Part 2

The Navajo are good workers in silver and are all the time improving in their art. They make spherical beads, bracelets, and rings of several sorts, breast ornaments, decorations for harness and bridle, and many other things out of coins or other silver furnished them. The Navajo excel as weavers of blankets, though they use extremely simple looms. The yarn is home-spun from wool taken off their own flocks; they do, however, buy some yarn ready-made from the white man. Formerly they dyed their yarn with dyes taken from various plants or colored earths, but now they mostly use white men’s dyes. Their blankets are firm and closely woven and shed water finely. They are woven in bright patterns. All the Indians who live near the Navajo like their blankets and pay good prices for them. The Navajo greatly like turquoise beads, but they do not find turquoise on their reservation. For these beads and ornaments they trade their fine blankets, and silverware, and good ponies with the Pueblo Indians who live near the mines of this handsome greenstone.

The Navajo are great singers and have many songs; but it is the men who sing and not the women. They have also many interesting stories and curious customs, but we cannot stop to tell about them. The Apaches and Navajo are but two tribes out of the hundreds of American Indian tribes. In another book, _American Indians_, you may read about their manners and customs, their songs and music, their stories and worship.

IV. MEXICANS.

Though Mexico is our next-door neighbor, life and customs are greatly different there from our own. Three different peoples make up the population. First, are the pure-blood Spaniards, who have been born in the country; second, there are the _Mestizos_, mixed people, partly Indian, partly Spanish; third, are the pure Indians, who now form about five-twelfths of the whole population. From the City of Mexico northward the land belongs chiefly to the mestizos; from the City of Mexico southward Indians prevail.

We will say nothing of the Spaniards nor of the wealthy mestizos, both of whom are like European whites generally in their life. But the poorer mestizos in the cities and towns and the country people generally are interesting. The dress of the country gentleman was brilliant. It was of broadcloth or soft-dressed leather, of a buff or brown color. The little, close-fitting jacket, cut square at the waist, was supplied with two lines of silver or steel buttons, and embroidered with patterns in gilt or silver thread. The trousers fitted almost as a glove fits the hands, and there was a double row of bright buttons up the sides of the legs and a lacing of silver cord. The shoes, which were tan or buff, were sharp-pointed. Unfortunately this handsome costume is not common nowadays. All mestizos, rich and poor, still use the _serape_, which is a long and narrow blanket, usually of handsome, bright colors. In putting it on, one corner is held with the hand at the left shoulder, while the blanket is passed behind the back and around the body in front; the free end is then thrown over the left shoulder and hangs down behind. It thus holds itself in place and needs no tying or pinning. However poor a mestizo may be, he wants a fine hat or _sombrero_. Mexican sombreros have high, pointed crowns, and wide brims. They are made of palm or wool. Those of wool are of various colors—gray, brown, black, sometimes red, blue, or green. They are of all prices. They are decorated with bands of silver or gilt tinsel, and true silver ornaments are made in many forms for fastening to them; a fine sombrero, well made and well decorated, may weigh several pounds and cost _many_ dollars.

The Mexicans are highly polite in manner. This is partly the result of Spanish training, but is also partly due to the old Indian fondness for ceremony. The movements of the hands and fingers by which they greet each other are graceful and pretty. Friends, meeting each other, warmly embrace. If a boy is spoken to by a gentleman he politely removes his hat and holds it while he is being addressed and while he answers. Should a stranger ask a little Mexican his name, with his hat off the boy would reply, giving his name and adding, “_Servidor de usted, señor_”—“your servant, sir.”

The houses of poor Mexicans are miserable. The walls are usually built of great sun-dried _adobe_ bricks; there is but one room and that is small. There are no windows and but one door; the roof is flat and the floor is of dirt or stone. Generally there is no bed and there may be no table, and few if any chairs or stools. There are usually some rush mats in the corner, which are spread out upon the floor at night for sleeping on. There are always a _brasero_ and a _metate_. The brasero is a little kettle-shaped earthenware stove, where food is cooked over a wee fire of charcoal. The metate is the grinding-stone, on which the woman grinds corn-meal.

The three common foods of the Mexican poor are corn-cakes, eggs, and beans—_tortillas_, _huevos_, and _frijoles_. The corn after being well soaked is ground on the stone; the woman, taking the lump of wet dough, throws it back and forth from one hand to the other, turning it as she does so around and around. In this way she shapes a flat, thin, round cake which she bakes upon a round pottery griddle. The eggs are usually fried, so are the black beans, a great deal of lard being used. Often they use no knives, forks, or spoons in eating. The corn-cakes themselves will be used in handling the eggs and in scooping up the beans. After thus serving as a fork and a spoon it will itself be eaten.

But rich people in Mexico have beautiful homes. The outside, on the street, is quite plain. The house surrounds a square court or space which is called a _patio_. Passing through a great doorway, one goes from the street into the patio. All the rooms of the house open on the patio, either directly or under pretty arched galleries or corridors. The patio itself may be planted with trees and shrubs bearing sweet flowers, and often there is a fountain at the centre, with goldfish in the basin.

Cages of birds are hung around the patio, or under the corridors, and the little captives delight with their brilliant colors or their sweet songs. Every one in Mexico keeps birds as pets, and you may see, even in the houses of the very poor, mocking-birds, doves, parrots, or clarins with their clear, whistling note.

Wherever there are real _roads_ in Mexico, there you may see the quaint old-fashioned ox-carts with wheels often made from solid blocks of wood cut to shape. Two oxen are generally yoked to each, but when heavy loads are to be dragged, four, six, or even more are used at once.

In Central Mexico water is precious, and in the cities special men make it a business to sell water from house to house. The water-carriers of different towns greatly differ in the form and size of the jars they use and in the mode of carrying them. In the city of Mexico, where they are becoming an uncommon sight, the man carries two water-jars of metal, one in front, one behind, hanging by straps from his shoulders and cap; in Guadalajara a number of round pottery water-jars are set into a sort of a frame mounted on a cart or barrow; in San Luis Potosi there are four oval jars set into a wheelbarrow with an enormous wheel; in Guanajuato they use great slender jars nearly as tall as the man himself, with a ring of wood at the bottom to hold them when they are set on the ground.

In the centre of every Mexican city or town of any importance is the _plaza_ or public square. Sometimes this is surrounded by handsome buildings and laid out with care as a garden. Among orange trees laden with sweet blossoms and golden fruit, rose bushes, banana trees, there wind pleasant walks with benches in the shade, where rich or poor may rest. Usually at the centre of the plaza there is a band-stand where on certain evenings every week fine concerts are given.

The plaza is the pleasure-spot and gathering-place of all. To it flock venders of all kinds, with cakes, candies, fruits, sugar-cane, peanuts, toys, etc. Some of the wares are strange, and I am sure you could not guess them. There goes a man with a lot of pretty colored balls like wee toy balloons; they are red, white, blue, yellow; they are chewing-gum! There is another man with a great crumpled sheet of some whitish brown stuff; children flock to him with their coppers, and he cuts off pieces which they walk away munching; it is fried pigskin!

Mexicans delight in holidays, and they celebrate a great many. The 2d of November, the day of the dead, is a great day. For several days beforehand thousands of strange toys have been offered for sale. Some are skulls made of sugar or clay; there are skeletons of various sizes and materials, corpses, funeral processions, grave monuments. These are all called “deaths.” When the day of the dead comes children expect to receive these strange presents. When they rise in the morning their first cry is, “Papa, mamma, give me my death.” There is a great excitement the day before Easter. All down the streets may be seen figures of Judas hung up above the heads of the passers. In the big cities there will be hundreds of them of all sizes and shapes. They are made of cardboard and paper, and have fireworks inside. At a certain hour they are all set on fire, and burn and explode at a great rate, much to the delight of the boys and girls. But these are only two of many occasions during each year to which little Mexicans look forward with delight.

We have spoken only of the mestizos. The Indians are also interesting. There are many tribes, all with their own customs, and many with their old languages still in use. In the State of Oaxaca alone there are fifteen languages still spoken. Among the many Mexican Indian tribes perhaps the Aztecs, Otomis, Tarascans, Zapotecs, and Mayas are the best known.

V. SOUTH AMERICAN PEOPLES.

South America, like North America, was occupied by Indians at the time of the discovery. The tribes differed in appearance, language, and customs, but all were true American Indians. To be sure, some tribes were dark, others light; some were tall, others short; some were true savages, while others were almost civilized.

Probably the most advanced tribes lived along the Pacific border. In Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chili many relics of ancient art and many ruins of old buildings are found. Here and there east of the mountains similar evidences of culture are found, but they are less known. Best known of all are those of Peru.

The ancient Indians of Peru were industrious and hard workers. Their rulers, the Incas, were called “the children of the sun.” The old Peruvians had important towns and cities. They diligently cultivated their fields and irrigated them by great systems of canals. They wove capital cotton cloth, from which they made good clothing. Their cloth was often decorated with pretty inwoven designs in colored threads. They tamed and bred the llama, and trained it for a pack animal. They could not write, but kept accounts by knotted cords called _quipus_. Differently colored cords were used for different things, and knots of varying sizes stood for varying numbers. Thus an owner of llamas might use a white cord for males, a reddish cord for females, and a yellow cord for young. A simple knot might stand for _one_, and larger knots might mean _five_, _ten_, or _twenty_. In this way the herder might keep exact account of his animals.

The old Peruvians were great potters and thousands of their old water vessels and food dishes, which were buried with the dead, have been dug up. These had curious forms and were often adorned with colored patterns. Some of these jars were shaped like human faces, human figures, or animals. Sometimes they were “whistling jars,” which were so made that they whistled when water was poured in or out of them. The old Peruvians were skilled in working copper, silver, and gold, and made many ornaments and figures in these metals.

They disposed of their dead carefully, and many of the dried bodies, or “mummies” have been found in the ancient graves. The dead were folded into a sitting position and bound; they were then wrapped about with fine cloths. After the last wrapping was in place, it was painted, a false face was marked on the cloth or placed over the proper place, and imitation ear ornaments were hung at the sides of the head. Many objects were buried with the dead,—vessels of food and drink, and the objects they had used in life,—with a woman, cotton, spindle, and work-basket; with a man, weapons and ornaments. The old Peruvians built fine public buildings, and temples of stone and some ruins of such buildings still remain.

After the discovery of America two nations chiefly gained possession of South America—Spain and Portugal. Portugal secured what is now Brazil; Spain gained almost all the rest. The Spaniard settled chiefly where the native tribes had already been living a quiet and settled life. In those districts, just as in Mexico, there was much mixture between the two peoples, and to-day there is a large _mestizo_ population, whose mode of life has been influenced by that of Spain. In Peru, Brazil, Chili, and the Argentine Republic we find lands which are making progress, and in whose beautiful cities are fine buildings, handsome parks, and artistic statuary. It is a great mistake to think of any of the South American countries as uncivilized.

Still, even in countries like Peru and Chili, centres of old and interesting settled life, there are plenty of pure-blood Indians to-day. These still keep up much of their old life and customs. And when, instead of looking at the old culture centres, we examine the tribes which were truly _wild_ at the time of the conquest, we find little change. On the eastern slope of the Andes, in the valleys of those streams which unite to form the Amazon, in the dense forests which border that mighty river itself, are many truly savage tribes to-day—or, when not savage, in low barbarism. Some of these tribes use the blow-gun in hunting. This is a tube, eight or ten feet long, made from a cane or bored out of wood. It is carefully straightened and smoothed on the inside. The shaft of the little arrow used with this is slender and ends in a sharp point; a tuft of cottony material, which just fits the bore of the blow-gun, is wrapped about the upper end of the arrow and fastened. When the arrow is placed in the blow-gun, this is raised to the lips, and a sharp puff of air from the mouth sends the little weapon on its way. These arrows go a long distance and with great force; as they make no noise they are especially good for bird-hunting. The arrows not only kill by their sharpness, but by poison, which is put on their tips. Several of these Indian tribes know how to make deadly poisons, chiefly from plants.

Many of these wild tribes delight in bright feathers. They make necklaces, head-dresses, arm-rings, bracelets, leg-bands, aprons, and capes from them. Not that a single tribe makes all of these many ornaments; some will use the feathers in one way, others in another. Among the tribes of Brazil, the Botocudo are famous for the ornaments they wear in their lips and ears. These ornaments are mere disks or plugs of wood, which are inserted in holes pierced in the ears and lower lip. Some Botocudo lip plugs are three inches in diameter. Such a lip ornament holds the lip out almost like a shelf.

In eastern Ecuador and on the eastern slope of the Andes, near the Amazonian headwaters, are several tribes who cut off the heads of slain enemies as trophies. Best known of these tribes are the Mundurucus and Jivaros. The Mundurucus, after cutting off the heads, paint the faces, comb the hair, add feather ornaments, and then so dry the head that it retains its natural size and form. The heads that are kept by the Jivaros are even more curious. After they have been cut off the bones of the skull are removed piecemeal from below. The heads are then shrunken by means of astringent fluids, smoke, and pressure, until they are no larger than the fist. The features retain their form, but everything is reduced in size. It is hard to believe, when seeing one of these, that it could ever have been a full-sized human head. Believing that the spirit of the dead man will curse them and thus harm them, the Jivaros sew the lips of the trophy together with cords.

In Guiana some of the Indians make beautiful baskets of split cane. The splints are sometimes stained black or brown, and thus pretty patterns are woven in color. These patterns look like simple geometrical designs—diamonds, meanders, etc.—but often they are really pictures of snakes, monkeys, or human beings. These tribes use _cassava_ for making bread. The roots or tubers, when first dug, are poisonous and unfit for food. These are first grated on a board set with sharp bits of stone. The shredded or grated pulp is then packed into a great tube of basketwork closed at the bottom. This is hung to a beam and a pole is passed through a loop at the lower end. By turning this pole the basket tube is twisted, and the cassava pulp is squeezed so tightly that the poisonous sap runs out, leaving the wholesome flour.

VI. THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE: FAIR WHITES.

Europe is the continent of white peoples. While there are white peoples in other continents, they are there as invaders. But even among the whites of Europe itself there are differences. Most of the Northern peoples, like the Swedes, Dutch, Russians, Germans, are light peoples, with delicate skin, light hair, blue eyes, and rather long heads. They are mostly tall in stature. The Southern peoples are dark—Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, Greeks, are all brunettes. They are shorter, more slender, with dark skin, dark eyes, and black hair. In the region between these two types of European whites there are peoples of medium stature, rather stout, somewhat dark, with broad, round heads. Mr. Ripley names these three kinds of Europeans—Teutonic, Mediterranean, and Alpine peoples. We will speak simply of light whites and dark whites. All the Europeans we have named speak languages that are much alike, belonging to a group of languages to which the name Aryan is given. There are, however, some peoples of Europe who do _not_ speak Aryan languages. Such are the Basques, Finns, Lapps, and Turks.

All the fair whites are so like ourselves that it will hardly do to call them _Strange Peoples_. Yet we would find many curious things even in those who are most like ourselves, as the Hollanders. You know something about little Holland? It is a low, flat country, and much of it was formerly under the sea. The industrious Hollanders have built great dikes or walls to keep the sea back, and, by pumping out the water, reclaimed the land. A rich and fertile land it is, intersected by a network of little canals. Everywhere you go in Holland you see windmills. Because the country _is_ so low and flat, there are no rapid streams to furnish water-power for mills, so they must use the wind. At some places, like Zaandam, hundreds may be seen at once. With us windmills are simply for pumping water, but in Holland they do many kinds of work. Some are flouring mills, others are sawmills for cutting timber, others run oil presses, etc.

The fishing towns of Holland are interesting. Every traveller wants to see Vollendam and Scheveningen and the hamlets on the Island of Marken. The men and women in these towns are kind-hearted, simple people, who are proud of their own village and think their own dress finer than that of other towns. Each of these fishing villages has its characteristic costume. The men of the Island of Marken wear a close-fitting jacket which ends at the waist and great, baggy, knee pants. Marken women wear round, white caps, fitting the head closely, with an open-work border, and a bright waist, with striped sleeves, over the front of which is a square of handsomely embroidered cloth. Little girls all through Holland dress exactly like women. But for her child face you would take the little girl from Scheveningen to be a grown person. She wears a dainty white cap pinned on with two great round-headed pins. Her ample dress quite reaches the ground; her white apron is neatly tied, and her purple shawl, tightly wrapped about her shoulders, is demurely crossed, and the ends are tucked under her apron strings. She wears the common wooden shoes of the country. A crowd of boys running in such shoes over the hard paved roads makes a great clattering. On Sunday the wooden shoes of men and boys are usually fresh whitened; if their owners enter a house, they leave the shoes outside the door. I am sure you cannot guess what little Dutch boys do with old wooden shoes. They make capital little fishing boats out of them, which they sail on the canal. The real big fishing boats are really shaped very much like shoes too.

Edam cheese is one of Holland’s famous products. The people are wonderfully careful in making it. They take great care of the cows; when the weather is wet or the flies troublesome, they put blankets over them to protect them. The stables where they keep them are as clean as soap and water will make them; the stalls are made of handsomely planed wood, and there is a window at each one to let in light and to give the cows a chance to look out on the green meadows. The cheeses are made of cream and are pressed in clean, white, earthenware moulds, into the shape and size of cannon balls. They are then colored and sent to market. The greatest cheese market of Holland is at Alkmaar. Scores of boatfuls are there unloaded every market day. The market is at the water’s edge. The cheeses are colored orange or red, and are oiled and wiped till they shine. They are stacked in piles like cannon balls.

Among famous Dutch towns is Delft, where they make a beautiful white porcelain with blue designs, which is a favorite everywhere: then there is Schiedam, where they make “Schnapps,” or gin, which is as famous probably as the Delft ware, but not so praiseworthy; then there is Haarlem, famous for its flower gardens, its tulips and begonias; at Leiden there is a noble old university and a museum where one may see objects made and used by all the Strange Peoples we shall study and many more. Holland has had many great artists, and their works are preserved in the art galleries at Rotterdam, Leiden, The Hague, Haarlem, and Amsterdam. Holland was once the great commercial and naval nation of the world: that day is past, but her ships still sail all seas; the little kingdom is still a centre of intelligence, industry, and education, and the thrifty and wealthy Dutch are a worthy example of the Fair Whites.

VII. DARK WHITES.

Among the dark whites of Europe the Portuguese, Spanish, Italians, and Greeks are conspicuous. In speech they are kin to each other, and to the fair whites. How different they are otherwise! They are handsomer in face, more lithe and graceful in body, more quickly aroused, more changeable in purpose, than the fair whites. Their faces, their gestures, their movements, more emphatically betray their emotions. They live more in the present than the somewhat sober and sombre northern peoples.