Chapter 37

When, therefore, we survey the history of religions, though this sketch is necessarily very imperfect and inadequate, we find Mohammedanism still identified with the fortunes of Mohammedan rulers; and we know that for many centuries the relations of Christianity to European States have been very close. In Europe the ardent perseverance and intellectual superiority of great theologians, of ecclesiastical statesmen supported by autocratic rulers, have hardened and beat out into form doctrines and liturgies that it was at one time criminal to disregard or deny, dogmatic articles of faith that were enforced by law. By these processes orthodoxy emerged compact, sharply defined, irresistible, out of the strife and confusion of heresies; the early record of the churches has pages spotted with tears and stained with blood. But at the present time European States seem inclined to dissolve their alliance with the churches, and to arrange a kind of judicial separation between the altar and the throne, though in very few cases has a divorce been made absolute. No State, in civilised countries, now assists in the propagation of doctrine; and ecclesiastical influence is of very little service to a Government. The civil law, indeed, makes continual encroachments on the ecclesiastical domain, questions its authority, and usurps its jurisdiction. Modern erudition criticises the historical authenticity of the scriptures, philosophy tries to undermine the foundations of belief; the governments find small interest in propping up edifices that are shaken by internal controversies. In Mohammedan Asia, on the other hand, the connection between the orthodox faith and the States is firmly maintained, for the solidarity is so close that disruptions would be dangerous, and a Mohammedan rulership over a majority of unbelievers would still be perilously unstable.

I have thus endeavoured to show that the historical relations of Buddhism and Hinduism to the State have been in the past, and are still in the present time, very different from the situation in the West. There has always existed, I submit, one essential distinction of principle. Religious propagation, forcible conversion, aided and abetted by the executive power of the State, and by laws against heresy or dissent, have been defended in the West by the doctors of Islam, and formerly by Christian theologians, by the axiom that all means are justifiable for extirpating false teachers who draw souls to perdition. The right and duty of the civil magistrate to maintain truth, in regard to which Bossuet declared all Christians to be unanimous, and which is still affirmed in the Litany of our Church, is a principle from which no Government, three centuries ago, dissented in theory, though in practice it needed cautious handling. I do not think that this principle ever found its way into Hinduism or Buddhism; I doubt, that is to say, whether the civil government was at any time called in to undertake or assist propagation of those religions as part of its duty. Nor do I know that the States of Eastern Asia, beyond the pale of Islam, claim or exercise the right of insisting on conformance to particular doctrines, because they are true. The erratic manifestations of the religious spirit throughout Asia, constantly breaking out in various forms and figures, in thaumaturgy, mystical inspiration, in orgies and secret societies, have always disquieted these Asiatic States, yet, so far as I can ascertain, the employment of force to repress them has always been justified on administrative or political grounds, as distinguishable from theological motives pure and simple. Sceptics and agnostics have been often marked out for persecution in the West, but I do not think that they have been molested in India, China, or Japan, where they abound, because they seldom meddle with politics.[61] It may perhaps be admitted, however, that a Government which undertakes to regulate impartially all rites and worship among its subjects is at a disadvantage by comparison with a Government that acts as the representative of a great church or an exclusive faith. It bears the sole undivided responsibility for measures of repression; it cannot allege divine command or even the obligation of punishing impiety for the public good.

To conclude. In Asiatic States the superintendence of religious affairs is an integral attribute of the sovereignty, which no Government, except the English in India, has yet ventured to relinquish; and even in India this is not done without some risk, for religion and politics are still intermingled throughout the world; they act and react upon each other everywhere. They are still far from being disentangled in our own country, where the theory that a Government in its collective character must profess and even propagate some religion has not been very long obsolete. It was maintained seventy years ago by a great statesman who was already rising into prominence, by Mr. Gladstone. The text of Mr. Gladstone's argument, in his book on the relations of the State with the Church, was Hooker's saying, that the religious duty of kings is the weightiest part of their sovereignty; while Macaulay, in criticising this position, insisted that the main, if not the only, duty of a Government, to which all other objects must be subordinate, was the protection of persons and property. These two eminent politicians were, in fact, the champions of the ancient and the modern ideas of sovereignty; for the theory that a State is bound to propagate the religion that it professes was for many centuries the accepted theory of all Christian rulerships, though I think it now survives only in Mohammedan kingdoms.

As the influence of religion in the sphere of politics declines, the State becomes naturally less concerned with the superintendence of religion; and the tendency of constitutional Governments seems to be towards abandoning it. The States that have completely dissolved connection with ecclesiastical institutions are the two great republics, the United States of America and France. We can discern at this moment a movement towards constitutional reforms in Mohammedan Asia, in Turkey, and Persia, and if they succeed it will be most interesting to observe the effect which liberal reforms will produce upon the relation of Mohammedan Governments with the dominant faith, and on which side the religious teachers will be arrayed. It is certain, at any rate, that for a long time to come religion will continue to be a potent factor in Asiatic politics; and I may add that the reconciliation of civil with religious liberty is one of the most arduous of the many problems to be solved by the promoters of national unity.

FOOTNOTES:

[58] Delivered as President of the Congress for the History of Religions, September 1908.--_Fortnightly Review_, November 1908.

[59] 'Cujus regio ejus religio.'

[60] _The Development of Religion in Japan_, G. W. Knox, 1907.

[61] 'Atheism did never disturb States' (Bacon).

INDEX

Acton, Lord: On causes of Franco-German War, 346. Quoted, 362 (footnote), 386, 396, 398. Advice to writers of history, 384, 394. Also 370, 374, 375, 387.

Addison's _Blenheim_ criticised in _Esmond_, 101.

Adventure, see Novels of.

Adventures of Moreau de Jonnés, 16. Popularity of, in short stories, 31.

Afghan: Blood feuds, border forays, etc., 163, 164. War, 163, 318. Songs, 168. Frontier and frontier policy, 319, 324. Character, 320.

Afghanistan: Barrier to Russian advance in Asia, 316. British policy towards, compared with Russian policy in Caucasus, 317. Is acquiring a territorial connotation, 416. Eastern bulwark of Islam, 417, 449.

Akhlongo, siege of, 305.

Althorp, Lord, 64.

Armenians, their position and misfortunes, 414.

Arnold, Matthew: Lord Morley's article on his letters, 50. His letters reviewed, 57. Quoted, 58, 59, 60, 61,177, 257. Praised and criticised by Swinburne, 282, 287. Also 126, 183, 207, 266, 281.

Asia and foreign dynasties, 417.

Asoka, 436.

Austen, Jane, as novelist of manners, 21, 24.

Austria-Hungary, intermixture of races and religions in, 403.

Balfour, Arthur James, _Foundations of Belief_, 250.

Balkans, policy of the Turks in the, 407.

Balzac, 94.

Bariatinsky, 314.

Beauchamp and the Utilitarian rejection of theology, 255.

Behn, Mrs. Aphra, 2.

Benedetti, 332, etc.

Bentham, see 'Utilitarians.'

Beowulf, 168.

Bismarck, see 'L'Empire Libéral,' _passim_.

Blavatsky, Madame, 134.

Blood feuds in Afghanistan, 321. On the Scotch borders, 323.

Bonaparte, 92, 187.

Bossuet, 451.

Braddock, General, 104.

Braddon, Miss, 26.

Bret Harte, 32.

Bright, John: 'Force no remedy,' 260.

Broad Church, 62, 257.

Brontë, Charlotte, 25.

Broughton, Miss, 26.

Brown: definition of 'Intuition,' 238.

Browning, Robert, 69, 266, 267. Swinburne's homage to, 282.

Buckle, 253, 261.

Buddhism, 400, 423, and see 'The State in Relation to Religion.'

Bulwer-Lytton, Sir E., 99, 116.

_Burial of Sir John Moore_, 173.

Burke's letters, 37.

Burney, Miss, 21.

Butler's _Analogy_, 236.

=Byron, Works of Lord=, 177-209. Additions to his published letters, 178. Their bearing on his reputation, 179. Causes affecting his popularity, 183. Comparison with Chateaubriand, 186, 194. His success in oriental romance, 187; and in heroic verse, 190. Defects, tendency to declamation, etc., 191. Carelessness, contrast between his theory and practice, 193. Comparison with Scott, _The Giaour_, 195. Metre of his romantic poems, 197. His dramas, failure in blank verse, 198. His lyrical power, examples, 200. _Beppo_ and _Don Juan_, 203. Founder of modern realism in poetry, 204. _Vision of Judgment_, 206. Conclusions: value of his influence, 207.

Byron, Lord, as realist, 6. Also 13 and 97, and see under 'Letter-writing.'

Campbell, Thomas: Carlyle's description, 64. As heroic poet, 173.

Carlyle, Thomas, see 'Letter-writing.' Denounces Utilitarianism, 256. Swinburne's tribute, 283. His descriptive method, 383. See also 9, 58, 116, 215.

Castlereagh, Lord, 180, 183.

Caucasus, see 'Frontiers,' 291, etc.

Cavagnari, in Afghan ballads, 163.

Cervantes, 108.

Chanson de Roland, 161.

Charles Edward, Prince, authentic incident in _Esmond_, 104.

Chateaubriand, 97, 115, 185-187, 194.

Chaucer, 1.

_Chevy Chase_, 170.

Chillianwalla in fiction, 128.

China, religious systems, 423. Religious polity, 438.

Christian missions in India, 326.

Christianity and Islam, as militant religions, 400, 408, 421. Compared with Buddhism, etc., 427. Form alliances with the State, 434, 441.

Church and State: Lord Acton on, 398. Separation a modern idea, 421. Importance to the Church of recognition, 445. Diminishing closeness of the connection, 450. Gladstone and Macaulay on, 452.

Clough, 266.

Coleridge, S. T., see 'Letter-writing.' Connection of speculative ideas and political movements, 211, 229, 237, 372. Quoted, 33, 181, 393. Also mentioned, 37, 185, 265, 287.

Colvin, Sidney, quoted, 40, 71.

Comte and J. S. Mill, 255.

Cooper, Fenimore, 32.

Cowper, as letter-writer, 37, 66. Quoted, 62.

Crabbe, 193. Quoted, 69.

Crimean War, 311, 313.

_Cujus regio ejus religio_, 436.

Dante, 39.

Dargo, in the Caucasus, attack on, 307-308.

Darmesteter, Afghan ballads, 163, 168.

Davidson on rhyme in poetry, 279, 280.

Defoe, 3, 99.

De la Gorce: On Napoleon III., 330. On the French ministry, 339, 347.

De Musset, Alfred, 111.

De Staël, Madame, 180.

De Tocqueville, 331, 402.

De Vogüé, 252.

Dickens, Charles, 23, 30, 68, 98.

Direct narration in fiction, 18.

Disraeli, Benjamin, as novelist, 18.

Drama, rival of the novel, 2.

Du Barail, General: On Napoleon III., 330. On Ollivier, 331.

Due de Gramont, 331, etc.

Duvernois' interpellation in French Chamber, 342, 347.

Edgeworth, Miss, 21.

Eliot, George: _Romola_, 23. _Adam Bede_, 25.

Empire, defined, 406.

Ems, Benedetti and King of Prussia at, 343-350, 356.

Encyclopédistes, ancestors of the Utilitarians, 252, 402.

European dominion in Asia, importance of, 403.

Farrar, Archdeacon, quoted, 12.

Ferozeshah, 130.

Ferrero on Julius Cæsar, 391.

Fiction and fact in the novel and in history, 10, 385.

Fiction, doubt as to its value as evidence of manners, 111. See also 91 and 110.

Fielding, Henry, 3, 26, 95, 111. _Tom Jones_, 19. Influence on Thackeray, 99.

Fitzgerald, Edward, see 'Letter-writing,' 66-70.

Franco-German War, see 'L'Empire Libéral.'

French Revolution, 212, 218.

=Frontiers, Ancient and Modern=, 291-327. Demarcation of frontiers a modern development, 291. Interest of the subject to England, 293. Mr. Baddeley's work on the Caucasus, 294. Description of the Caucasus, 295. The Russian advance, 296. Yermoloff and his policy, 298. Its failure for the time, and his recall, 301. Rise of Muridism, 302. Shamil succeeds Kazi Mullah, 303. Capture of Akhlongo, 306. Repulse of Vorontzoff at Dargo; 307. and at Ghergebil, 310. Shamil ransoms his son, 312. Surrenders at Gooneeb (1857), 313. Effect on Asiatic politics, 315. Russian policy compared with British in Afghanistan, 316. Dr. Pennell on the Afghans, 319. Ghazis, blood feuds, 321. Dr. Pennell on missions, 326.

Frontiers, not strictly demarcated in the East, 413.

Froude, J. A., quoted, 74. His methods as a historian, 382.

Gambetta votes for war with Prussia, 359.

Garibaldi, 273.

Gaskell, Mrs., 26.

_Gesta Romanorum_, 2.

_Gil Blas_, 19, 204.

Gladstone, W. E., 229.

Godwin, William: As recipient of good letters, 46. His tragedy, _Antonio_, 46. Carlyle's description, 64. A peaceful anarchist, 234.

Goethe, 78, 182.

Gordon, Lindsay, 32.

_Grand Cyrus_, 96.

Gray, Thomas, 37, 50.

Greek Church, 433. Comparison with Rome, 409.

Hemans, Mrs., 265.

Herodotus, 160, 379.

=Heroic Poetry=, 155-176. Definition, 155. Professor Ker's _Epic and Romance_, 156. Early bards and chroniclers, 157. Their work based on fact, 158, 164. The hero and the heroic poet, 159. Icelandic Sagas, and Afghan songs, 163. Homer, 165. Position of women in Homeric poetry, 166. The heroic style in the Old Testament, 167. Romantic poetry of England, _Morte d Arthur_ and ballads, 169. Sir Walter Scott, 171. Limitations of heroic poetry, 172. Its decline, unfavourable influences of both the romantic and the realistic spirit, 174.

Hindu, meaning of, 419.

Hinduism, not a missionary religion, 400. Never established by the State, 447.

Historical romance brought to perfection in nineteenth century, 96.

=History, Remarks on the Reading of=, 377-398. Almost all real history written in some European language, 377. History, formerly an art, becoming a science, 379. Macaulay, Froude, and Carlyle as historical artists, 382. The scientific method, possible drawbacks, 384. Limitation and subdivision necessary, 386. Short abstracts, their use and abuse, 388. Motives for studying history, 390. Our knowledge imperfect, and our predictions fallible, 392. Lord Acton's advice and principles, 394.

Hobbes, Thomas, 243, 273. Followed by Bentham, 221. Quoted, 319, 413, 441.

Hogarth, William, 99.

Hookham Frere, 204.

Hugo, Victor, 187, 300. Swinburne's admiration, 265, 282, 287.

Hume, 215, 216. Influence on Bentham, 222; on Mill, 244, 254. Quoted, 224.

Humphry Ward, Mrs., example of her descriptive method, 27.

Hutcheson, 217.

Iliad, 174.

Impressionist school in fiction, 33.

Inchbald, Mrs., quoted, 46.

India, Mill's history of, 225.

Importance of frontier questions, 293.

Indian Empire: Resemblance to Roman, 420. Comparison with Russian, 424. See also 'Race and Religion,' and 'The State in Relation to Religion.'

Irish characters, Thackeray's partiality for, 109.

Islam: Its militant policy, 400, 413. Spread of, 432. In India, 446. Importance to Turkey of Sultan's position in, 449.

James, G. P. R., 32.

Jeffrey, Thomas, 186, 199.

Jehu's story, 382.

_John Inglesant_, 18, 106.

Johnson, Samuel, 120.

Jones, Paul, 113.

Jowett, Benjamin, quoted, 55, 57.

Kaffir, origin of the name, 415.

Keats, John, 185, 199. See also 'Letter-writing.'

Kemble, Fanny, FitzGerald's letters to, 68.

Ker's _Epic and Romance_, 156, 164, 168.

_Kidnapped_, direct narration in, 18.

Kingsley, Charles, 8. Quoted, 278.

Kipling, Rudyard, 32, 149, 174.

Klugenau, Russian General, 305.

Lamartine, 187.

Lamb, Charles, 47. Quoted, 48, 56.

Lansdowne, Lord, 228.

Laotze, 438.

Le Boeuf, Marshal, 334, 347, 351, 358.

Lecky, W. E. H., on American Loyalists, 105. Comparison with Walpole, 376.

=L'Empire Libéral=, 328-367. Constitutional reforms and character of Napoleon III., 330. Ollivier's difficult position as chief minister, 331. Crown of Spain accepted by Leopold, 332. Effect in France, warning to Prussia, 333-336. Benedetti's interview at Ems, 337. Leopold's compulsory renunciation, 338. Incautious action of Ollivier, 339; and of Gramont, 341. Assurances demanded from Prussia, 344. Ollivier meditates resignation, 345. Benedetti at Ems, 348. 'Le Soufflet de Bismarck,' 350. Declaration of war, 352. Thiers' opposition, Ollivier's defence, 353, 354. French enthusiasm, 358. Reception of declaration by Bismarck; 360; and by the Reichstag, 361. Bismarck's real responsibility, 362. Ollivier's acts and motives examined, 365.

=Letter-writing (English) in the Nineteenth Century=, 34-75. Conditions of fine letter-writing, 34. Affinities with the diary and the essay, 36. Poets as good letter-writers, 37. Value of letters for biographical and other purposes, 38. Earlier writers--Keats, Scott, Southey, Byron, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Shelley, Lamb, 39-47. Lord Morley's canon, 50. Later writers and their difficulties, 52. Dean Stanley's letters, 53. Matthew Arnold's, 57. Thomas Carlyle's, 63. Edward Fitzgerald's, 66. R. L. Stevenson's, 70.

Lever, Charles, 8, 92.

Liverpool, Lord, 66, 229, 230.

Lucretius, 271.

Macaulay, T. B., 61, 206. On Byron, 184, 191. His rejoinder to James Mill, 227. Influence on Walpole, 371. Ranke's criticism, 383.

Machiavelli: On judging by results, 329. On standing neutral in war, 331.

Mackintosh, as typical Whig, 228.

Maine, Sir H., on 'Sovereignty,' 412.

Malthus, T., 234, 236.

Manning, Cardinal, 53, 74.

Marbot, success of his Memoirs, 13, 16.

_Marcella_, quoted, 27.

Marlborough, Thackeray's description of, 103.

Marryat, Captain, 8.

_Master of Ballantrae_, direct narration in, 18.

Maurice, 256.

Mayor's _English Metres_, 286.

Mazzini, 273. Quoted, 184.

Memoirs and fiction, 13.

_Memorials of Coleorton_, 42.

Meredith, George, 264.

Mill, see 'Utilitarians.'

Milton, 200, 287. Quoted, 183.

Mongolians have not produced spiritual teachers, 442.

Moore, Thomas, 42, 179, 193. His sham Orientalism, 6, 123, 188. His dealings with Byron's letters, 177.

_Morte d'Arthur_, 169.

Mullahs, 320.

Muridism, see 'Frontiers,' 320.

Murray, John, 178. Quoted, 188.

Murray, Professor, and solar myths, 161.

Myths, historical value of, 11.

Napoleon: His story adapted to myth-making, 14. Transformer of democracy into Imperialism, 252, 402.

_Napoléon Intime_, 15.

Napoleon III; and see 'L'Empire Libéral.'

Nationalities, formation of, in Europe, 401.

Naturalism or realism defined, 25.

Newman, Cardinal, 257, 258. Swinburne's tribute to, 283.

=Novels of Adventure and Manners=, 1-33. Mr. Raleigh on origins of fiction, 1. Metrical tales, heroic romance, the eighteenth-century school of novelists, 2, 3. Novel of adventure derived from the fabulous romance, 4. Scott's influence, 5. Later tendencies, 6. Approximation of the historian and novelist, 10. The novelist rivalled by the writer of Memoirs, 13. Adventures of de Jonnés reviewed, 16. Causes limiting the sphere of the Novel of Adventure, 18. Novel of Manners, its pedigree: Fielding, 19. Influence of women writers: Miss Austen, etc., 21. Growth of Realism, 25. Description of nature, its uses, 26. Danger of excessive Realism, 29. Short stories: the Impressionist School, 32.

=Novelist, The Anglo-Indian=, 121-154. Causes affecting output of good fiction in India, 121. _Tara_, a successful historical novel, 123. _Pandurang Hari_, valuable as picture of pre-English times, 125. _Oakfield_, good battle pictures, absence of native characters noted, 126. _The Wetherbys_, 131. _A True Reformer_, and _The Dilemma_, 132. _Mr. Isaacs_, 134. _Helen Treveryan_, assigned a high place as a historical novel, 136. _On the Face of the Waters_, Indian characters freely introduced, minute adherence to fact, 139. _Bijli the Dancer_, a purely native story, 143. _Chronicles of Dustypore_, a picture of Anglo-Indian life, 145. _The Bond of Blood_, a dramatic presentation of incidents of Indian life, 146. _The Naulakha_, 149. _Transgression_, 151. Conclusions: uniformity of Anglo-Indian society, 152. Conditions favour the novel of action, 153. Absence of the psychological vein, 154.

O'Connell, Daniel, described by Carlyle, 64.

_Odyssey_ quoted, 167.

Old Testament and heroic narration, 167.

Oliphant, Mrs., 26.

Ollivier, see 'L'Empire Libéral.'

Olozaga, 337.

Ottoman Empire, its complexities of Race and Religion, 406.

Ouida, 25.

Paley, 222.

Parr, Dr., 199.

Patmore, Coventry, 268.

Pearson, Hugh, 55, 57.

Peel, Sir Robert, quoted, 232.

Peninsular War and heroic poetry, 173.

Peter the Great's Caspian expedition, 296.

Phingari, 196.

Polytheism, formerly universal, 428; gives way to Christianity, 431.

Pope, 37. Byron's praise, 193.

Porter, Jane, and historical romance, 23.

Rabelais, 321.

=Race and Religion=, 399-426. Ancient groupings of peoples, 399. Effect of (1) the Roman Empire, (2) Christianity and Islam, 400. Consolidation of States in the West, 401. Importance of 'Race' overlooked by Utilitarians, 402. Gravity of the question in Austria, 403. Its complexity in Turkey, 406. Maintenance of racial and religious differences by Asiatic Empires, 407. Close alliance of Greek Church with the State, 410. Classification of the people by religion in Ottoman Empire, 411. Importance of 'Race and Religion' in Asia, 412. Religious distinctions predominant in Western Asia, 413. Causes of the Armenian massacres, 414. Racial distinctions predominant in Afghanistan, 417. India, connotation of 'Hindu,' 418. Complexities of race and creed, 420. Policy of religious neutrality, 421. Peculiarity of religious situation in China, 422. Russian Empire, conclusions, 424.

Race distinctions, increasing influence of, 252.

Radcliffe, Mrs., the novelist, 5.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, on _The English Novel_, 1.

Ramsay, Sir William, on writing of history, 386.

Rawlinson on the effect of troubles in the Caucasus on Russian policy, 315.

Realism defined, 25. Its dangers, 28, 30, 31, (cf. 12, 140).

Reform Bill, 232.

=Religions, The State in its Relation to Eastern and Western=, 427-453. Eastern religions, Buddhism and Hinduism; Western, Christianity and Islam, 427. Growth of State domination under Roman Empire, 429. Domination of the Church when Christianity established, 431. Conflict with Islam, its effects, 432. Close alliance of both faiths with the State, 434. Absence of religious wars and of persecution in ancient India, 434. The situation in China, 437; and in Japan, 443. India, political independence of Hinduism, 443. Toleration by Mohammedan rulers, 446. Hinduism never an established religion, 447. British policy of neutrality, 447. Some political disadvantages, 449. Conclusions: difference in relations of Eastern and Western religions to the State, 451.

Renan, 379.

Ricardo, 234.

Richardson, the novelist, 3.

Ritchie, Lady Richmond, 76. Quoted, 79.