Part 3
There are a few exceptional forms which are not placed with those just given, since they may have some features common to all except the Keokuk type, while in other respects they differ from all. Among them are some entire-grooved or grooved only on the two sides and one face; the general outline may correspond with some of the regular forms, but one face is curved from poll to edge, while the other is straight or nearly so (figure 39, of granite, from Wilkes county, North Carolina). This specimen has a depression, as if worn by the end of a handle, on the straight face at the lower edge of the groove.
None of this form are long enough for hoes, and although they may have been used for axes and hatchets, their shape seems to indicate use as adzes. Besides the one figured there are two from Savannah, Georgia; three from eastern Tennessee, one with a slight groove and very deep side notches; and three from western North Carolina, two of them entire-grooved with groove projections.
Another unusual form, which may come under any of the foregoing figures, has the groove crossing the implement diagonally, in such a way as to cause the blade to incline backward (figure 40, of granite, from Carter county, Tennessee). Besides the specimen illustrated, this form is also represented by one of granite from northwestern North Carolina with projection for groove; two of argillite from southwestern Tennessee; one, widest at edge, from Savannah, Georgia; one from Ross county, Ohio; and two of granite, highly polished, grooved on faces and one side, with backs flat, from Kanawha valley, West Virginia.
Of the axes wider at the edge than at any point above (of which the specimen illustrated in figure 41, of granite, from a grave at Kingsport, Tennessee, may be taken as a type,) there are one of diorite from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, which seems to have been of ordinary pattern but broken and redressed to its present form; and from Savannah, Georgia, one of uniform taper with diagonal groove, and one widening irregularly until the blade is fully twice the width of the poll.
Many, if not a majority, of the entire-grooved axes have the groove wide enough for a very large handle, or for an ordinary withe to be twisted twice around. In those which have one side ungrooved, the intention was to admit a wedge between the stone and the curve of the handle. The handles were very firmly fastened; two axes in the collection have been broken in such a way that on one side, from the top half way down, the blade is gone, carrying away the groove on that side; yet the polish of the groove extends over the fractured surface, which has never been reworked, showing that the tool was long used after this accident. As the handles could easily slip off over the top in specimens thus broken, they must have been tightly lashed; perhaps gum or glue was used.
Partly finished specimens show that the groove was pecked out and the edge ground before the remaining parts of the ax were worked. Some have the edge ground sharp and the groove worn smooth or even polished by long use, while all the rest of the implement retains the original weathered surface. A stone was always chosen that could be brought to the desired form with the least labor, and very often one could be found that required but little work to make a very satisfactory weapon or implement or even ornament.
Occasionally specimens indicate by the manner of wear their application to certain kinds of work. Sometimes the edge is curved by the wearing away of one face until it has almost a gouge form; sometimes the side of the blade next the hand, again that farthest away, is more worn. This in time would give the blunt-pointed edge. A peculiar finish of the lower part of the blade, which is also seen in a few celts, is shown in figure 42, of sienite, from Carter county, Tennessee. One half of each face has been left full, and the part opposite hollowed out, giving an ogee curve to the edge. Figure 43, of granite, from Jefferson county, Tennessee, seems to have a ridge on the upper side of the groove; but closer examination shows that it once had a groove projection, and that afterwards the poll was nearly all broken away and a new groove made lower down, so that what was originally the lower projection is now above the groove, the remainder of the poll being worked down to a point.
There are a few hammers which differ from the ordinary ax only in being blunt instead of sharp. They may be nothing more than broken axes, utilized as hammers instead of being resharpened.
Under this head may be placed implements plainly used as adzes. They are much longer than axes in proportion to their other dimensions, have one face convex, the other straight or concave. They may be placed in the same class as the specimen shown in figure 39, and also those represented in figures 44 and 45, from McMinn county, Tennessee. There is also a similar adze from Saline county, Arkansas. All the specimens of this class are of argillite.
With the grooved axes is also placed a class of implements that may be called axes notched on the sides. Many of them were no doubt used as sinkers; but some of the same form, size, and material have the notches and sometimes portions of the face worn perfectly smooth, while frequently they are ground to a sharp edge. Again, even in those that have not the least polish, the edge shows marks that would seem to result from use as axes, adzes, or hoes.
There are three divisions of this class of implements, as follows:
_A._ Unworked, except notches; probably sinkers.
+----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ | District. | A | B | C | D | +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+ |Eastern Tennessee | 1 | 5 | | | |Montgomery county, North Carolina | | | 1 | | |Northeastern Alabama | | | | 5 | |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | 3 | | | | +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+
KEY: A = Sandstone. B = Argillite. C = Quartzite. D = Limestone.
_B._ Partly ground sharp edges, mostly with polished notches, sometimes with faces polished from one notch to the other (figure 46, of argillite, from Cocke county, Tennessee). In addition there are 11 examples of argillite, besides one of mica-schist from eastern Tennessee and another of sandstone from Savannah, Georgia.
_C._ Roughly chipped, with notches often at the middle but sometimes nearer one end. Probably most of these were sinkers; but as above stated the edges show marks of use, apparently in scraping, digging, or striking. Of these the following examples are in the Bureau collection: From several localities in eastern Tennessee, 40 of argillite; from Montgomery county, North Carolina, 24 of argillite and quartzite; from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and from Savannah, Georgia, a few specimens of the same materials.
CELTS.
What is true of the uses and distribution of stone axes applies with much the same force to what are called celts--not a good descriptive term, but one which is now given to the implement in lieu of something better. It would appear difficult or impossible to do with these rude tools any work for which we commonly use an ax or hatchet; and yet, by the aid of fire, or even without it, the aborigines contrived to accomplish a great deal with them.
The Maori of New Zealand do all their wonderful work of wood carving with only a chisel or adze (of stone or shell).[14] Among the Iroquois, in cutting trees, fire was applied at the root, the coals were scraped away with a chisel, and this process was repeated until the tree was felled. The trunk was divided into lengths in the same way. Similarly canoes and mortars were hollowed out.[15] The Virginia Indians at an early day employed a similar process. They also cleared ground for cultivation by deadening trees with their tomahawks,[16] and used adzes made of shell in cleaning out the charred wood in making canoes.[17] The Nootka of the northwestern part of the continent in felling a tree use a flint or elkhorn set in a handle, this being struck with a stone mallet. In hollowing canoes a musselshell also is used as an adze, and sometimes fire is applied. The outside is shaped by similar means.[18]
Stone chisels have been found in various steatite quarries, where vessels and other utensils of this material were made, and the marks of their use is plain both on the vessels in an unfinished state and on the cores, as well as on the quarry face.[19]
The different ways of hafting, as shown by specimens in the Bureau collection, were as follows:
(1) A hole was cut entirely through a stick and the celt was inserted so that it would project on both sides;
(2) The hole was cut partly through, and the celt was pushed in as far as it would go;
(3) The top of the celt was set in a socket of deer horn, which was put into a handle as in form 2;
(4) Small celt-shaped knives or scrapers were set into the end of a piece of antler long enough to be used as a handle;
(5) A forked branch was so cut as to make two prongs of nearly equal length, and the celt was fastened to the end of one, parallel with it, the other being used to guide and steady it, a prong being held in each hand;
(6) The fork of a root or branch was trimmed so as to make a flat face at any desired angle, to which the celt was lashed, a shoulder, against which the end of the celt was set, being sometimes cut in the wood;
(7) A stick was split its entire length and a single turn taken around the celt, the ends being brought together and tied, forming a round handle;
(8) A stick was split part way, one fork cut off and the other wrapped once or twice and tied, thus forming a round handle of solid wood.
Forms 5 and 6 were used as adzes; forms 7 and 8 are the same methods as employed in hafting grooved axes.
A mounting similar to form 4 is seen in some Alaska specimens of celt-scrapers in which the implement is fastened to a piece of wood so as to project a short distance, and used like a plane. In all these, the celt is very firmly fastened to the handle with sinew or rawhide, which, when put on green, contracts with great force and binds like wire.
As to the forms of celts, no division is practicable based on anything but their entire appearance. The following descriptions and tabulations represent the material of this kind in the Bureau collection:
_A._ Round or nearly round section, pointed or flattened at the top, blade rapidly thickening from the edge; a few are polished at the top, but most of them show marks of a maul or hammer; all have been highly polished; all of this class were probably used as wedges, as their shape renders them more fit for this purpose than for any other; the battered tops indicate such usage. The few not showing such marks may have been set into a bumper of wood or horn, or used with wooden mauls. They vary in length from 2½ to 7½ inches. They are represented by the specimen shown in figure 47, of argillite, from Lincoln county, Arkansas; there are also one from a mound in Sumter county, Alabama (figure 48), and one from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, both of serpentine and elliptical in section, though the form of the edge puts them in this class. The following specimens are typical representations of the class:
+----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ | District. | A | B | C | D | E | +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ |Northwestern North Carolina | 3 | 7 | 2 | | | |Eastern Tennessee | | 3 | | | | |Western Tennessee | | | | 1 | | |Southeastern Arkansas | | 2 | | | | |Union county, Mississippi | 1 | | | | | |Madison county, Illinois | | | 1 | | | |Savannah, Georgia | 2 | | | | 1 | +----------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
KEY: A = Sienite. B = Argillite. C = Granite. D = Rotten limestone. E = Sandstone.
_B._ Long, narrow, elliptical section, pointed top, curved or straight edges, sides straight or gently curved. None of these seem to have been put to any rough use, as the edges are quite sharp and the entire surface is well polished; length from 4¼ to 12½ inches. The type is illustrated by figure 49, of argillite, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee.
+------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ | District. | A | B | C | D | E | +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+ |Eastern Tennessee | 8 | 3 | | | | |Northwestern Georgia | | 1 | | | | |Savannah, Georgia | | | 6 | 1 | 3 | |Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | | | 1 | |Northeastern Alabama | | | | | 1 | |Western North Carolina | 1 | | | | | +------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+
KEY: A = Argillite. B = Granite. C = Sandstone. D = Quartzite. E = Sienite.
_C._ Thick, almost round section, round-pointed top, nearly straight to sharp-curved edge, sides gently curved, widest at edge or just above. Most of these show marks of use as cutting tools or hatchets. In many the top has been roughened as if for insertion into a hole cut in a piece of wood; others have this roughening around the middle or immediately above, leaving a polish at both ends, and these were hafted probably by means of a stick or withe twisted around them. The roughening is a secondary operation, having no relation to the making of the implement; it was produced by pecking after the surface was polished. In a few cases it extends from the top well down the sides; but usually it reaches but a little way below the top, or else is in a circle around the body of the celt. Most of them have sharp edges; a few have edges either chipped or blunted and polished, showing long usage. Two from Kanawha valley (one roughened for handle) have the edges worn in on one of the faces until they almost resemble gouges; but that they were not intended as such is shown by the concavity being nearer one side and not reaching entirely across. The length ranges from 4½ to 10 inches. The type is illustrated by figures 50 and 51, both of sienite, from Lauderdale county, Tennessee.
This may be regarded as the typical form of celt for eastern United States, and its geographic distribution is exceptionally wide, as shown in the table.
The Bureau collection includes the following specimens of this class:
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ Western North Carolina | 4 | 2 | 9 |16 | | | | | Montgomery county, North Carolina| 1 | | | | | | | | Coosa district, Alabama | | 1 | | | | | | | Ross county, Ohio | | | 1 | | | | | | Knox county, Ohio | | | | | | 1 | | | Miami valley, Ohio | | 1 | 2 | | | | | | Eastern Tennessee | | 5 | | 1 | | | | | Green river, Kentucky | | | 1 | | | | | | Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | 1 | | 2 | | Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | | Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | 4 | 4 | | | | 3 | 1 | Crawford county, Wisconsin | | | 1 | | | | | | Southwestern Illinois | | | 2 | | | | | 1 | Savannah, Georgia | | 3 | 2 | | | 2 | | | Western Tennessee | | 2 | | | | | | | ---------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
KEY: A = Porphyry. B = Sienite. C = Granite. D = Argillite. E = Greenstone. F = Sandstone. G = Diorite. H = Compact quartzite.
_D._ Of the form last described, except in being much thinner; some have the tops battered, showing use as wedges; length from 3 to 9 inches.
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ Eastern Tennessee |11 | 3 | 2 | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | | Kanawha valley, West Virginia | | | 2 | 5 | 2 | 6 | | | | | Northwestern Georgia | | | 3 | | | | | 1 | | | Savannah, Georgia | | | | | 2 | | | | | | Green river, Kentucky | | | | | | 1 | | | | | Northeastern Kentucky | | | | | | 2 | | | | | Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | 1 | | | Central Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | 1 | Northeastern Arkansas | | | | | 1 | | | | | 1 | Butler county, Ohio | | | | 2 | | | | | | | Northwestern North Carolina | 8 | 2 | 1 | | | 4 | | | | | ------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
KEY: A = Argillite. B = Porphyry. C = Sienite. D = Diorite. E = Sandstone. F = Granite. G = Hornblende. H = Greenstone. I = Serpentine. J = Compact quartzite.
_E._ Pointed oval, or nearly diamond section, sides straight or slightly curved; length 6 to 12½ inches. Few as these are, they vary considerably in appearance. The group is illustrated by figure 52, showing a specimen of brown flint, containing numerous small deposits of chalcedony, from Benton county, Tennessee; polished over the entire surface, the edge highly so.
In addition, there are the following examples: From Caldwell county, North Carolina, one of porphyry and one of granite, the latter roughened on sides for handle; from McMinn county, Tennessee, one of gray flint, highly polished over its surface, except the top, which is much battered; from Cocke county, Tennessee, one of argillite.
_F._ Elliptical section, flattened or rounded top, edge curved or nearly straight, sides straight or gently curved, tapering from edge to top or in a few cases nearly parallel. These present many variations in finish and in evidence of use. Some are well polished over the entire surface; some have only the lower part polished; while some are entirely without polish except at the extreme edge. In some the top is battered; some have the surface roughened for handle at the top, others around the middle, still others all over the upper half or even more than half. One from McMinn county, Tennessee, has a roughly pecked shallow groove at the middle. Several have the edge very blunt, the faces at the edge form almost a right angle; these are thickest very near the edge and become gradually thinner toward the top. Most of this kind are from Caldwell county, North Carolina; the same form coming also from Monroe county, Tennessee, and from Savannah, Georgia. The length is from 3 to 7½ inches. Figure 53, of compact quartzite, from Monroe county, Tennessee; figure 54, of granite; and figure 55, of sienite, from Caldwell county, North Carolina.
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ District. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ Eastern Tennessee | | 4 | 4 |20 | 7 | | 4 | 1 | 1 | | | | Western North Carolina | 1 | | 4 |22 | 4 | 3 | 5 | | | | | | Montgomery county, N. C.| | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | Coosa district, Alabama | | | | | | | | 2 | | | | | Southwestern Illinois | | | 1 | | | | 7 | | | | | | Kanawha valley, W. Va. | | | | 3 | 7 | | 5 | |10 | | 1 | 1 | Keokuk, Iowa | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | Southwestern Wisconsin | | | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | Miami valley, Ohio | | | | | | 2 | 3 | | | | | | Northeastern Arkansas | 1 | | | 1 | | | 2 | | | 2 | | | Southeastern Arkansas | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | Northwestern Georgia | | | | 1 | 2 | | | | | | | | Savannah, Georgia | | 2 | | | 2 | | 1 | | | | 7 | | Yazoo county, | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mississippi | | | | | 5 | | 2 | | | | | | ------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
KEY: A = Hornblende. B = Serpentine. C = Compact quartzite. D = Argillite. E = Sienite. F = Porphyry. G = Granite. H = Micaceous sandstone. I = Diorite. J = Greenstone. K = Sandstone. L = Flint.
_G._ Of the same general pattern as the last, except that the sides widen just before reaching the edge, giving a “bell shape” (figure 56). The length is from 6¼ to 8 inches. In this group there are two specimens of granite, two of porphyry, and one of sienite, all from Yazoo county, Mississippi. Two have their tops roughened.
_H._ Rectangular section, occasionally with the corners sufficiently rounded to give a somewhat elliptical section; top flattened or rounded; sides straight and parallel or nearly so, sometimes very slightly curved. Most have polished surfaces; only three or four show any battering, or roughening for handle. A large one of hornblende from Lauderdale county, Tennessee, has the edge dulled and polished by use. Length is from 2 to 9 inches. Figure 57, of argillite, from a mound in Monroe county, Tennessee. The distribution of this class of celts is wide, as shown by the following table: