CHAPTER XXX

THE LIFE OF THE ASTRONOMER-PRIESTS

The facts contained in the preceding chapters have suggested, at all events, that whatever else went on some four thousand years ago in the British circles there was much astronomical observation and a great deal of preparation for it.

In a colony of the astronomer-priests who built and used the ancient temples we had of necessity:--

(1) Observatories, _i.e._, circles in the first place; next something to mark the sight-lines to the clock-star for night work, to the rising or setting of the warning stars, and to the places of sunrise and sunset at the chief festivals. This something, we have learned, might be another circle, a standing stone, a dolmen, a cove, or a holed stone.

A study of the sight-lines shows us that these collimation marks, as we may call them, were of set purpose, generally placed some distance away from the circles, so far that they would require to be illuminated in some way for the night and dawn observations. When there was no wind, one or more hollows in a stone, whether a menhir or a quoit, might have held grease to feed a wick or a pine-wood torch. But in a wind some shelter would be necessary, and the light might have been used in a cromlech or allée couverte. Stones have been found with such cups, and débris of fires have been found in cromlechs.

It must not be forgotten that here there was no oil as in the Semitic countries whence, as we have seen, the immigrants came; and it was not a question of a light on the sight-line alone. If wood were used, it must have been kept dry for use, and whether wood or animal fat were employed the most practical and convenient way of lighting up would have been to keep a fire ever burning in some sheltered place.

(2) Dwellings, which would be cromlechs or many-chambered barrows, according to the number of astronomer-priests at the station. These dwellings would require to be protected against the invasions of the local fauna, very different from what it is now, and for this a small, and on that account easily blocked, entrance would be an essential.

These dwellings would naturally suggest themselves as the shelter place for the ever-burning fire or the supply of dry wood. Tradition points with no uncertain sound to the former existence of life and light in these “hollow hills.” Mr. MacRitchie’s book[127] contains a mine of most valuable and interesting information on this subject.

(3) A water supply for drinking and bathing, which might be a spring, river or lake, according to the locality.

Given a supply of food we have now provided for the shelter and protection of the astronomer and the man.

But the man who brought this new astronomical knowledge was, before he came, astrologer and magician as well, and, further, he was a priest; hence on account of his knowledge of the seasons, he could not only help the aboriginal tiller of the soil as he had never been helped before, by his knowledge; but he could appeal in the strongest way to his superstitious fears and feelings, by his function as the chief sacrificer and guardian of the sacrificial altars and fires. Hence it was that everything relating to the three different classes of things to which I have referred was regarded as very holy because they were closely associated with the astronomer-priests, on whom the early peoples depended for guidance in all things, not only of economic, but of religious, medical and superstitious value.

The perforated stones were regarded as sacred, so that passing through them was supposed to cure disease. Whether men and women, or children only, passed through the hole depended upon its size. But a hole large enough for a head to be inserted was good for head complaints.

The wells, rivers, and lakes used by the priests were, as holy places, also invested with curative properties, and offerings of garments (skins?), and pins to fasten them on, as well as bread and wine and cheese, were made at these places to the priests.

The fact that the tree on which the garment was hung was either a rowan or a thorn shows that these offerings commenced as early as the May-November worship.

The holed stones, besides being curative, were in long after years, when marriage had been instituted, used for the interchange of marriage vows by clasping hands through the opening.

The cups for the light would also be sacred objects; and many of them have been since used for holy water.

The cursus at Stonehenge and the avenues on Dartmoor may be regarded as evidences that sacred processions formed part of the ceremonial on the holy days, but sacrifices and sacred ceremonials were not alone in question; many authors have told us that feasts, games and races were not forgotten. This, so far as racing is concerned, is proved, I think, by the facts that the cursus at Stonehenge is 10,000 feet long and 350 feet broad, that it occupies a valley between two hills, thus permitting of the presence of thousands of spectators, and that our horses are still decked in gaudy trappings on May Day.

Nor is this all. It is hard to understand some of the folklore and tradition unless we recognise that at a time before marriage was instituted, at some of the sacred festivals the intercourse of the sexes was permitted if not encouraged. This view is strengthened by the researches of Westermarck[128] and Rhys.[129] Given such a practice, the origin of matriarchal customs and of the _couvade_ is at once explained; and it is clear that the charges against the Druids of special cruelty and impurity must be withdrawn. Their sacrifices and customs were those common to all priesthoods in the ancient world.

I have shown that some circles used in the worship of the May year were in operation 2200 B.C., and that there was the introduction of a new cult about 1600 B.C., or shortly afterwards, in southern Britain, so definite that the changes in the chief orientation lines in the stone circles can be traced.

To the worship of the sun in May, August, November and February was added a solstitial worship in June and December.

The associated phenomena are that the May-November Balder and Beltaine cult made much of the rowan and may thorn. The June-December cult brought the worship of the mistletoe.

The flowering of the rowan and thorntree in May, and their berries in early November, made them the most appropriate and striking floral accompaniments of the May and November worships, and the same ideas would point to a similar use of the mistletoe in June and December.

The fact that the June-December cult succeeded and largely replaced the May-November one could hardly have been put in a cryptic and poetic statement more happily than it appears in folklore: Balder was killed by mistletoe.

This change of cult may be due to the intrusion of a new tribe, but I am inclined to attribute it to a new view taken by the priests themselves due to a greater knowledge, among it being the determination, in Egypt, of the true length of the year which could be observed by the recurrence of the solstices, and of the intervals between the festivals reckoned in days.

However this may have been, all the old practices and superstitions were retained, only the time of year at which they took place was changed. As the change of cult was slow, in any one locality the celebrations would be continued at _both_ times of the year, and for long both sets of holidays were retained.

Since I have shewn that the solstitial worship came last, traces of this, as a rule, would be most obvious in places where it eventually prevailed over the cult of the May year. In such places the absence of traces of the May festival would be no valid argument against its former prevalence. In other places, like Scotland, where the solstitial cult was apparently introduced late and was never prevalent, we should expect strong traces of the May worship, and, as a matter of fact, it is very evident in the folk lore and customs of Scotland; even the old May year quarter days are still maintained.

Between the years 2300 B.C. and 1600 B.C., whether we are dealing with the same race of immigrants or not, we pass from unhewn to worked stones. The method of this working and its results have been admirably shown to us by Prof. Gowland’s explorations at Stonehenge.

From the tables, given in Chap. XXVIII, it can be seen that, so far as the present evidence goes, there was a pretty definite time--about 2300 B.C.--of beginning the astronomical work at the chief monuments; Cornwall came first, Dartmoor was next.

Almost as marked as the simultaneous beginning are the dates of ending the observations, if we may judge of the time of ending by the fact that the precessional changes in the star places were no longer marked by the marking out of new sight lines.

The clock-star work was the first to go, about 1500 B.C. The May-warning stars followed pretty quickly.

We may say, then, that we have full evidence of astronomical activity of all kinds at the circles for a period of some 700 years.

What prevented its continuance on the old lines? It may have been that the invention of some other method of telling time by night had rendered the old methods of observation, and therefore the apparatus to carry them on, no longer necessary.

On the other hand, it may have been that some new race, less astronomically inclined, had swept over the land.

I am inclined to take the former view. It is quite certain that for the clock-stars other observations besides those on the horizon would soon have suggested themselves for determining the lapse of time during the night. The old, high, bleak, treeless moorlands might then in process of time have been gradually forsaken, and life may have gone on in valleys and even in sheltered woods, except on the chief festivals. When this was so astronomy and superstition would give way to politics and other new human interests, and the priests would become in a wider sense the leaders and the teachers of the more highly organised community.

It is clear that in later days as at the commencement they were still ahead in the knowledge of the time. “Hi terrae mundique magnitudinem et formam, motus coeli ac siderum, ac quod dii velunt sciere profitentur” is Pomponius Mela’s statement concerning them.[130] From 1500 B.C. to Cæsar’s time is a long interval, and yet the astronomical skill of the so-called Druids, who beyond all question were the descendants of our astronomical-priests, was then a matter of common repute. Cæsar’s account of the Druids in Gaul (_Bello Gallico_, vi. c. 13, 14, 15) is extremely interesting because it indicates, I think, that the Druid culture had not passed through Gaul and had therefore been waterborne to Britain, whither the Gauls therefore went to study it.[131]

Simultaneously with the non-use of the ancient stones, we may imagine that the priests--of ever-increasing importance--no longer dwelt in their cromlechs, but, rather, occupied such buildings as those which remain at Chysoister, and from this date it is possible that burials may have taken place in some of the mounds then given up as dwelling places. As sacred places they were subsequently used for burials, as Westminster Abbey has been; but burials were not the object of their erection.[132] This new habit may have started the practice of cist burial by later people in barrows thrown up for that special purpose.

I cannot close this Chapter without expressing my admiration of the learning and acumen displayed by Dr. Borlase in his treatment of the subject of the Druids in his _History of Cornwall_, published in 1769; I find he has anticipated me in suggesting that the hollowed stones were used for fires. It is clear, now that the monuments have been dated, that the astronomical knowledge referred to by Cæsar and Pomponius Mela was no new importation; if, therefore, the present view of ethnologists that the Celtic intrusion took place about 1000 B.C. is correct, it is certain the Celts brought no higher intelligence with them than was possessed by those whom they found here; nor is this to be expected if, as the inquiry has suggested, the latter were the representatives of the highest civilisation of the East with which possibly the former had never been brought into contact.

[127] _The Testimony of Tradition._

[128] _History of Human Marriage_, Chapter II.

[129] _Celtic Folklore_, ii., 654.

[130] _Pomp. Mela_, Lib. II. c. 2. I have already (p. 52) quoted Cæsar’s testimony to the same effect.

[131] “Disciplina in Britannia reperta, atque in Galliam translata esse existimatur.”--_C. Bell. Gall._ lib. vi. c. 13. This “discipline” also included magic according to Pliny. “Britannia hodie eam (_i.e._ Magiam) attonite celebrat tantis ceremoniis, ut eam Persis dedisse videri possit” (lib. xxx. c. 1.)

[132] Bertrand and Reinach, _Les Celtes et les Gaulois dans les Vallées du Pô et du Danube_, p. 82. Tregellis, “Stone Circles in Cornwall.” _Trans._ Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1893-4.

APPENDICES

I. DETAILS OF THE THEODOLITE OBSERVATIONS AT STONEHENGE

The instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite by Cooke with verniers reading to 20″ in altitude and azimuth. Most of the observations were made at two points very near the axis, which may be designated by _a_, _b_. Station _a_ was at a distance of 61 feet to the south-west of the centre of the temple, and _b_ 364 feet to the north-east. The distance from the centre of Stonehenge to Salisbury Spire being 41,981 feet, the calculated corrections for parallax at the points of observation with reference to Salisbury Spire are:--

Station _a_ + 4′ 12″. „ _b_ - 25′ 20″.

(1) _Relative Azimuths._--Theodolite at station _a_--

Salisbury Spire 0° 0′ 0″ N. side of opening in N.E. trilithon of the external ring 237 27 40 Tree in middle of clump on Sidbury Hill 237 40 20 Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239 47 25 S. side of opening in N.E. trilithon 240 14 40 Middle „ „ „ 238 51 10

(2) _Absolute Azimuths._--All the azimuths were referred to that of Salisbury Spire, the azimuth of which was determined by observations of the Sun and Polaris.

(_a_) _Observation of Sun_, _June 23, 1901_, 3.30-3.40 P.M.

Mean of observed altitudes of Sun 41° 26′ 35″ Refraction -1′ 4″} 0 0 58 Parallax + 6 } ----------- True altitude of Sun’s centre 41 25 37

Latitude = 51° 10′ 42″. Sun’s declination = 23° 26′ 43″. Using the formula

sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + _c_ - _z_) sin ¹⁄₂(Δ + _z_ - _c_) cos² ¹⁄₂ A = -------------------------------------------- sin _c_ . sin _z_

where A = azimuth from south, Δ = polar distance, _c_ = co-latitude, and _z_ = zenith distance,

we get

Azimuth of Sun S. 75° 30′ 30″ W. Mean circle reading on Sun 84 38 35 ---------- Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 5 E.

(_b_) _Observations of Polaris._--June 23, 1901. Time of greatest easterly elongation, calculated by formula cos _h_ = tan φ cot δ, is G.M.T. 1.34 A.M.

Azimuth at greatest easterly elongation, calculated by the formula

sin A = cos δ sec φ

is 181° 57′ 0″ from south.

Observed maximum reading of circle 256° 33′ 0″ True azimuth of star 181 57 0 ---------- Meridian (S.) reading of circle 74 36 0 Circle reading on Salisbury Spire 65 28 0 --------- Azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9 8 0 E.

The mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of Salisbury Spire S. 9° 8′ 2″ E. This result agrees well with the value of the azimuth communicated by the Ordnance Survey Office, namely, 9° 4′ 8″ from the centre of the circle, which being corrected by +4′ 12″ for the position of station _a_, is increased to 9° 8′ 20″.

Hence, from the point of observation _a_, 9° 8′ 20″ has been adopted as the azimuth of Salisbury Spire.

We thus get the following absolute values of the principal azimuths from the point _a_:

Highest point of Friar’s Heel 239° 47′ 25″ -9 8 20 -------------- 230 39 5 or N. 50 39 5 E. Middle of opening in N.E. trilithon 238 51 10 -9 8 20 -------------- 229 42 50 or N. 49 42 50 E.

The difference of 8¹⁄₂′ between this and the assumed axis 49° 34′ 18″ is so slight that considering the indirect method which has necessarily been employed in determining the axis of the temple from the position of the leaning stone, and the want of verticality, parallelism and straightness of the inner surfaces of the opening in the N.E. trilithon, we are justified in adopting the azimuth of the avenue as that of the temple.

Next, with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the avenue as indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on p. 65. The small angle between the nearest pegs A and B (which are supposed to be parallel to the axis of the avenue), observed from station _a_, was measured, and the corresponding calculated correction was applied to the ascertained true bearing of the more distant peg B.

Thus

True bearing of peg B = 238° 35′ 0″ Calculated correction to peg A = 0 12 8 ------------ True bearing of line AB 238 47 8 Bearing of Salisbury Spire 189 8 20 ------------ True bearing of a line parallel to the axis of near part of avenue N. 49 38 48 E.

The mean of the three independent determinations by another observer was 49° 39′ 6″.

The calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of the avenue determined in the same manner by observations from station _b_ is 49° 32′ 54″. The mean of the two, namely, 49° 35′ 51″, justifies the adoption of the value 49° 34′ 18″ as given by the Ordnance Survey for the straight line from Stonehenge to Sidbury Hill.

(3) _Observation of Sunrise._--On the morning of June 25, 1901, sunrise was observed from station _a_, and a setting made as nearly as possible on the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be done after the Sun appeared.

The telescope was then set on the highest point of the Friar’s Heel, and the latter was found to be 8′ 40″ south of the Sun.

Sun’s declination at time of observation 23° 25′ 5″ Elevation of horizon at point of sunrise 0 35 48 Assuming 2′ vertical of Sun to have been visible at observation, we have apparent altitude of Sun’s upper limb 0 37 48 Refraction - 27′ 27″ } -0 27 18 Parallax + 0 9 } ----------- True altitude of upper limb 0 10 30 Sun’s semi-diameter 0 15 46 ----------- True altitude of Sun’s centre -0 5 16

From this it results that the true azimuth of the Sun at the time of observation = N. 50° 30′ 54″ E.

And since azimuth of Friar’s Heel = 50 39 5 ----------- 2′ of sunrise should be N. of Friar’s Heel 0 8 11 Observed difference of azimuth = 0 8 40 ----------- Observed - calculated = 0 0 29

The observation thus agrees with calculation, if we suppose about 2′ of the Sun’s limb to have been above the horizon when it was made, and therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above given of the Friar’s Heel and generally the data adopted.

II. HINTS ON MAKING, AND METHOD OF REDUCING, THE FIELD OBSERVATIONS.

It will probably be found useful if I give here a few hints as to the precautions which must be taken in making the field observations and an example of their reduction to an astronomical basis.

For the _azimuths_ of the sight-lines the investigator of these monuments cannot do better than use the 25-inch, or 6-inch, maps published by the Ordnance Survey. Their accuracy is of a very high order and is not likely to be exceeded, even if approached, by any casual observer having to make his own special arrangements for correct time before he can begin his surveying work.

In some cases, however, it may be found that the Survey has not included every outstanding stone which may be found by an investigator on making a careful search; many of the stones are covered by gorse, &c., and are not, therefore, easily found.

In such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the map should be taken as a reference line and the difference of azimuth between that and the unmarked objects determined. By this means the azimuths of all the sight-lines may be obtained.

When using the 25-inch maps for determining azimuths it must be borne in mind that the side-lines are not, necessarily, due north and south. The Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, Southampton, will probably on application state the correction to be applied to the azimuths on this account, and this should be applied, of course, to each of the values obtained.

If for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make observations of the azimuths independently of the Ordnance Survey, full instructions as to the method of procedure may be found in an inexpensive instruction book[133] issued by the Board of Education. The instructions given on p. 49, § 3, are most generally applicable, and the form on p. 76 will be found very handy for recording and reducing the observations.

In making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon a good theodolite is essential. Both verniers should be read, the mean taken, and then the telescope should be reversed in its Ys, reset, and both readings taken again. One setting and reading are of little use.

The Ordnance Survey maps may also be employed _in a preliminary reconnaissance_ to obtain approximate values of the horizon elevations. This may be done by measuring the distances and contour-lines shown on the one-inch maps. This method, however, is only very roughly approximate owing to the fact that sharp but very local elevations close to the monuments may not appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient magnitude to cause large errors in the results.

Where trees, houses, &c., top the horizon, they should, of course, be neglected and the elevation of the ground level, at that spot, taken. Should the top of the azimuth mark (stone, &c.) show above the actual horizon, its elevation should be recorded and not that of the horizon.

Having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the sight-line, it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance and to apply the refraction correction before the computations of declination can be made.

The process of doing this and of calculating the declination will be gathered from the examples given below:--

_Data._

Monument:--E. circle Tregeseal, lat. 50° 8′ N. _i.e._ colat = 39° 52′.

Alignment. Centre of circle to Longstone.

Az. (from 25″ Ordnance Map). N. 66° 38′ E.

Elevation of horizon (measured) 2° 10′.

Reference to the May-Sun curve, given on p. 263, indicates that this is probably an alignment to the sunrise on May morning. Therefore, in determining the zenith distance, the correction for the sun’s semi-diameter (16′) must be taken into account, allowing that 2′ of the sun’s disc was above the horizon when the observation was made.

_Zenith Distance_:--

Zenith distance of true horizon = 90° „ „ local „ = 90° - 2° 10′ = 87° 50′

Bessel’s tables show that refraction, at altitude 2° 10′, raises sun 17′. If 2′ of sun’s limb is above horizon, sun’s centre is 14′ below.

∴ True zenith distance of sun’s centre = 87° 50′ + 17′ + 14′ = 88° 21′.

_Declination_:--

Having obtained the zenith distance, and the azimuth, the latitude being known, the N.P.D. (North Polar Distance) of the sun may be found by the following equations:--

(1) tan θ = tan _z_. cos A,

where θ is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the purpose of computation, _z_ is the true zenith distance, and A is the distance from the _North_ point.

cos _z_. cos (c - θ)[134] (2) cos Δ = -------------------------, cos θ

where Δ is the N.P.D. of the celestial object, and _c_ is the colatitude (90° - lat.) of the place of observation.

In the example taken this gives us--

(1) tan θ = tan 88° 21′. cos 66° 38′ θ = 85° 50′ 45″

cos 88° 21′. cos (39° 52′ - 85° 50′ 45″) (2) cos Δ = ---------------------------------------- cos 85° 50′ 45″

Δ = 73° 57′ 50″

Declination, δ, = (90° - Δ) = 16° 2′ 10″ N.

Reference to the Nautical Almanac shows that this is the sun’s declination on May 5 and August 9. We may therefore conclude that the Long-stone was erected to mark the May sunrise, as seen from the Tregeseal Circle.

Had we been dealing with a star, instead of the sun, the only modification necessary in the process of calculating the declination would have been to omit the semi-diameter correction of 14′.

Having obtained a declination, we must refer to the curves given on pp. 115-6 in order to see if there is any star which fits it, and to find the date.

Take, for example, the case of the apex of Carn Kenidjack, as seen from the Tregeseal circle--

Az. = N. 12° 8′ E.; hill = 4° 0.′ lat. = 50° 8′.

This gives us a declination of 42° 33′ N., and a reference to the stellar-declination curves (p. 115-6) shows that Arcturus had that declination in 2330 B.C. From the table given on p. 117, we see that at that epoch Arcturus acted as warning-star for the August sun.

In cases where the elevation of the horizon is 30′, or in preliminary examinations, where it may be assumed as 30′, the refraction exactly counterbalances the hill, and therefore the true zenith distance at the moment of star-rise is 90°. Hence the N.P.D. of the star may be found from the following simple equation--

(3) cos Δ = cos A cos λ

where Δ and A have the same significance as before and λ is the _latitude_ of the place of observation.

[133] _Demonstrations and Practical Work in Astronomical Physics at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington._ Wyman and Sons, 1_s._

[134] cos (c - θ) = cos -(c - θ).

INDEX

A.

=Abydos=, clock star at, 297.

=Africa=, sacred stones and trees, 235.

=Aldebaran=, _see_ Tauri α.

“=Allée couverte=,” 41, 317.

“=All Hallows=,” 187; Irish and Welsh equivalents, 195.

“=All Souls=,” change of date, 186.

=Alsia well=, 227.

=Altar stone=, Stonehenge, 81; Aberdeen type, 36.

=Amen-Rā=, 2; temple of, 55, 297.

=Amplitude=, 10, 111.

=Animals=, sacrifices of, 197.

=Annu=, temples at, 296, 297, 304.

=Antares=, _see_ Scorpionis α.

=Antiquaries=, Society of, 69, 133.

=Antrobus=, Sir Edward, 49, 69, 94.

=Apollo=, 52.

=Arabia=, sacred stones and trees in, 235.

=Archæology=, relation to astronomy, 4.

=Arcturus=, _see_ Boötis α.

=Aries=, 15, 315.

=Armenia=, calendar in, 29; fire festival in, 191.

=Aryans=, 40, 236.

=Ascension Day=, 185, 231.

_Asherah_, 245, 257.

=Ash Wednesday=, 182.

=Assacombe=, 158.

=Assyria=, sacred trees, &c., 245.

=Astronomer-priests=, procedure of, 110, 316.

=Athens=, May-day worship, 108; temples at, 32; warning stars at, 311.

=August-festival=, dates of, 185; in Brittany, 199; in Ireland and Wales, 186; warning-stars, 311.

=Aurigae= α (=Capella=), clock- and warning-star, 117, 272, 290, 292, 293, 298, 299, 304, 312; associated with Ptah, 304.

=Avebury=, cove at, 37.

=Avenue=, at Stonehenge, 63, 65.

=Avenues=, in Brittany, 149; on Dartmoor, 146, 319; definition of, 37.

=Axis= (=of temple=), Stonehenge, 55, 60; Karnak, 56; Kouyunjik, 305; Annu, 305; change of, 42.

=Azimuth=, defined, 10, 111; changes in, 122; of May sunrise, 264.

=Azimuth-marks=, illumination of, 110.

B.

=Baal=, 197, 249, 259.

“=Baal’s Fire=” (=Beltan=), 40.

=Babylon=, 24, 240, 259, 295, 308; May year in, 304.

=Babylonians=, astronomical knowledge of, 240; early navigators, 241.

=Baker=, Sir Samuel, 235.

=Balder=, 320.

=Balfour=, Prof. Bayley, 201.

=Ball=, Dr. Henry, 26.

=Balus=, first king of Orkney, 259.

=Baring-Gould=, Rev. S., 149, 190, 194, 198, 213, 215, 239, 256.

=Barnstone-Maeshowe= (=Orkney=), 129.

=Barrows=, burials in, 323; chambered, 164, 192, 317; date of, 78, 238; employment of, 38, 110, 140, 268; varieties of, 143.

=Bartinné=, Cornwall, 219.

=Battendon=, 158.

=Batworthy=, avenues near, 160.

=Bede’s well=, near Jarrow, 230.

=Beirna-well= (=Barnwell=), 230.

=Bell=, Mr. J., of Dundalk, 253.

=Beltaine=, ceremonies at, 40, 197, 285, 320; variations of, 201, 204, 218, 259.

=Betelgeuse=, _see_ Orionis α.

=Bethel=, 245, 255.

=Bigswell=, 218.

“=Blind Fiddler=,” The, 291.

=Blisland=, Cornwall, 291.

=Blocking-stones=, 156, 176.

=Blow=, Mr., 69.

“=Blue stones=,” at Stonehenge, 80, 91.

=Bolitho=, Mr. Horton, 140, 219, 268, 270, 277, 282, 287, 289, 291.

=Bonfires=, _see_ Fires.

=Bookan=, Ring of, 128.

=Boötis α= (=Arcturus=), 117, 137, 150, 151, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 174, 273, 280, 299, 301, 311, 314.

=Borlase=, Dr., 134, 218, 219, 234, 254, 255, 267, 289, 323.

=Borlase=, Mr. W. C., 37, 213, 266, 274.

=Boscawen-Un=, 287, 290, 309, 314.

=Boswens Common=, 282.

=Britain=, introduction of clock-stars, 299; May-year temples, 309; pre-Celtic inhabitants, 250.

=Brittany=, festivals, 198; megalithic remains, 96; solstitial fires, 194.

=Britons=, Saxon slaughter of, 95.

=Bronze-age=, 75, 78.

=Brugsch=, 1, 296.

=Budge=, Dr., 296.

=Burials=, 146, 164; in mounds, 323.

=Burton=, Captain, 235.

C.

=Cæsar=, 52, 323, 324.

=Cairns=, employment of, 38, 142, 164, 192, 289; Biblical references to, 244; burials in, 252; orientation of, 254.

=Calabria=, 312.

=Calends=, the winter, 195.

=Calendar=, changes in the, 23; Armenian and Turkish, 29; Celtic, 186; Koptic, 28.

=Camden=, 289.

=Canaan=, sacred stones and trees in, 245.

=Canis Majoris= α (=Sirius=), 108, 117, 143, 311.

=Candlemas=, 143, 184, 185, 188, 191.

=Canopus=, 18.

=Capella=, _see_ Aurigae α.

=Capricorni= α, 117.

=Caradon Hill=, 143.

=Carn Kenidjack=, 278.

=Carnac=, bonfires at, 40; menhirs at, 98, 105, 239; sacrifices at, 199.

=Carruthers=, Mr., 69.

=Castallack=, Cornwall, 267.

=Castor=, _see_ Geminorum.

=Cattle=, drenching in holy wells, 230.

=Caves=, purpose of, 244, 254.

“=Cave of Elephanta=,” 256.

=Celts=, calendar of the, 186, 195; intrusion of, 324; worship, 32.

=Ceylon=, 235.

=Chabas=, 1.

=Chaldea=, 12.

=Challacombe=, 158; multiple avenue, 149, 159; solstitial worship, 314.

=Chapel Euny=, Cornwall, 219, 226.

=Chaucer=, 203.

“=Cheesewring, The=,” 134.

=Chichén-Itzá=, 32, 308.

“=Choir Gawr=,” 53.

=Chûn Castle=, Cornwall, 284, 286.

=Chûn Cromlech=, Cornwall, 284.

=Churches=, replaced stone circles, 219.

=Chysoister=, 323.

=Circles (stone)=, employment of, 232, 316; associated with wells, 228; classification of, 36, 37; star observations in, 109.

=Cists=, 164; burials in, 323.

=Clock-stars=, employment of, 108, 294, 296, 298, 299, 304, 308; fall into disuse, 322.

=Coinage=, early British, 52.

=Collimation-marks=, 316.

=Constantine=, Cornwall, 269.

=Cord=, The stretching of the, 1.

=Cormac=, Archbishop, 181, 189, 195, 204.

=Cornish=, Mr., 270, 282.

=Cornwall=, astronomical conditions in, 262; azimuths of May sunrise, 264; clock-stars in, 299; May bathing in, 227; stone circles in, 36, 262; wells and circles in, 219.

=Cosens=, Bishop, of Durham, 184.

=Council of Nice=, 23.

_Couvade_, 319.

=Coves=, 37, 316.

=Cresset-stones=, 190, 256.

=Cromlechs=, defined, 37; employed, 101, 102, 161, 253; in cairns, 253; uses of, 110, 141, 245, 252, 317.

=Crosses (stone)=, old monoliths, 141, 273.

=Crozon=, monuments at, 101.

=Cult=, change of, 320.

“=Cultus Lapidum=,” denouncement of, 39.

=Cumberland=, stone circle in, 36.

=Cunnington=, Mr., 79, 81, 90.

=Cups=, for containing lamps, 319.

=Cursiter=, Mr., 35, 123.

=Cursus=, The, at Stonehenge, 154, 155, 319.

D.

=Danams=, 90.

=Danckworth=, Dr., 111.

=Dartmoor=, avenues on, 146, 151, 319.

=Davies=, Mr., 27, 95.

=Declination=, defined, 10; change of, 111.

=Deepdale=, 132.

=Dekkan=, sacred stones and trees in the, 235.

=Denderah=, 295, 297.

_Dessil_, pre-Christian custom, 234.

=Devoir=, Lieut., 98, 104, 105, 145, 152.

=Diana=, temple of, 31.

=Diodorus Siculus=, 51.

=Diseases=, cure of, 318.

=Divination=, at holy well, 226.

=Dolmens=, 255, 316; derivation of name, 38; _à galerie_, described, 38; _à l’allée couverte_, described, 38; in tumuli, 253; in Ireland, 37; purpose of, 41, 252, 254; Semitic origin of, 245.

=Down Tor=, May-year at, 309.

=Draconis= γ, 295, 296, 299, 305.

=Drizzlecombe=, 158.

=Druids=, arrival of, 27; customs of, 259, 319, 323; mistletoe and the, 210; teachings of, 52.

=Dümichen=, 1.

=Durandus=, 183, 192.

=Durham=, cathedral customs at, 184.

=Dwellings of priests=, 317, 323.

=Dymond=, Mr., 166, 171.

E.

=Easter=, 40, 182, 183; May festival replaced by, 231; variation of date, 24.

=Ecliptic=, change of obliquity, 15.

=Eden Hall=, 227.

=Edgar= (A.D. 963), 233.

=Edmonds=, Mr., 267.

=Egypt=, astronomy in, 249; calendar, 28; clock-stars, 295; equinoxes in Lower, 108; May-year, 304; sequence of worships, 312; solstices, 258; temple azimuths, 298; year-gods, of, 259.

=Elias= (Elijah), or Al-Khidr or El-Khidr, 29, 257.

=Ephesus=, 32.

=Equator=, apparent path of stars at, 7.

=Equinoxes=, the, 13, 18, 108, 211; temples for, 32; in Britain, 64, 315.

=Erechtheum=, the older, 31, 108, 142.

=Euphrates=, rise of the, 30.

=Evans=, Sir John, 76.

F.

=Falmouth=, Lord, 268.

=Farr=, Sutherlandshire, 229.

=Farmer=, Prof., 27.

=Feasts=, 187, 319.

=February=, warning-stars in Britain, 312.

=Ferguson=, Dr., 110.

=Fernworthy=, avenues at, 158.

=Festivals=, 182, 185, 258; Cornish, 139; May, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258.

=Fires=, at various seasons, 30, 32, 39, 183, 184, 189, 194, 204; Druidical, 181; in cromlechs, 317; in hollowed stones, 323; pagan, 191; Roman Catholic and Protestant, 182; sacred, 195, 248, 256; customs, 190, 199; festivals, 194; rites, 192; signals, 21; wheels, 193.

=Flints=, 79.

=Florence=, fire customs, 193.

=Folklore=, 179; Babylonian and Indian, 242; Semitic and British, 246.

=Fosseway=, the Great, 147.

=Fougou=, 192, 267.

=Fountains=, 246.

=France=, place names derived from wells, 234.

=Frazer=, Dr., 26, 28, 40, 189, 209.

=Friar’s Heel=, the (Stonehenge), 53, 60, 68, 90, 93.

“=Furry Dance=,” the, 206.

G.

=Gaillard=, 96, 104.

“=Galgal=,” description of, 38.

=Games=, 319.

=Garments=, offerings of, 318.

=Gauls=, 323.

=Gavr Innis=, 38, 255.

=Gemini=, 15.

=Geminorum=, α, β and γ, 117.

=Geoffrey of Monmouth=, 52.

=Glamorgan=, rites at holy wells, 223.

=Globe=, celestial, 8; precessional, 114.

=Goidels=, 237.

=Gomme=, Mr., 195, 213, 216, 221, 222, 227, 236, 238.

“=Goon-Rith=,” 266.

=Gould=, Baring-, _see_ Baring-Gould.

=Gowland=, Prof., 3, 45, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82, 87, 91, 321.

=Greece=, astronomical observations in, 34, 298, 311; divisions of year in, 20, 304; temples in, 34, 306, 311, 313, 315; temple building in, 299.

=Grimm=, 26, 211.

=Grovely Castle=, 66.

=Groves=, Biblical reference to, 245; sacred, 27, 258.

=Giraldus Cambrensis=, 52.

=Gudea= (2500 B.C.), 242.

=Guest=, Dr., 95.

H.

=Hall=, Mr., 237.

=Halley=, 54.

=Hallowe’en=, 125, 143, 201, 311.

=Hallowmass=, 187.

=Hameldon=, 147.

=Hammerstones=, and axes, 74.

=Harrison=, Mr., 50.

=Har-Tor=, 158.

=Harvest=, season of, 139, 304.

“=Hautville’s Quoit=,” 167, 168.

=Hawthorn=, 201, 202, 221.

=Hawk’s Tor=, 291.

=Hazlitt=, 183, 197, 239.

=Hecatæus=, of Abdera, 51.

=Hecatompedon=, the, 31, 108, 154.

=Helios=, 29.

=Hellard=, Colonel, 270.

=Helston=, May-day at, 205.

=Henderson=, Capt., 140, 270, 274.

=Henry of Huntingdon=, 52.

=Hermes=, 259.

=Hieroglyphics=, 38.

=Higgins=, Mr., 62.

=Hills=, actual and angular heights, 112; effects of, 120, 264, 291.

=Hoare=, Sir R. C., 61, 149.

=Holed stones=, _see_ stones.

=Hollantide=, 188.

=Holne= (Dartmoor), 195.

=Holy of Holies=, 16, 55.

=Holy Thursday=, 185.

=Honeysuckle=, 207.

=Hook Lake=, 158.

=Hope=, 213, 228, 231, 233.

=Horizon=, angular elevation of, 112; early employment of, 2, 5, 250.

=Horses=, at May-day festivals, 319.

=Horus=, 32, 195.

=Huc=, 236.

“=Hurlers=, The” (Cornwall), 36, 133, 134, 135; alignments at, 137; change of warning star at, 311; dates of construction, 139; May-year at, 309; solstices at, 314.

=Hyperboreans=, 51.

I.

=Ihering=, 241.

=Illuminations=, collimation-mark, 317; May-day, 204.

=Implements=, flint, 74.

=Inverness=, type of circle at, 36.

=Ireland=, division of the year in, 30; festivals in, 187, 197, 309.

=Isis=, 32.

=Isle-of-Man=, festivals in the, 187, 207; wells and circles in the, 219.

J.

=James=, Sir Henry, 219.

=Japan=, 3, 84.

=Jews=, equinoctial festivals among the, 258.

=Johnston=, Colonel, 111, 129, 135, 152, 166.

=Jones=, Inigo, 53.

=Jones=, Prof. J. M., 250.

=Josephus=, 32.

=Judd=, Prof., 80, 91.

=June-Year=, 93, 251.

K.

=Karnak=, temples at, 55, 297.

=Kenidjack=, Carn, 278.

=Kerenneur=, 105.

=Kerlescant=, 39.

=Kerloas=, 105.

=Keswick=, 35, 111.

=King’s Teignton=, 196.

=Kingstone=, The, at Roll-Rich (Oxon.), 36.

=Kit’s Coity House=, 37.

=Knightlow Hill= (Coventry), 188.

=Knut= (A.D. 1018), 233.

=Kouyunjik=, 308, 322.

L.

“=Lammas=,” 186.

=Lanyon=, 273.

=Lanyon Quoit=, 280.

=Latitude=, results of, 291.

=Layard=, Sir H., 241, 307, 308.

=Lent=, origin and customs of, 183, 184.

=Leslie=, Colonel, 218, 235, 255.

=Lewis=, Mr. A. L., 35, 123, 176.

=Lockyer=, Dr., 111.

=Longstones=, found in barrows, 268.

=Longstone=, The (Tregeseal), 278, 280, 309, 314.

“=Lug=,” the Irish Sun-God, 186.

=Lugnassad=, Irish feast, 186.

=Lukis=, Dr., 37, 133, 144, 150, 253, 265, 287, 291, 292.

=Luxor=, 297.

=Lyrae=, α (Vega), 297, 315.

M.

=MacRitchie=, Mr., 192, 317.

=Madron (Cornwall)=, 225.

=Maeshowe (Orkney)=, 35, 123, 125, 253, 254; date of, 129; use of, 192.

=Markab=, _see_ Pegasi α.

=Marriage=, customs, 285, 319.

=Martin=, St., in Germany, 187.

=Martinmas=, old, 188.

=Maudslay=, Mr., 32, 308.

=Mauls=, 75.

=May-day=, 108, 201, 204.

=May-eve=, 95, 207.

=May-festivals=, 40, 185, 196, 198, 226, 247, 258.

=Maypole=, 205, 227.

=May-sun=, 36, 151, 262, 263.

=May-thorn=, 202, 212, 320.

=May-year=, the, 19, 181, 232, 304, 320; divisions of, 263, 304; provided for, 18, 35, 64, 93, 98, 104, 105, 127, 174, 241, 247, 271, 280, 284, 286, 290, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 321; relation to June-year, 106, 230, 251, 261; warning-stars, 117, 142; worship, 95, 96, 109.

=Mecca=, 245.

_Meinrethydd_ (May-eve), 95.

=Melon=, island of, 102.

=Memphis=, Capella at, 304; May-worship, 18; temples at, 297, 298.

=Mên-an-tol=, 284, 286.

=Ménec (Le)=, 39, 98, 159.

=Menhirs=, 37, 105; ceremonies at, 256; in Brittany, 96; near holy wells, 225; various, 39, 101, 102, 103, 152, 157.

=Men-Peru=, 269.

=Menu or Min=, temple of, 29, 31, 108, 142, 297, 298, 305; associated with Spica, 299.

=Mercury=, 259.

=Merrivale=, avenues at, 147, 153, 154; May-year at, 309.

=Merry Maidens=, 265; alignments at, 271, 276; clock-stars at, 302; May-year at, 309.

=Midsummer=, ceremonies at, 231, 285.

=Midsummer eve=, mistletoe on, 210.

=Mihr=, Armenian fire-god, 191.

=Mistletoe=, 26, 27, 201, 210, 320; as a medicine, 210; “Oil of St. John,” 210; Swedish notions concerning, 209.

=Mitchell’s Egyptian Calendar=, 28.

=Molech=, 248.

=Molene Island=, 103.

=Monoliths=, 81, 216, 244.

=Montelius=, 76.

=Moon=, employment of the, 18; worship of the, 249.

=Morbihan=, alignments at, 100.

=Morgan=, Lloyd, Prof., 167, 170, 176.

=Morgan=, Mr., 53.

=Morrow=, Mr., 171, 174.

=Mountain-ash=, 206.

=Mungo-Park=, 235.

=Murray=, Mr. George, 27.

=Murray=, Mr. John, 308.

=Mut=, temple of, 297.

=Mythology=, origin of, 19.

N.

=Nantwich=, 221.

=Naos=, The, at Stonehenge, 16, 41, 63, 95.

=Need fires=, 190.

=Neolithic-age=, 75, 76.

=New-Grange (Meath)=, 38.

=Newton’s herbal=, 212.

=New-year=, change of date, 194.

=Night-dial=, use of, 302.

=Nile=, 3, 18, 312.

=Nimrood=, temples at, 241, 308.

“=Nine Maidens=” (The), 292, 293.

=Nineveh=, May temple at, 307.

=Norwich=, sun-wheel at, 193.

_Nos Galan-galaf_, 187.

_Nos Glamau_, 207.

=November=, festival, 186, 195, 290, 311.

O.

=Oak=, contiguous to sacred wells, 216.

=Obliquity of the Ecliptic=, change of the, 15, 43.

=Observations=, astronomical and religious, 125, 322.

=O’Connor=, Dr., 216.

=Odin stone=, Stenness, 127, 218, 283, 285.

=Offerings=, at holy places, 222, 318.

=Onston=, 132.

=Ordeals=, 247.

=Ordnance Survey=, 111, 253.

=Orientation=, first use of, 18.

=Orionis, α (Betelgeuse)=, 117, 144, 314.

=Orkney=, 125, 259.

=Otley=, Mr. Jonathan, 35, 111.

=Ouseley=, Sir William, 234.

P.

=Palenque=, 32, 308.

=Palæolithic age=, 75.

=Palm=, at vernal equinox, 211.

=Palm Sunday=, 184, 211.

=Panathenæa=, 31.

=Parallelithons=, 148.

“=Pardons=,” in Brittany, 198.

=Parthenon=, 298.

=Payn=, Mr. Howard, 66, 94.

=Pegasi=, α and β, 117.

=Pennant=, tour of Scotland, 206.

=Penrose=, Mr., 31, 34, 38, 42, 51, 62, 78, 89, 93, 94, 109, 142, 154, 298, 306, 310, 312, 313, 315.

=Pentecost=, feast of, 32, 185.

=Pepi=, 295.

=Percy’s Northumberland Notes=, 184.

=Perrott=, Mr., 148.

=Persia=, rag-offerings in, 234.

=Petrie=, Flinders, Prof., 62.

=Pet-ser=, 2.

=Philpot=, Mrs., 257.

=Picks=, of deer’s-horn, 78.

“=Pierre du Conseil=” (Lagatjar), 104.

=Piers’= Survey of S. Ireland, 182, 229.

=Pins=, as offerings at sacred wells, 222, 227, 258, 318.

“=Pipers=, The,” 266, 271.

=Pitt-Rivers=, General, 235, 236.

=Plato=, 7.

=Pleiades=, at British monuments, 153, 273, 274, 280, 290; employed by Semites, 247; elsewhere, 108, 117, 151, 155, 162, 310, 311.

=Ploudalmezeau=, monuments at, 100.

=Ploy-field=, the, at Holne, 196.

=Pole=, apparent path of stars at the north, 6; elevation of the, 9; motion of stars, round, 300, 303.

=Pollux=, _see_ Geminorum.

=Pompeii=, 312.

=Pomponius Mela=, 322, 324.

=Pont l’Abbé=, menhirs at, 105.

=Portugal=, place-names from wells, 234.

=Pratt’s flowering plants=, 202, 206.

=Precession=, effects of, 64, 295.

=Prestwich=, Prof., 79.

=Priests=, 316, 317.

=Processions=, sacred, 319.

=Ptah=, 29, 31, 298, 304.

=Pylons=, use of, 55.

=Pyramids=, building of, 18; worship at, 29.

=Pyrenees=, genii at holy-wells, 234.

_Pyrus aucuparia_, 201.

Q.

=Quicken-tree=, 206, 208.

=Quiller-Couch=, holy wells, 213, 216, 223, 226, 228.

=Quoit=, definition of, 38.

R.

=Racing=, at festivals, 319.

=Rags=, as offerings in sacred places, 216, 222, 223, 225.

=Ram Feast=, at Holne (Dartmoor), 196.

=Read=, Mr. C. H., 237.

=Refraction=, effect of, 112, 120.

=Rent-day=, date of, in Ireland, 30.

=Rhys=, Prof., 26, 30, 186, 188, 202, 206, 207, 208, 213, 215, 219, 220, 223, 250, 260, 319.

=Roddon=, = Rowan, 206.

=Roll-Rich=, Oxon., 36.

=Rolston=, Sir. W. E., 120, 122, 290.

=Rorrington=, Chirbury, 227.

=Rowan-tree=, 201, 211, 318, 320; and witchcraft, 206, 208; near sacred wells, 220.

=Rowe’s perambulation of Dartmoor=, 147, 148, 152, 158, 287.

=Rūz Kāsim=, 29.

=Rūs Khidr=, 29.

S.

=Sacred-fires=, _see_ fires.

=Sacrifices=, 197, 205, 319.

=Sagittarius=, 15.

=Sainhain=, feast of, 187.

=Sanctuary=, at Stonehenge, 55.

=St. Aelian=, Derbyshire, 216.

=St. Blaze= (“=Blayse=,” “=Blazeus=”), anniversary of, 184.

=St. Burian=, Cornwall, 267, 271.

=St. Claire=, 140.

=St. Cleer=, holy well at, 229.

=St. Cuthbert=, Cornwall, 228.

=St. Herbot=, sacrifices to, 199.

=St. John’s Day=, festivals on, 230.

=St. John’s Eve=, fire customs, 192.

=St. Just=, Cornwall, stone circle at, 277.

=St. Justin=, 140.

=St. Martin=, feast of, 186.

=St. Medan=, holy well at Kirkmaiden, 229.

=St. Michael’s Mount=, 40.

=St. Nicodemus=, sacrifices to, 199.

=St. Peter’s=, Rome, 32.

=St. Renan=, monuments at, 100.

=Salisbury=, position of cathedral, 65; solstitial custom at, 43.

=Saracens=, star-worship among the, 249.

=Sardonyx=, employment of, 32.

=Sarsens=, stones, 15, 45, 79, 91.

=Scandinavia=, temples in, 63.

=Schübeler=, Prof., 202.

=Scorpionis α (Antares)=, 117, 142, 273, 310, 311.

=Scotland=, May-year in, 109, 186, 321; types of stone circles in, 36.

=Scott=, Sir Walter, 40.

=Seasons=, astronomical and vegetational, 212.

=Semites=, beliefs concerning the stars, 249; in Britain, 243, 246; temple practices among the, 240, 248, 256.

=Sennacherib=, May temple of, 308.

=Sergi=, Prof., 237.

=Serpentis α=, 117.

=Sesheta=, 2.

=Set=, British equivalent of, 195.

=Shakspeare=, 204.

=Sheat=, _see_ Pegasi β.

_Shenn Laa Boaldyn_ (Manx May-day), 204.

=Shinto=, cult of, 3.

=Shovel Down=, Devon, 158, 160, 314.

=Shrines=, trilithons as, 37.

=Shrove Tuesday=, 182.

=Sight-lines=, 316; different methods of marking, 107; methods of using, 41.

=Silbury (or Sidbury)=, 66.

=Sirius=, _see_ Canis Majoris α.

=Skins=, offerings of, 318.

“=Slaughter Stone=,” the, 90, 93.

=Smith=, Colonel Hamilton, 148.

=Smith=, Dr. J., 52.

=Smith=, Robertson, Prof., 243, 245, 248, 255, 257.

=Society of Antiquaries=, 69.

=Solstices=, the, 13, 108, 120; azimuths of sunrise at, 43, 291; at Palenque and Chichén Itza, 308; celebration of, 40, 193; date of introduction into Britain, 313; determination of, 16; in Egypt, 3, 13; in France, 99, 103, 104; in Morocco and Britain, 243; provided for at British monuments, 93, 129, 176, 274, 280, 290, 312, 314; sunrise at, 36; warning stars for, 117, 314; worship at, 259, 320.

=Spence=, Mr., 35, 123, 128, 254, 285.

=Spica=, _see_ Virginis α.

=Stalldon Moor=, 150, 163.

=Standen (near Hungerford)=, 79.

=Stanton Drew=, 166, 167, 170, 173; cove at, 37; dates of, 174; dimensions of circles at, 171; May-year at, 309; solstitial worship at, 314.

=Stars=, changes in declination of, 42, 109; northern, 114; heliacal risings of, 108; reason for observations of, 42; worship of, 139, 249. _See_ clock-stars.

=Stenness=, 35, 123, 218; azimuths of sunrise at, 120; observations required at, 129; seasons provided for at, 127, 131, 309, 314.

=Sterility=, 239, 256.

=Stirling=, festivals at, 238.

=Stockwell=, 67, 111, 129, 176.

=Stone-age=, 75.

=Stonehenge=, 41, 50, 51, 52, 58, 88, 91; amplitudes of stars at, 11; apparent paths of stars at, 7; architecture of, 83; avenue, 63, 65; axis, 55, 60; azimuth of sunrise at, 120; the “Cursus” at, 319; custom at, 43; date of, 62, 67, 93; desecration of, 47; erection of, 84; “Leaning Stone” at, 69, 84; May-year at, 109; origin of stones, 90; position of, 65; rededication of, 109; solstitial temple, 108, 314; “_Stanenges_,” 52; tools found at, 74.

=Stones=, as azimuth marks, 110; anointing of, 255; cresset-, 190, 256; holed, 37, 128, 282, 285, 286, 316, 318; hollowed, 192, 248, 323; Semitic, sacred, 244; unhewn and worked, 321.

=Stone-worship=, proscribed, 271.

=Stripple Stones=, Cornwall, 36, 292.

=Stukeley=, Dr., 37, 53, 134, 289.

=Sunrise=, apparent, 120; azimuth of, 64; determination of, 118; observation of, 63, 66, 99; November, 93.

=Sunset=, determination of, 118; the May-, 93.

=Sycamore=, 204.

T.

“=Tan Heol=,” 40.

“=Tan St. Jean=,” 40.

=Tanta Fair=, 28, 29.

=Tara=, perpetual fire at temple of, 191.

=Tauri α=, Aldebaran, 315.

=Tavistock=, 147.

=Temenos mound=, at Stonehenge, 47, 93.

=Temple-axis=, fixing of, 1.

=Temples=, associated, 297; Egyptian, 55; solstitial, 313.

=Thebes= (Egypt), 8, 108; amplitudes at, 11; stars used at, 299, 304; May-year at, 247, 305.

=Thebes= (Greece), 299.

=Theodolite=, adjustments of, 172, 329.

=Thomas=, Mr., 277, 282.

=Thorn-trees=, associated with holy wells, 221.

=Thoth=, 259.

=Thurnham=, Dr., 63.

=Tigris=, rise of the, 30.

=Tirehan=, 214.

=Tissington=, Derbyshire, 228.

=Tlachtaga=, the fire of, 187.

=Tombs=, dolmens not intended for, 254.

=Torches=, 317.

=Toutates=, 260.

=Track-lines=, 149.

=Tradition=, 179.

“=Treachery of the Long Knives=,” 95.

=Trees=, sacred, 200, 220, 257; Arabian worship of, 245; Semitic, 244, 246.

=Tregaseal=, 277, 278, 280, 309, 314.

=Trilithons=, 81; at Stonehenge, 58; functions of, 37, 41; in Japan, 3.

=Trippet stones=, 36.

=Tristis rock=, 158.

=Trowlesworthy=, 158, 161, 162.

=Truthwall Common=, 277.

=Tubberpatrick=, well at, 225.

=Tumuli=, 93, 102, 254; at Stenness, 131.

=Turkey=, calendar in, 29.

U.

=Ursae Majoris α=, 295, 298.

V.

=Vallum=, 47, 291.

=Vega=, _see_ Lyrae α.

“_Via Sacra_,” 60, 155, 163.

=Via=, stones of, 128.

=Virginis α=, (Spica), 108, 142, 299, 305, 315.

W.

=Wales=, wells near churches, 229.

=Warning-stars=, 108; in Britain, 310; in Greece, 311.

=Water=, near holy places, 246, 317.

=Wells=, associated with trees, 219, 220; curative powers, 235; sacred associations, 206, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 228, 229, 234, 257, 273; “Waking the Well,” 228; wishing, 215; worship at, 215, 233; worship, modern, 221, 223, 225, 226.

=Westermarck=, Mr., 319.

=Westmorland=, May-day customs, 207.

=Whitethorn=, 202.

=Whitley=, Rev. D., 255.

=Whitsuntide=, 185, 196.

=Willow=, blossoms used on Palm Sunday, 211.

=Wiltshire Archæological Society=, 50.

=Windle=, Mr., 37.

=Witchcraft=, 206, 212, 216.

=Witchen-tree=, 206.

=Wood-Martin=, Mr., 213, 214, 220, 223, 233.

=Woon Gumpus Common=, 282.

=Worship=, British and Semitic, 252; flower-, 203; sun- and star-, 260; well-, 228.

=Worth=, Mr. Hansford, 146, 148, 150, 153, 164.

=Worth=, Mr., R.N., 147, 148.

“=Wroth silver=,” payment of, 188.

Y.

=Year=, the astronomical, 16, 25; the Celtic, 186; division of the, 18; the Julian, 23; the lunar-, in Babylon, 24; the solstitial-, 19, 139, 261; the vegetation-, 18, 19, 25, 97, 109, 203.

=Yucatan=, the temples of, 33.

THE END

R. CLAY AND SONS, LTD., BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

Transcriber’s Notes

Inconsistent, archaic and unusual spelling, hyphenation and capitalisation have been retained, except as mentioned below. This includes proper and geographical names.

Depending on the hard- and software used, not all elements may display as intended. Some tables are best viewed in a wide browser window.

Index: the occasional error in the order of entries has not been corrected.

For the illustrated versions: Where the quality of the illustration in the source document permits and where the visibility of details in or the legibility of the illustration requires, larger versions of illustrations have been provided. Availability of these larger illustrations depends on the version used.

Page 100, Fig. 27, Menhir (A): the reference letter is missing from the illustration.

Page 101, Carnac-Leomariaquer: probably Carnac-Locmariaquer (as on Page 38).

Footnote [124], table Chichen Itza, last line: the E. or W. is missing in the source document.

Changes made

Illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs; footnotes were moved to the end of the chapter. Some tables have been re-arranged. Ditto marks have occasionally been replaced with the dittoed text.

Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently; some minor formatting inconsistencies have been standardised silently. Some Greek accents and diacritics have been ignored.

Page 29: closing bracket inserted after 185-6 days respectively

Page 90, Fig. 24: reference letters A, B, C and D inside the illustration have been enlarged for better visibility.

Page 97: alignments changed to alignements; aujourdhui changed to aujourd’hui

Page 173, first table: 19° 51′ E. changed to N. 19° 51′ E.

Page 220: footnote marker [65] inserted after Rhys where it seems to fit best (lacking in source document).