph of Arimathea" and "Merlin."

[14] Birch-Hirschfeld, in his Summary (p. 37, l. 22) or his MS. authority, B.M., xix, E. iii., has transposed the relationships.

[15] And buried it, adds B. H. in his Summary, whether on MS. authority or not I cannot say, but the Welsh translation has--"there was a period of 240 years" (an obvious mistake on the part of the translator) "after the passion of J. C. when Jos. of A. came; he who buried J. C. and drew him down from the cross."

[16] Thus was Evelach called as a Christian, adds B. H. Here W. agrees with Furnivall.

[17] Here Birch-Hirschfeld's Summary agrees with W.

[18] B. H. agrees with W.

[19] According to B. H., the recluse tells him he has fought with his friends, whereupon, ashamed, he hurries off.

[20] B. H. here agrees with W.

[21] B. H. has _five_ candles.

[22] B. H.: "When will the Holy Vessel come to still the pain I feel? Never suffered man as I."

[23] B. H. agrees with W.

[24] B. H. agrees with Furnivall.

[25] B. H., the _ninth_.

[26] B. H., the vision is that of a crowned old man, who with two knights worships the cross.

[27] B. H., Nasciens.

[28] B. H. has all this passage, save that the references to the vision at the cross-ways seem omitted.

[29] B. H., the latter.

[30] B. H., in Chaldee.

[31] B. H., Labran slays Urban.

[32] The 1488 text has Urban.

[33] B. H., Thus was the King wounded, and he was Galahad's grandfather.

[34] It does not appear from B. H.'s Summary whether his text agrees with F. or W.

[35] B. H., seven knights.

[36] B. H., that was the Castle of Corbenic where the Holy Grail was kept.

[37] B. H., the Castle of the Maimed King.

[38] B. H., ten. Obviously a mistake on the part of his text, as the nine with the three Grail questers make up twelve, the number of Christ's disciples.

[39] B. H., three.

[40] B. H. agrees with F.

[41] One cannot see from B. H. whether his text agrees with F. or W.

[42] B. H. agrees with F.

[43] It will be advisable to give here the well-known passage from the chronicle of Helinandus, which has been held by most investigators to be of first-rate importance in determining the date of the Grand St. Graal. The chronicle ends in the year 1204, and must therefore have been finished in that or the following year, and as the passage in question occurs in the earlier portion of the work it may be dated about two years earlier (Birch-Hirschfeld, p. 33). "Hoc tempore (717-719) in Britannia cuidam heremitae demonstrata fuit mirabilis quaedam visio per angelum de Joseph decurione nobili, qui corpus domini deposuit de cruce et de catino illo vel paropside, in quo dominus caenavit cum discipulis suis, de quo ab eodem heremita descripta est historia quae dicitur gradale. Gradalis autem vel gradale gallice dicitur scutella lata et aliquantulum profunda, in qua preciosae dapes divitibus solent apponi gradatim, unus morsellus post alium in diversis ordinibus. Dicitur et vulgari nomine greal, quia grata et acceptabilis est in ea comedenti, tum propter continens, quia forte argentea est vel de alia preciosa materia, tum propter contentum .i. ordinem multiplicem dapium preciosarum. Hanc historiam latine scriptam invenire non potui sed tantum gallice scripta habetur a quibusdem proceribus, nec facile, ut aiunt, tota inveniri potest."

The Grand St. Graal is the only work of the cycle now existing to which Helinandus' words could refer; but it is a question whether he may not have had in view a work from which the Grand St. Graal took over its introduction. Helinandus mentions the punning origin of the word "greal" (_infra_, p. 76), which is only hinted at in the Grand St. Graal, but fully developed elsewhere, _e.g._, in the Didot-Perceval and in Borron's poem.

Another point of great interest raised by this introduction will be found dealt with in Appendix B.

[44] The MS. followed by Furnivall has an illustration, in which Joseph is represented as sitting under the Cross and collecting the blood from the sides and feet in the basin.

[45] MS. reading.

[46] I have not thought it necessary to give a summary of the prose romance Perceval le Gallois. One will be found in Birch-Hirschfeld, pp. 123-134. The version, though offering many interesting features, is too late and unoriginal to be of use in the present investigation.

[47] _Cf._ p. 78 as to this passage.

[48] It is forty-two years, according to D. Queste (p. 119), after the Passion that Joseph comes to Sarras.

[49] It is plain that B I is abridged in the passage dealt with, from the following fact: Joseph (v. 2,448, etc.) praying to Christ for help, reminds Him of His command, that when he (Joseph) wanted help he should come "devant ce veissel precieus Où est votre sans glorieus." Now Christ's words to Joseph in the prison say nothing whatever about any such recommendation; but E, Grand St. Graal, does contain a scene between our Lord and Joseph, in which the latter is bidden, "Et quant tu vauras à moi parler si ouuerras l'arche en quel lieu que tu soies" (I, 38-39) from which the conclusion may be drawn that B I represents an abridged and garbled form of the prototype of E.

[50] In the Mabinogi of Branwen, the daughter of Llyr, the warriors cast into the cauldron of renovation come forth on the morrow fighting men as good as they were before, except that they are not able to speak (Mab., p. 381).

[51] The version summarised by Birch-Hirschfeld.

[52] Curiously enough this very text here prints Urban as the name of the Maimed King; Urban is the antagonist of Lambar, the father of the Maimed King in the original draft of the Queste, and his mention in this place in the 1488 text seems due to a misprint. In the episode there is a direct conflict of testimony between the first and second drafts, Lambar slaving Urlain in the former, Urlain Lambar in the latter.

[53] This account agrees with that of the second draft of the Queste, in which Urlain slays Lambar.

[54] Only _one_ beholder of the Quest is alluded to, although in the Queste, from which the Grand St. Graal drew its account, _three_ behold the wonders of the Grail.

[55] This, of course, belongs to the second of the two accounts we have found in the poem respecting the Promised Knight, the one which makes him the grandson and not the son merely of Brons.

[56] The object of the Quest according to Heinrich von dem Türlin will be found dealt with in Chapter VII.

[57] This is one of a remarkable series of points of contact between Gerbert and Wolfram von Eschenbach.

[58] It almost looks as if the author of C were following here a version in which the hero only has to go once to the Grail Castle; nothing is said about Perceval's first unsuccessful visit, and Merlin addresses Perceval as if he were telling him for the first time about matters concerning which he must be already fully instructed.

[59] It is remarkable, considering the scanty material at his disposal, how accurate Schulz' analysis is, and how correct much of his argumentation.

[60] Wagner has admirably utilised this hint of Simrock's in his Parsifal, when his Kundry (the loathly damsel of Chrestien and the Mabinogi) is Herodias. _Cf._ _infra_, Ch. X.

[61] Excepting, of course, the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century Paris imprints, which represented as a rule, however, the latest and most interpolated forms, and Mons. Fr. Michel's edition of Borron's poem.

[62] Hucher's argument from v. 2817 (_supra_ p. 106) that the poem knew of the Grand St. Graal is, however, not met.

[63] _Vide_ p. 200, for Birch-Hirschfeld's summary comparison of the two works, and _cf._ _infra_ p. 127.

[64] _Cf._ _infra_ p. 128, for a criticism of this statement.

[65] Opera V. 410: Unde et vir ille eloquio clarus W. Mapus, Oxoniensis archidiaconus (cujus animae propitietur Deus) solita verborum facetia et urbanitate praecipua dicere pluris et nos in hunc modum convenire solebat: "Multa, Magister Geralde, scripsistis et multum adhue scribitis, et nos multa diximus. Vos scripta dedistis et nos verba."

[66] Printed in full, Hucher, I. 156, etc.

[67] Printed by Hucher, I. p. 35, etc.

[68] The remainder of Birch-Hirschfeld's work is devoted to proving that Chrestien was the only source of Wolfram von Eschenbach, the latter's Kiot being imagined by him to justify his departure from Chrestien's version; departures occasioned by his dissatisfaction with the French poet's treatment of the subject on its moral and spiritual side. This element in the Grail problem will be found briefly dealt with, Appendix A.

[69] I have not thought it necessary, or even advisable, to notice what the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (Part XLI, pp. 34, 35) and some other English "authorities" say about the Grail legends.

[70] They are brought together by Hucher, vol. i, p. 383, etc.

[71] In the preface to the second volume of his edition of Chrestien's works (Halle, 1887), W. Förster distinguishes Peredur from the Lady of the Fountain and from Geraint, which he looks upon as simple copies of Chrestien's poems dealing with the same subjects. Peredur has, he thinks, some Welsh features.

[72] It is perhaps only a coincidence that in Gautier the "pucelle de malaire" is named Riseut la Bloie, and that Rosette la Blonde is the name of the loathly damsel whom Perceval meets in company of the Beau Mauvais, and whom Birch-Hirschfeld supposes to have suggested to Chrestien _his_ loathly damsel, the Grail messenger. But from the three versions one gets the following:--Riseut (Gautier), loathly damsel (Didot-Perceval), Grail messenger (Chrestien), = Peredur's cousin, who in the Mabinogi is the loathly Grail messenger, and the protagonist in the stag-hunt.

[73] I have not thought it necessary to discuss seriously the hypothesis that Chrestien may have used the Mabinogi as we now have it. The foregoing statement of the facts is sufficient to negative it.

[74] THE COUNSELS. _Chrestien_ (v. 1,725, etc.): aid dames and damsels, for he who honoureth them not, his honour is dead; serve them likewise; displease them not in aught; one has much from kissing a maid if she will to lie with you, but if she forbid, leave it alone; if she have ring, or wristband, and for love or at your prayer give it, 'tis well you take it. Never have comradeship with one for long without seeking his name; speak ever to worthy men and go with them; ever pray in churches and monasteries (then follows a dissertation on churches and places of worship generally). _Mabinogi_ (p. 83): wherever a church, repeat there thy Paternoster; if thou see meat and drink, and none offer, take; if thou hear an outcry, especially of a woman, go towards it; if thou see a jewel, take and give to another to obtain praise thereby; pay thy court to a fair woman, _whether she will or no_, thus shalt thou render thyself a better man than before. (In the italicised passage the Mabinogi gives the direct opposite of Chrestien, whom he has evidently misunderstood.) _Sir Perceval_ (p. 16): "Luke thou be of mesure Bothe in haulle and boure, And fonde to be fre." "There thou meteste with a knyghte, Do thi hode off, I highte, and haylse hym in hy" (He interprets the counsel to be of measure by only taking half the food and drink he finds at the board of the lady of the tent. The kissing of the lady of the tent which follows is in no way connected with his mother's counsel.) _Wolfram_: "Follow not untrodden paths; bear thyself ever becomingly; deny no man thy greeting; accept the teaching of a greybeard; if ring and greeting of a fair woman are to be won strive thereafter, kiss her and embrace her dear body, for that gives luck and courage, if so she be chaste and worthy." Beside the mother's counsels Perceval is admonished by Gonemans or the personage corresponding to him. In _Chrestien_ (2,838, _et seq._) he is to deny mercy to no knight pleading for it; to take heed he be not over-talkful; to aid and counsel dames and damsels and all others needing his counsel; to go often to church; not to quote his mother's advice, rather to refer to him (Gonemans). In the _Mabinogi_ he is to leave the habits and discourse of his mother; if he see aught to cause him wonder not to ask its meaning. In _Wolfram_ he is not to have his mother always on his lips; to keep a modest bearing; to help all in need, but to give wisely, not heedlessly; and in especial not to ask too much; to deny no man asking mercy; when he has laid by his arms to let no traces thereof be seen, but to wash hands and face from stain of rust, thereby shall ladies be pleased; to hold women in love and honour; never to seek to deceive them (as he might do many), for false love is fleeting and men and women are one as are sun and daylight.--There seems to me an evident progression in the ethical character of these counsels. Originally they were doubtless purely practical and somewhat primitive of their nature. As it is, Chrestien's words sound very strange to modern ears.

[75] In the notes to my two articles in the "Folk-Lore Record" will be found a number of references establishing this fact.

[76] The hero renews his strength after his various combats by rubbing himself with the contents of a vessel of balsam. He has moreover to enter a house the door of which closes to of itself (like the Grail Castle Portcullis in Wolfram), and which kills him. He is brought to life by the friendly raven. The mysterious carlin also appears, "there was a turn of her nails about her elbows, and a twist of her hoary hair about her toes, and she was not joyous to look upon." She turns the hero's companions into stone, and to unspell them he must seek a bottle of living water and rub it upon them, when they will come out alive. This is like the final incident in many stories of the Two Brothers class. _Cf._ note, p. 162.

[77] O'Daly's version consists of 158 quatrains; Campbell's of 63. The correspondence between them, generally very close (frequently verbal), is shown by the following table:--

O'D., 1, 2. C., 1, 2. -- C., 3. O'D., 3. C., 4. O'D., 4-15. -- O'D., 16. C., 4. O'D., 17-24. C., 5-12. O'D., 25. -- -- C., 13-15. O'D., 26-47. C., 16-36. O'D., 48-56. -- O'D., 57-61. C., 37-40. O'D., 62. -- O'D., 63-65. C., 41-43. O'D., 66. C., 45. O'D., 67. C., 44. O'D., 68, 69. C., 46, 47. O'D., 70. C., 49. O'D., 71. C., 48. -- C., 50. O'D., 72. C., 52. O'D., 73. -- O'D., 74. C., 53. O'D., 75. C., 54. O'D., 76-80. C., 55-59. O'D., 81-134. -- O'D., 135, 136. C., 60, 61. -- C., 62. O'D., 137. -- O'D., 138. C., 63. O'D., 139-158. --

[78] Of this widely spread group, Grimm's No. 60, Die zwei Brüder, may be taken as a type. The brethren eat heart and liver of the gold bird and thereby get infinite riches, are schemed against by a goldsmith, who would have kept the gold bird for himself, seek their fortunes throughout the world accompanied by helping beasts, part at crossways, leaving a life token to tell each one how the other fares; the one delivers a princess from a dragon, is cheated of the fruit of the exploit by the Red Knight, whom after a year he confounds, wins the princess, and, after a while, hunting a magic hind, falls victim to a witch. His brother, learning his fate through the life token, comes to the same town, is taken for the young king even by the princess, but keeps faith to his brother by laying a bare sword twixt them twain at night. He then delivers from the witch's spells his brother, who, learning the error caused by the likeness, and thinking advantage had been taken of it, in a fit of passion slays him, but afterwards, hearing the truth, brings him back to life again. Grimm has pointed out in his notes the likeness between this story and that of Siegfried (adventures with Mimir, Fafnir, Brunhilde, and Gunnar). In India the tale figures in Somadeva's Katha Sarit Sagara (Brockhaus' translation, ii., 142, _et seq._). The one brother is transformed into a demon through accidental sprinkling from a body burning on a bier. He is in the end released from this condition by his brother's performing certain exploits, but there is no similarity of detail. Other variants are _Zingerle_ (p. 131) where the incident occurs of the hero's winning the king's favour by making his bear dance before him; this I am inclined to look upon as a weakened recollection of the incident of a hero's making a princess _laugh_, either by playing antics himself or making an animal of his play them (_see_ _supra_, p. 134, Kennedy's Irish Tale). Grimm also quotes _Meier_ 29 and 58, but these are only variants of the dragon-killing incident. In the variant of 29, given p. 306, the hero makes the king laugh, and in both stories occurs the familiar incident of the hero coming unknown into a tournament and overcoming all enemies, as in Peredur (Inc. 9). _Wolf._, p. 369, is closer, and here the hero is counselled by a grey mannikin whom he will unspell if he succeeds. _Stier_, No. I. (not p. 67, as Grimm erroneously indicates) follows almost precisely the same course as Grimm's 60, save that there are three brothers. _Graal_, p. 195, has the magic gold bird opening, but none of the subsequent adventures tally. _Schott_, No. 11, is also cited by Grimm, but mistakenly; it belongs to the faithful-servant group. Very close variants come from Sweden (Cavallius-Oberleitner, V_a_, V_b_) and Italy (Pentamerone, I. 7 and I. 9). The Swedish tales have the miraculous conception opening, which is a prominent feature in tales belonging to the Expulsion and Return group (_e.g._, Perseus, Cu-Chulaind, and Taliesin), but present otherwise very nearly the same incidents as Grimm. The second of the Italian versions has the miraculous conception opening so characteristic of this group of folk-tales, and of the allied formula group, the attainment of riches consequent upon eating the heart of a sea dragon, the tournament incident (though without the disguise of the hero), the stag hunt, wherein the stag, an inimical wizard haunting the wood, is a cannibal and keeps the captured hero for eating. In the story of the delivery by the second brother, the separating sword incident occurs. The first version opens with what is apparently a distorted and weakened form of the hero's clearing a haunted house of its diabolical inmates (_see_ _infra_ Ch. VII., Gawain) and then follows very closely Grimm's Two Brothers, save that the alluring witch is young and fair, the whole tale being made to point the moral, "more luck than wit." Straparola, _a_ 3, is a variant of the dragon fight incident alone. It is impossible not to be struck by the fact that in this widely spread group of tales are to be found some of the most characteristic incidents of the Perceval and allied Great Fool group. The only version, however, which brings the two groups into formal contact is O'Daly's form of the Great Fool.

[79] The brother feature appears likewise in Wolfram von Eschenbach, where Parzival's final and hardest struggle is against the unknown brother, as the Great Fool's is against the Gruagach. This may be added to other indications that Wolfram _did_ have some other version before him besides Chrestien's.

[80] I cannot but think that these words have connection with the incident in the English Sir Perceval of the hero's throwing into the flames and thus destroying his witch enemy.

[81] I must refer to my Mabinogion Studies, I. Branwen for a discussion of the relation of this tale with Branwen and with the Teutonic Heldensage.

[82] Another parallel is afforded by the tale of Conall Gulban (Campbell, III., 274). Conall, stretched wounded on the field, sees "when night grew dark a great Turkish carlin, and she had a white glaive of light with which she could see seven miles behind her and seven miles before her; and she had a flask of balsam carrying it." The dead men are brought to life by having three drops of balsam put into their mouths. The hero wins both flask and glaive.

[83] _Cf._ my Branwen for remarks on the mythological aspect of the ballad. It should be noted that most of the ballads traditionally current in the Highlands are of semi-literary origin, _i.e._, would seem to go back to the compositions of mediæval Irish bards, who often sprinkled over the native tradition a profusion of classical and historical names. I do not think the foreign influence went farther than the "names" of some personages, and such as it is is more at work in the ballads than in the tales.

[84] This may seem to conflict with the statement made above (p. 145), that the Mabinogi probably took over the maimed uncle from Chrestien. But there were in all probability several forms of the story; that hinted at in Chrestien and found in Manessier had its probable counterpart in Celtic tradition as well as that found in Gerbert. It is hardly possible to determine what was the form found in the proto-Mabinogi, the possibility of its having been exactly the same as that of Gerbert is in no way affected by the fact that the Mabinogi, as we now have it, has in this respect been influenced by Chrestien. Meanwhile Birch-Hirschfeld's hypothesis that Gerbert's section of the Conte du Graal is an interpolation between Gautier and Manessier is laid open to grave doubt. It is far more likely that Gerbert's work was an independent and original attempt to provide an ending for Chrestien's unfinished poem, and that he had before him a different version of the original from that used by Gautier and Manessier.

[85] It occurs also in Peredur (Inc. 16), where the hero comes to the Castle of the Youths, who, fighting every day against the Addanc of the Cave, are each day slain, and each day brought to life by being anointed in a vessel of warm water and with precious balsam.

[86] For the second time, if Gerbert's continuation be really intended for our present text of Gautier, and if Potvin's summary of Gerbert is to be relied upon; Birch-Hirschfeld seemingly differs from him here, and makes the King at once mention the flaw.

[87] It may be worth notice that v. 35,473 is the same as Chrestien, v. 4,533.

[88] It is evident that, although in the MS. in which this version is found it is followed by Manessier's section, the poem was intended by Gerbert to end here.

[89] Told at other times, and notably by Gautier himself (Inc. 21), of Perceval, where the feature of a dead knight lying on the altar is added.

[90] According to the Montpellier MS., which here agrees substantially with Potvin's text (the Mons MS.), this is Gauvain's second visit to the Grail Castle. At his first visit he had been subjected to the sword test and had slept. The mystic procession is made up as follows:--Squire with lance; maidens with plate; two squires with candlesticks; fair maiden weeping, in her hands a "graal;" four squires with the bier, on which lies the knight and the broken sword. Gauvain would fain learn about these things, but is bidden first to make the sword whole. On his failure he is told

Vous n'avez par encore tant fet D'armes, que vous doiez savoir, etc.,

and then goes to sleep. His awakening finds him in a marsh.

[91] It may be conjectured that the magic vessel which preserves to this enchanted folk the semblance of life passes into the hero's possession when he asks about it, and that deprived of it their existence comes to an end, as would that of the Anses without the Apples of Iduna. I put this into a note, as I have no evidence in support of the theory. But read in the light of this conjecture some hitherto unnoticed legend may supply the necessary link of testimony.

[92] Nearly all the objections to the view suggested in the text may be put aside as due to insufficient recognition of the extent to which the two formulas have been mingled, but there is one which seems to me of real moment. The wasting of the land which I have looked upon as belonging to the unspelling formula, is traced by the Queste to the blow struck by King Lambar against King Urlain, a story which, as we have seen, is very similar to that which forms the groundwork of one at least of the models followed by the Conte du Graal in its version of the feud quest. It does not seem likely that the Queste story is a mere echo of that found in the Conte du Graal, nor that the fusion existed so far back as in a model common to both. But the second alternative is possible.

[93] I do not follow M. Hucher upon the (as it seems to me) very insecure ground of Gaulish numismatic art. The object which he finds figured in pre-Christian coins may be a cauldron--and it may not--and even if it is a cauldron it may have no such significance as he ascribes to it.

[94] _Cf._ as to Lug D'Arbois de Jubainville, Cycle Mythologique Irlandais; Paris, 1884, p. 178. He was revered by all Celtic races, and has left his trace in the name of several towns, chief among them Lug-dunum = Lyons. In so far as the Celts had departmental gods, he was the god of handicraft and trade; but _cf._ as to this Rhys, Hibb. Lect., p. 427-28.

[95] _Cf._ D'Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._, p. 269-290. The Dagda--the good god--seems to have been head of the Irish Olympus. A legend anterior to the eleventh century, and belonging probably to the oldest stratum of Celtic myth, ascribes to him power over the earth: without his aid the sons of Miledh could get neither corn nor milk. It is, therefore, no wonder to find him possessor of the magic cauldron, which may be looked upon as a symbol of fertility, and, as such, akin to similar symbols in the mythology of nearly every people.

[96] _Cf._ as to the mythic character of the Tuatha de Danann, D'Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._, and my review of his work, Folk-Lore Journal, June, 1884.

[97] I at one time thought that the prohibition to reveal the "secret words," which is such an important element in Robert de Borron's version, might be referred to the same myth-root as the instances in the text. There is little or no evidence to sustain such a hazardous hypothesis. Nevertheless it is worth while drawing attention in this place to that prohibition, for which I can offer no adequate explanation.

[98] Powers of darkness and death. Tethra their king reigns in an island home. It is from thence that the maiden comes to lure away Connla of the Golden Hair, as is told in the Leabhar na-h-Uidhre, even as the Grail messenger comes to seek Perceval--"'tis a land in which is neither death nor old age--a plain of never ending pleasure," the counterpart, in fact, of that Avalon to which Arthur is carried off across the lake by the fay maiden, that Avalon which, as we see in Robert de Borron, was the earliest home of the Grail-host.

[99] _Cf._ D'Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._ p. 188.

[100] When Cuchulainn was opposing the warriors of Ireland in their invasion of Ulster one of his feats is to make smooth chariot-poles out of rough branches of trees by passing them through his clenched hand, so that however bent and knotted they were they came from his hands even, straight, and smooth. _Tain bo Cualgne_, quoted by Windisch, Rev. Celt., Vol. V.

[101] This epithet recalls Lug, of whom it is the stock designation. Now Lug was _par excellence_ the craftsman's god; he, too, at the battle of Mag Tured acted as a sort of armourer-general to the Tuatha de Danann. A dim reminiscence of this may be traced in the words which the folk-tale applies to Ullamh l.f., "he was the one special man for taking their arms."

[102] _Cf._ my Aryan Expulsion and Return formula, pp. 8, 13, for variants of these incidents in other stories belonging to this cycle and in the allied folk-tales.

[103] This incident is only found in the living Fionn-_sage_, being absent from all the older versions, and yet, as the comparison with the allied Perceval sage shows, it is an original and essential feature. How do the advocates of the theory that the Ossianic cycle is a recent mass of legend, growing out of the lives and circumstances of historical men, account for this development along the lines of a formula with which, _ex hypothesi_, the legend has nothing to do? The Fionn-_sage_, it is said, has been doctored in imitation of the Cuchulainn-_sage_, but the assertion (which though boldly made has next to no real foundation) cannot be made in the case of the Conte du Graal. Mediæval Irish bards and unlettered Highland peasants did not conspire together to make Fionn's adventures agree with those of Perceval.

[104] In the Gawain form of the feud quest found in Gautier, the knight whose death he sets forth to avenge is slain by the cast of a dart. Can this be brought into connection with the fact that Perceval slays with a cast of his dart the Red Knight, who, according to the Thornton romance, is his father's slayer.

[105] This prose tale precedes an oral version of one of the commonest Fenian poems, which in its present shape obviously goes back to the days when the Irish were fighting against Norse invaders. The poem, which still lives in Ireland as well as in the Highlands, belongs to that later stage of development of the Fenian cycle, in which Fionn and his men are depicted as warring against the Norsemen. It is totally dissimilar from the prose story summarised above, and I am inclined to look upon the prose as belonging to a far earlier stage in the growth of the cycle, a stage in which the heroes were purely mythical and their exploits those of mythical heroes generally.

[106] The prohibition seems to be an echo of the widely-spread one which forbids the visitor to the otherworld tasting the food of the dead, which, if he break, he is forfeit to the shades. The most famous instance of this myth is that of Persephone.

[107] _Cf._ Procopius quoted by Elton, Origins of English History, p. 84.

[108] Prof. Rhys, Hibbert Lectures for 1886, looks upon him as a Celtic Zeus. He dispossessed his father of the Brug by fraud, as Zeus dispossessed Kronos by force.

[109] D'Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._, p. 275. Rhys, _op. cit._, p. 149.

[110] M. Duvau, Revue Celtique, Vol. IX., No. 1, has translated the varying versions of the story.

[111] Like many of the older Irish tales the present form is confused and obscure, but it is easy to arrive at the original.

[112] The part in brackets is found in one version only of the story. Of the two versions each has retained certain archaic features not to be found in the other.

[113] Summarised by D'Arbois de Jubainville, _op. cit._, p. 323.

[114] D'Arbois de Jubainville, p. 326.

[115] Otto Küpp, Z.f.D. Phil. xvii, i, 68, examining Wolfram's version sees in the branch guarded by Gramoflanz and broken by Parzival a trace of the original myth underlying the story. Gramoflanz is connected with the Magic Castle (one of the inmates of which is his sister), or with the otherworld. Küpp's conjecture derives much force from the importance given to the branch in the Irish tales as part of the gear of the otherworld.

[116] This recalls the fact that Oengus of the Brug fell in love with a swanmaid. See text and translation Revue Celtique, Vol. III., pp. 341, _et. seq._ The story is alluded to in the catalogue of epic tales (dating from the tenth century) found in the Book of Leinster.

[117] In a variant from Kashmir (Knowles' Folk-tales of Kashmir, London, 1888, p. 75, _et. seq._), Saiyid and Said, this tale is found embedded in a twin-brethren one.

[118] Frederick (I.) Barbarossa is a mistake, as old as the seventeenth century (_cf._ Koch, Sage vom Kaiser Friedrich in Kyffhäuser, Leipzig, 1886), for Frederick II., the first German Emperor of whom the legend was told. The mistake was caused by the fact that Frederick took the place of a German red-bearded god, probably Thor, hence the later identification with the _red-bearded_ Frederick, instead of with that great opponent of the Papacy whose death away in Italy the German party refused for many years to credit.

[119] Unless the passage relating to Carl the Great quoted by Grimm (D.M., III., 286) from Mon. Germ. Hist., Vol. VIII., 215, "inde fabulosum illud confictum de Carolo Magno, quasi de mortuis in id ipsum resuscitato, et alio nescio quo nihilominus redivivo," be older.

[120] Liebrecht's edition of the Otia Imperialia, Hanover, 1856, p. 12, and note p. 55.

[121] Martin Zur Gralsage, p. 31, arguing from the historical connection of Frederick II. with Sicily, thinks that the localisation of this Arthurian legend in that isle was the reason of its being associated with the Hohenstauffen; in other words, the famous German legend would be an indirect offshot of the Arthurian cycle. I cannot follow Martin here. I see no reason for doubting the genuineness of the traditions collected by Kuhn and Schwartz, or for disbelieving that Teutons had this myth as well as Celts. It is no part of my thesis to exalt Celtic tradition at the expense of German; almost all the parallels I have adduced between the romances and Celtic mythology and folk-lore could be matched from those of Germany. But the romances are historically associated with Celtic tradition, and the parallels found in the latter are closer and more numerous than those which could be recovered from German tradition. It is, therefore, the most simple course to refer the romances to the former instead of to the latter.

[122] See Grimm, D.M., Ch. XXXII.; Fitzgerald, Rev. Celt., IV., 198; and the references in Liebrecht, _op. cit._

[123] Personally communicated by the Rev. Mr. Sorby, of Sheffield.

[124] In Chrestien the part of the Magician Lord is little insisted upon. But in Wolfram he is a very important personage. It may here be noted that the effects which are to follow in Chrestien the doing away with the enchantments of this Castle, answer far more accurately to the description given by the loathly Grail-Maiden of the benefits which would have accrued had Perceval put the question at the Court of the Fisher King than to anything actually described as the effect of that question being put, either by Gautier, Manessier, or Gerbert. This castle seems, too, to be the one in which lodge the Knights, each having his lady love with him, which the loathly maiden announces to be her home.

[125] Kennedy follows in the main Oss. Soc., Vol. II, pp. 118, _et. seq._, an eighteenth century version translated by Mr. O'Kearney. This particular episode is found, pp. 147, _et. seq._ I follow the Oss. Soc. version in preference to Kennedy's where they differ.

[126] The story as found in Heinrich may be compared with the folk-tale of the Sleeping Beauty. She is a maiden sunk in a death-in-life sleep together with all her belongings until she be awakened by the kiss of the destined prince. May we not conjecture that in an older form of the story than any we now possess, the court of the princess vanished when the releasing kiss restored her to real life and left her alone with the prince? The comparison has this further interest, that the folk-tale is a variant of an old myth which figures prominently in the hero-tales of the Teutonic race (Lay of Skirni, Lay of Swipday and Menglad, Saga of Sigurd and Brunhild), and that in its most famous form Siegfried, answering in Teutonic myth to Fionn, is its hero. But Peredur is a Cymric Fionn, so that the parallel between the two heroes, Celtic and Teutonic, is closer than at first appears when Siegfried is compared only to his Gaelic counterpart.

[127] I have not examined Gawain's visit to the Magic Castle in detail, in the first place because it only bears indirectly upon the Grail-Quest, and then because I hope before very long to study the personality of Gawain in the romances, and to throw light upon it from Celtic mythic tradition in the same way that I have tried in the foregoing pages to do in the case of Perceval.

[128] Kennedy, Legendary Fictions, p. 154, _et. seq._

[129] Grimm, Vol. III., p. 9 (note to Märchen von einem der auszog das Fürchten zu lernen), gives a number of variants. It should be noted that in this story there is the same mixture of incidents of the Magic Castle and Haunted Castle forms as in the romances. Moreover, one of the trials to which the hero's courage is subjected is the bringing into the room of a coffin in which lies a dead man, just as in Gawain's visit to the Grail Castle. Again, as Grimm notes, but mistakenly refers to Perceval instead of to Gawain, the hero has to undergo the adventures of the magic bed, which, when he lays himself down in it, dashes violently about through the castle and finally turns topsy turvy. In connection with this story, and with the whole series of mythical conceptions noted in the Grail romances,