Part 4

Actually, the first _authentic_ case of a person being struck by a meteorite did not occur until November 30, 1954. Even then, the hit was an indirect one. At Sylacauga, Alabama, a meteorite fell through the roof of a house, went through the ceiling of the living room, struck the top of a radio, and—bouncing in a 6-foot arc—hit the lady of the house, who was taking a nap on the couch. Fortunately, nearly all of the energy of the meteorite was spent by the time it struck the woman, and, moreover, she was covered with two heavy quilts so that she was not critically injured. But she did receive bruises serious enough to send her to the hospital.

The instances just given show that a number of meteorites have struck buildings and, in one case, a cosmic missile has hit a human being. Nevertheless, such events are really quite rare. In fact, mathematical calculations indicate that, on the average, we can expect one meteorite to fall per township (36 square miles) per 1000 years. A rate like this does not justify the loss of any sleep over the possibility that you might some time be hit by a falling meteorite!

SELECTED LIST OF METEORITES THAT HAVE STRUCK AND DAMAGED BUILDINGS

NAME AND LOCATION TYPE APPROXIMATE WEIGHT YEAR

Baxter, Missouri stone 611 gm.[4] 1916 Meteorite penetrated roof and struck a log joist, which checked the fall. The stone lodged in the attic. Beddgelert, North Wales stone 794 gm. 1949 Meteorite made a clean hole through 4 thicknesses of slate roof. It then shattered underlying wood, made tiny dent in bottom edge of H-section iron girder, and broke through plaster ceiling into hotel lounge below. Benld, Illinois stone 1770 gm. 1938 Meteorite penetrated garage roof, top of car, and seat cushion. It struck and put 1-inch dent in muffler, then bounded back up and became entangled in seat cushion springs. Bethlehem, New York stone 11 gm. 1859 Meteorite struck the side of wagon house, bounded off, hit log upon ground, bounded again, and rolled into the grass. (A dog lying in the doorway of the wagon house jumped up, ran out and seized the meteorite, but dropped it right away, probably because of the warmth and sulfurous odor of the stone.) Branau, Bohemia iron 19,000 gm. 1847 Meteorite penetrated into room where 3 children were sleeping and covered them with plaster and debris. They were unharmed. Constantia, South Africa stone 999 gm. 1906 Meteorite penetrated 2 thicknesses of corrugated iron roofing and smashed ceiling. Kasamatsu, Japan stone 721 gm. 1938 Meteorite penetrated roof of house and stopped on floor. It went through roof tile, ⅓-inch wooden roof-panel, and layer of clay 1 inch thick between them. Kilbourn, Wisconsin stone 772 gm. 1911 Meteorite went through 3 thicknesses of shingles, a 1-inch hemlock roof board, and a ⅞-inch hemlock floor board. It then glanced in turn against the side of a manger and the stone foundation of the barn and finally penetrated 2½ inches into the clay floor of the barn. Pantar, Philippine Is. stone shower 1938 Sixteen stones were recovered; thousands “as big as corn and rice grains” fell on roofs. Sylacauga, Alabama stone 3863 gm. 1954 Meteorite penetrated composition roof material, ¾-inch wooden decking, ¾-inch wooden ceiling, and interior wallboard. It then hit a radio, punching a 1-inch hole in plywood top, and bounced 90° towards the east, striking woman lying on couch.

6. FINDERS FOOLISH, FINDERS WISE

People find a great many meteorites that were not seen to fall. Most of these landed on the surface of the earth at some time in the remote past or happened to fall in an originally unpopulated portion of the land area of the globe. Generally, such meteorites are discovered entirely by accident, although in recent years quite a few recoveries of unwitnessed falls have been made by design. This has been the case during the systematic surveys with meteorite detectors conducted around such recognized meteorite crater areas as Canyon Diablo, Arizona; Odessa, Texas; and Wolf Creek, Australia.

The different modes of discovery of meteorites not seen to fall are interesting in themselves. The largest percentage of finds has unquestionably been made by farmers. The Plymouth, Indiana, meteorite, for example, was plowed up or, as the farmer nursing the rib bruised by his bucking plow would probably prefer to say, “plowed into.” So were such meteorites as the Algoma, Wisconsin; the Bridgewater, North Carolina; the Carlton, Texas; and the Chesterfield, South Carolina, to name only a few. A farmer found the Kenton, Kentucky, iron while he was cleaning out a spring. Another farmer was removing debris from an abandoned water well in an attempt to revive it when he discovered the Richland, Texas, iron. A field drainage project brought the Seeläsgen, Poland, iron to light. A man planting an apple tree near his house dug out the Mount Joy, Pennsylvania, iron, and a farmer hoeing tobacco turned up the Scottsville, Kentucky, iron.

The second largest percentage of finds probably has been made by miners. Prospectors and placer miners have mistaken numerous iron meteorites for lumps of silver ore. Among these are the Murfreesboro, Tennessee; Lick Creek, North Carolina; and Illinois Gulch, Montana, irons. The Aggie Creek, Alaska, iron was raised by a gold dredge. The gold miners recognized this meteorite as an unusual “haul” when it announced its presence by clanging loudly on the metallic screen of the dredge.

Men at work on road construction are also to be thanked for chancing upon meteorites of unwitnessed fall, for example, the irons found by road crews at Bear Lodge, Wyoming, and at Bald Eagle, Pennsylvania.

Some meteorites have been “found twice.” At Opava, Czechoslovakia, archeologists discovered seven pieces of meteoritic iron in a buried Stone Age campsite—the oldest meteorite collection so far on record! Apparently the paleolithic inhabitants of the Opava region had gathered the heavy masses together and used them to bolster the fireplaces in their rude encampment.

Investigators discovered the Mesaverde, Colorado, iron in the Sun Shrine on the north side of the Pipe Shrine House, and the Casas Grandes, Mexico, iron in the middle of a large room of the Montezuma temple ruins, carefully wrapped in linen cloth like a mummy. Members of an early archeological survey found the small Anderson Township, Ohio, meteoritic specimens on altars in mounds of the Little Miami Valley group of prehistoric earthworks. Some scientists believe that the American Indians transported these specimens to Ohio from the site of the Brenham meteorites in Kiowa County, Kansas.

Other modes of discovery fall into no pattern and must be regarded as merely curious. A farmer plowing his field near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, came across a snake. In looking for a suitable stone with which to kill it, he first seized upon a mass of iron too heavy to lift. After he had killed the snake with a handy rock, the farmer’s attention was drawn back to the small but remarkably heavy mass he had first tried to pick up. He carted it off to the city, where eventually it was recognized as a meteorite.

In another unusual recovery, fishermen brought the Lake Okeechobee, Florida, stone up from the waters of the lake in a net—the only such recovery recorded in the whole literature of meteoritics, although three-fourths of all meteorites must necessarily fall into water on our ocean-covered globe. Again, the members of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914 were surprised to find the Adelie Land, Antarctica, stone lying on the snow some 20 miles west of Cape Denison.

Because the true nature of meteorite finds has often been unrecognized—sometimes for many years—these masses have been put to some rather lowly uses. The finder of the Rafrüti, Switzerland, iron meteorite used it as a footwarmer, and many of the heavy irons have been employed as haystack, fence, and barrel-cover weights, or as anvils, nutcrackers, and doorstops.

Some have fared better, as did the 1,375-pound La Caille, France, meteorite, which the people of the village used for two centuries as a seat in front of their church. Others, however, have fared even worse. Blacksmiths and assayers have smelted up and destroyed a number of iron meteorites either in the making of tools (like plowshares, axe-heads, and knife-blades) or in the quest for precious metals. Nearly all of the iron meteorite that was found by the farmer near Pittsburgh was worked up by a blacksmith and lost to science. Even the stone meteorites have occasionally fallen victims to man’s greed for gold. Miners who believed that the 80-pound San Emigdio, California, stony meteorite was gold-bearing mashed it to powder in an ore-crusher.

On the contrary, people who, in one way or another, have become acquainted with the characteristics of meteorites have brought a number of these objects to the attention of scientists. For example, one of the University of Nebraska men who worked on the excavation and removal of the large Furnas County stone meteorite (see Chapter 2) became keenly interested at that time in meteorites in general, and took the trouble to learn as much as he could about them. Several years later, after he had become director of a state park museum in southern Oklahoma, a large metallic mass was reported to him. The finder of this mass of metal had known of its existence for some 20 years, but had never succeeded in getting anyone to examine it carefully. The former field worker took one look at the object and, on the basis of his knowledge of meteorites, concluded that it probably was a huge iron meteorite. He immediately called the Institute of Meteoritics by long distance and was able to give such a wealth of significant details that a field party left at once for the site. In this way, the Lake Murray, Oklahoma, meteorite was identified and recovered.

The unoxidized central core of this iron weighed more than 600 pounds. Before excavation this core was surrounded by a “shell” of oxidized meteoritic material several inches thick, as shown on page 77. Such a shell of oxide clearly indicated that the meteorite had been subjected to weathering in the ground for many thousands of years.

In general, meteorites _seen to fall_—possibly because of the magnitude and impressiveness of the light and sound effects connected with their descent—have received respectful treatment after recovery. Most of them have been presented to men of science for study and eventual display in some museum collection. Even when kept by their finders, the specimens usually have been well cared for. After the fall of the Flows, North Carolina, meteorite in 1849, the owner of the land on which it came down set the stone in a place of honor on top of a barrel fixed to a post. On the post he put up the notice:

“_Gentlemen, sirs—please not to break this rock, which fell from the skies and weighs 19.5 pounds._”

This landowner obviously realized that nearly everyone has the unfortunate urge to hammer on strange rocks.

Of course, there have been exceptions to the respectful treatment of meteorites seen to fall. The finder of one fragment of the Zhovtnevy Hutor, Russia, fall tossed it into the stove, and a farm woman lost another by throwing it at an unruly horse. A peasant who thought meteorites possessed miraculous powers powdered up a piece of the diamond-bearing Novo-Urei, Russia, stone and ate it!

7. LANDMARKS, SKYMARKS & DETECTORS

The chemist can easily obtain materials for his research work from reliable supply houses. The meteoriticist (as a scientist who studies meteors and meteorites is known), is not this lucky. He must search for the specimens he wishes to investigate wherever they may have landed on the wide, wide earth. This “needle-in-a-haystack” problem could rarely be solved if it were not for certain mathematical and instrumental aids that swing the balance in favor of the meteorite hunter. When meteorites are seen to fall, these aids can be brought into play only if certain information is supplied by eyewitnesses of the falls. For this reason, everyone ought to be acquainted with the facts about meteorite falls that scientists will need to know in order to make finds, and should understand how these facts must be reported in order to be of maximum use to field parties.[5]

The problem of working out the path a fireball has followed in the sky boils down to this. The investigating scientists must be able to fix the position _in space_ of certain important points on the fireball’s path. This idea of fixing points is not really difficult at all. Suppose, to take an analogy from baseball, we have base runners on first and third. These two players are intently watching their team’s clean-up hitter, who is “crowding the plate.” Consequently their lines of sight intersect at home plate and give a very good “fix on” its position, as navigators say. This is the way a fix can be obtained in _two_ dimensions; that is, essentially, in the plane of the earth’s surface.

Now, let us move into the _third_ dimension, since a fireball’s path through the atmosphere lies in space, not in the “flat” plane of the earth’s surface. Returning to our baseball diamond, let us suppose that a helicopter with an enterprising photographer aboard hovers over the centerfield bleachers so that he can take pictures of the record crowd. While the umpire is dusting off home plate, the two runners on first and third simultaneously sneak a look to see what the helicopter is doing. Their lines of sight now intersect at the helicopter and fix its position _in space_.

Similarly, the location of a fireball path in space is determined by the fixing of certain points on the luminous streak seen in the sky. Instead of using only two intersecting lines of sight (those of the runners on first and third in our analogy), scientists investigating a meteorite fall try to collect as many different lines of sight as possible from people in the region above which the fireball streaked. The more commonly determined points are those of the fireball’s appearance and disappearance and those where “explosions” took place. These points are generally located by use of the method we have described in some detail above, the so-called _intersecting-lines-of-sight_ method.

The most important point on a fireball path is the point of disappearance. The most valuable single piece of information you can supply about a meteorite fall is as accurate an answer as possible to the question: In what compass direction were you looking when you _last_ saw the fireball? This question has often been twisted around in newspaper and radio accounts into the meaningless question: In what direction was the fireball going when you saw it?

One person cannot give the answer to the second question because from a single station it is impossible to determine the _true_ direction of motion of an object seen in the sky. One person can report only an _apparent_ direction of motion, which is of little or no value in locating the last point on the luminous path, generally referred to as the “end-point.” Therefore, though you cannot by yourself determine the actual direction in which a fireball is _moving_, you can report the direction in which you were _looking_ when you last saw the fireball, that is, due south, southwest, northeast, etc.

Scientists are eager to obtain reliable reports on the compass direction to the fireball’s point of disappearance from as many widely separated eyewitnesses as possible. They then can plot the individual lines of sight on a good map, marking exactly where these lines intersect. In this way, the investigators can make reasonably accurate fixes of the position of the point on the earth’s surface that is situated directly below the end-point of the fireball path, as this end-point was seen in the sky by each pair of eyewitnesses.

Instead of using the ordinary compass direction to a fireball’s point of disappearance, you may prefer, as do astronomers, to use the azimuth. What we have been calling a “compass direction” is one that is expressed in terms of the cardinal points: north, south, east, west. An azimuth is a direction stated in _degrees_. Rough azimuths can be taken with a compass, but for accurate work, a graduated circle, like that on a transit or theodolite, must be used. Astronomical azimuths begin at the _south_ point and continue clockwise full circle to 360°. For example, the lines of sight in the diagram, p. 87, could very well have been given as astronomical azimuths. And, in the diagram, p. 91, the line of sight C₁ could have had the precise designation 118° and C₂ that of 222°.

Every fix serves to guide field parties to areas that are to be carefully searched for fallen meteorites. Extra-thorough searches are made if the people living in a particular area reported that they heard meteorite fragments hissing and whining on their way to earth or heard the thumps of their impacts on the ground.

You will notice that so far we have been treating our problem as a two-dimensional one. We have been working with _directions_ only and have plotted out direction indicators on a map representing the plane of the earth’s surface. Now, as we did in our baseball analogy, let us move into the third dimension.

If, in addition to compass directions to the observed endpoint, scientists can also obtain the apparent _elevation_, in degrees, of this point as seen by the various eyewitnesses, then with the help of a little trigonometry, they can fix the position _in space_ of the end-point itself rather than the position of its _projection_ on the surface of the earth.

This same procedure can be followed in fixing the space-position of any well-observed point on the fireball path. It therefore becomes possible when _both_ elevations and compass directions are reported for several points on the fireball path to determine the flight-path or, as it is technically called, the _trajectory_, of the falling meteorite through the atmosphere. Trajectory determinations are of great scientific value.

You can estimate the compass directions and elevations to the important points on a meteorite trajectory at the actual time of fall. Or you can have the scientific field party make or check your measurement at some later time by setting up a surveying instrument at the very point from which you saw the fireball.

The accuracy of your measurements can be improved if you have been able to “line up” the point, L, at which you saw the fireball disappear, with some familiar object on the horizon, such as a church steeple, a tall tree, a telephone pole, or a lightning rod on a farm building. You will recall that an eleven-year old girl provided one of the field parties from the Institute of Meteoritics with an excellent observation of the point of disappearance of the Norton fireball. She was able to do this because she remembered just where it went out of sight behind a familiar landmark.

If the fall occurs at night, you can help investigators greatly if you are familiar enough with the brighter stars to use them as “skymarks.” You simply note as quickly and sharply as you can just where the fireball path was in reference to those prominent stars. This alert observation of yours will at least be a great aid to investigators who are searching for meteorites that may have fallen from the fireball; and, moreover, there is no telling what else your quick eye might have captured for science.

While looking through a window, Kayser, the Polish astronomer, saw a fireball appear at Rigel and move to Sirius, where it disappeared. This observation of his proved to be one of the most accurate and _significant_ ever made of the fall of a meteorite. For it enabled the German mathematician, Galle, to show that the Pultusk meteorite, which produced the fireball Kayser saw, came into the Solar System from interstellar space!

It is very essential to carefully notice and mark the exact spot from which your observation was made so that you can return to it if scientists wish to set up surveying instruments there.

The map and side view of the Norton County, Kansas, meteorite trajectory show the practical results that the Institute obtained by use of the intersecting-lines-of-sight method. The fireball accompanying the Norton meteorite fall appeared at A. The first “explosion” took place at E₁, the second at E₂, and the fireball disappeared at L.