CHAPTER XVI

SOME REFLECTIONS AND FORECASTS

Whether it is well to rejoice that the population of our planet has grown so fast during the last century, even as the inhabitants of a city rejoice when a decennial census reveals a rapid growth in their city, is a question which may be deemed a branch of the larger one whether life is worth living. The fact, however, being unquestionable, raises a practical question. If the present rate of growth should continue for a few centuries, there presently will be little room left on the planet. What will then happen? During the nineteenth century the surface of the earth has been explored sufficiently to enable us to know how much of it is available for the production of food. Of that part which was available and unused in 1800 a great deal had been settled by 1900. In Europe there is no more land to be occupied, because the waste spaces of southern Russia have now been almost filled by settlers from the rest of that country. In the temperate parts of Asia, though there has been considerable Russian immigration into western Siberia and considerable Chinese immigration into Manchuria, there still remain in those countries large tracts unoccupied and not too dry for cultivation. In Australia it is still doubtful how much of the land whose aridity has discouraged settlement can be turned to account either for tillage or for pasture. In North America the immense rush to the West, which began after 1830 with the building of railways, has now filled nearly the whole of the United States, and a very large part of Canada, so that another forty or fifty years may see the country filled up as far as the frozen north. In Africa there are parts of Tunisia and Algeria which irrigation might reclaim, there are parts of Morocco which could support a larger population than now dwells in them, and there is also a limited highland area on the eastern side of the continent fit to be inhabited by men of European stock. The rest, including not only the Sahara, but most of the country south of the Tropic of Capricorn, is either arid desert, or else so hot and humid that it must be given up to the black races, who have so far shewn no capacity for settled industry when left to themselves. Thus, if we omit the tropical countries inhabited by savage peoples (central Africa and the islands of southeastern Asia), it will appear that, should the present increase of the civilized peoples be maintained, the rest of the world will not suffice for their agricultural expansion for more than a short period, that is to say, a period shorter than the four centuries which have elapsed since the outward movement of the European peoples began with the discovery of the New World.

What then of South America? Before dealing with it, let me advert to two considerations which may modify the conclusions suggested by any review of the total area now available to meet a continued growth of population.

May not intensive cultivation and the further developments of chemical science greatly increase the food-producing power of lands already occupied? Doubtless they may. They are doing so already. But such an increase cannot be expected to go on indefinitely. The urgency of the problem may be postponed, but the problem will remain ahead of us.

May not the rate of increase of the world's population decline, and perhaps go on declining until an equilibrium between that increase and food production has been reached? This is possible. Observations made during the last thirty years have already thrown grave doubts upon the propositions advanced by Malthus three generations ago which were for a long time taken as irrefragable. That the signs of decreasing birth-rate are so far visible only among some of the most advanced peoples is not a cheering circumstance, for what we must desire in the interests of mankind at large is that the more highly civilized races should increase faster than the more backward, so as to enable the former to prevail not merely by force, but by numbers and amicable influence. All these considerations, however, regarding birth-rate are still too uncertain to be allowed to affect any enquiries regarding future food supply and the regions from which it is to come. Whatever light the next few decades may throw upon the former question, the latter deserves to be investigated as a subject of growing significance.

And now we may return to South America, the only continent containing both a large temperate and a large tropical area capable of cultivation which still remains greatly underpeopled. It is, therefore, the chief resource to which the overpeopled countries may look as providing a field for their emigration, and to which the world at large may look as capable of reinforcing its food supply. That it has not been sooner occupied is due partly to the political disorders which have given it a bad name, partly to its being less accessible than North America. Both these adverse conditions no longer apply to its temperate regions.

Considered as a field for emigration, South America may be divided into three sections. There are, first, the tropical and forest-covered regions of Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, and eastern Brazil; secondly, the temperate and grassy or wooded regions of Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil outside the tropics; and lastly, the great central plain of the Amazon and its tributaries which the Brazilians call the Selvas (woods). I exclude altogether the mountainous parts of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, because they are already as well inhabited as they deserve to be. A very small part of them is fit for stock or for agriculture, and the climatic conditions (except in a few valleys) are repellent to persons not accustomed to great altitudes. Not even Italians can be expected to cultivate fields twelve thousand feet above sea-level.

The other three sections just mentioned are much underpeopled. The first is better fitted for negro or Indian labour than for that of whites, yet there are many parts of it where men of south European stock can work in the open air and thrive. In an area of about two millions of square miles, it has about seven and a half million inhabitants, of whom a small minority are pure whites, the rest Indians or negroes or mixed. Four or five times that number could easily find accommodation.

The second section is the one pre-eminently fitted to receive white men. Its area may be roughly conjectured at a million and a half of square miles, but so much of the Argentine part of it is desert that it would not be safe to reckon more than two-thirds of it as available for settlement. As there are now only twelve millions of people in this million of square miles, there is evidently plenty of room for more.

This is the part of South America which has drawn most immigrants during the last sixty years, southern Brazil leading the way, Argentina and Uruguay following. It is also the region which will chiefly continue to attract Europeans for many years to come.

In Argentina and most of Uruguay, as in the prairie states of North America and the Canadian Northwest, there are no trees to be felled, so the land, extremely fertile, can be brought under crops immediately. The estates are at present large, but if there were settlers with enough capital to buy small lots, these could soon be had, and already some Italians are establishing themselves as peasant cultivators.[149] It is a country where the labour is at present small in proportion to the area utilized, partly because much of the land is in pasture, partly because its flatness makes the use of agricultural machinery specially easy, partly because the harvests are largely reaped by migratory Europeans who return home for part of the year. Nevertheless, after making all allowances, both Argentina and the other tracts I have referred to are capable, supposing immigration to continue at the present rate, of providing work and homes for immigrants for at least sixty or seventy years to come. Locusts are said to destroy the crop once in three or four years, but this plague is deemed likely to diminish as settlement and civilization extend northwards to the regions whence it now comes. The estimate that before the end of the century Argentina may have fifty, Uruguay ten, and southern Brazil thirty millions of people (assuming the birth-rate to be maintained) need not seem extravagant to anyone who knows how rapidly settlement has advanced in North America and who realizes that before long the stream of agricultural immigration will cease to flow into the United States and may slacken in its flow towards Canada.

The cultivable areas of Chile are relatively small; and the Chileans themselves seem to think they need more land for their national development. To one who travels through southern Chile there seems, however, to be still room for a greatly increased population in its well-watered valleys, which enjoy a delightful climate. The future of these four countries is assured, so far as the gifts of nature can assure it. The world will always want what they produce.

Far more doubtful is the future of the third section, the Selvas, or forest-covered Amazonian plain. It includes nearly all the western half of Brazil, and the eastern parts of Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. An estimate of its area at 2,300,000 square miles, including the basin of the Tocantins river, might not be extravagant. It is an almost absolute level 1200 miles long, from north to south, and 1500 wide. Those parts which lie along the great river and its larger tributaries are so low that these rivers when they rise in the rainy season spread out their waters for from sixty to eighty miles or more on each side, and immense stretches of country not actually flooded become impassable morasses. But away back from the rivers there are higher grounds, flat, but raised sufficiently to be above the inundations; and on its western margin the great plain is bordered by a stretch of undulating country before the foot of the Andes is reached. All the country, whether level or undulating, is covered with forest. The trees grow so close that there is no way of travelling except by boat along the streams. Intense heat and abundant moisture combine to make vegetation so profuse and rank that ground cleared of trees is, after three or four years, covered thick again.

In this vast area there are, except in a few trading stations along the river, only one of them a considerable town,[150] practically no inhabitants, perhaps not a human being to a square mile. The few and scattered inhabitants outside these stations are Indians, nearly all savages, most of them heathens. Some are warlike, and skilful in the use of their bows and of the long blow pipe from which they discharge poisoned darts, but the greater number are timid and feeble, an easy prey to the rubber gatherers, who have in some places shewn themselves more cruel than the wildest Indian.[151] Here and there in Peru and Bolivia there are a few cultivated districts in the undulating ground along the base of the Andes, where some sugar, coffee, and cocoa are raised. But the only product of any commercial importance is rubber, collected from several kinds of trees, and exported in vast quantities down the tributary rivers into the Amazon and thence to the sea. The whole region, however, appears to be of extreme fertility, and to this the size of the trees, as well as the profusion of the vegetation, bears witness. Most of it is covered with vegetable soil accumulated during many thousands of years, and has never been touched by human hand. As many of the woods are valuable, there might be a considerable trade in timber, but the cost of getting out great logs is practically prohibitive, for the trees are of so many different kinds that it is hard to obtain a large supply of the same kind on any given area, and there has hitherto been no means of transport, except by water.

Can these Amazonian Selvas, which form the largest unoccupied fertile space on the earth's surface, be reclaimed for the service of man?

This question is not a practical one for our generation, and I mention it only because it raises an interesting problem, the solution of which will one day be attempted, since so vast and so fertile an area cannot be left forever useless. Since men have begun to make railways through mountains and deserts, and to build bridges across arms of the sea like the Firth of Forth, and most of all since the cutting of the Panama Canal, it has become an accepted doctrine that every work is only a question of cost.

If ever, when the world is fuller than it is now, it becomes worth while to attempt the reclamation of this vast region, the process would probably begin by placing colonists on the more elevated grounds above the annual inundation and setting them to clear away the wood and cultivate the soil. Hard work would be needed to keep down the efforts of Nature to hold her own against man by her tremendous vegetative power, but those who know the country believe that this could be done, and that the difficulties of transport through the lower parts of the forest to the banks of navigable streams might also be overcome. Hundreds of thousands of square miles might be in this way rendered habitable and cultivable, assuming that capital and the proper kind of labour could be obtained. To reclaim the lower land along the banks of the rivers by constructing embankments or levees like those along the lower Mississippi would be a more arduous undertaking, and might involve an expenditure disproportionate to the results.

Whence would come the capital? If the country belonged to some great and wealthy nation, in which there were many enterprising men seeking employment for their wealth, the thing might be attempted on a great scale, perhaps even by the nation itself. Whether capitalists from other countries will embark on such an enterprise, which could hardly be carried out except by the aid of a government, is doubtful. If attempted at all, it must be on a large scale, for such gradual colonization by settlers coming in small groups, as would be the natural process in temperate regions, is scarcely possible in a country where man has so powerful a nature to overcome.

Supposing the capital provided, the question of labour would remain. Who would do the work? and when the work was done, who would inhabit and cultivate the lands reclaimed? Thirty years ago the fear of tropical diseases would have made these regions seem impossible for white men, even as foremen or overseers. To-day the discovery that insects are the chief poison carriers of disease has reduced our fears. But to-day it still remains doubtful whether the men of any European race can retain health and vigour in a climate so moist and so hot, and so far away from sea or mountain breezes, as are the central parts of the Selvas. It is at any rate unlikely that they could do continuous open-air work there. If white men cannot be employed, what other labour would be available? As the native Indians are too few and too feeble to be worth regarding, it would be necessary to bring in some race native to the tropics which had already formed habits of steady industry. If the world were to-day what it was a century ago, this would be a simple matter. Negroes would be kidnapped in Africa and taken up the rivers to work under white or mulatto overseers. Nowadays, compulsion being impossible, persuasion alone remains. Negroes abound on the east side of Brazil, but they have plenty of land there and are masters of the situation, seeing that the planters are more eager to get them than they are to work for the planters. Nowhere in South America is there a problem of the unemployed. Whether Chinese or Indian coolies could be brought into the Selvas, and whether if brought they would remain under the control of the white employers who had imported them, are questions which may one day arise. Nothing is being done now to exploit these regions except as sources of wild rubber supply. But it seems certain that coming generations will endeavour to turn to the service of man the largest unused piece of productive soil that remains anywhere on the earth's surface.

Leaving this forest wilderness out of account, and confining our view to the near future, can any estimate be made of the probable growth of population in South America generally, and of the total it may reach by the end of the present century?

As respects the temperate regions, there exist some data for a conjecture: Should the influx of immigrants belonging, as do the Italians, to a prolific stock be maintained, the countries south of the Tropic of Capricorn may in A.D. 2000 contain at least one hundred millions of people.

As respects the equatorial regions, which now receive hardly any immigrants and in which the natural growth of population is slow, no such data exist. Considering, however, the material development which is going on in some, and may be expected in all, of them, they also may probably increase in population which would bring them from twenty-eight up to at least forty millions.[152] Were this to happen, the continent would have by A.D. 2000 a population not far short of one hundred and fifty millions. At present, with only about forty-five millions, it has much less than half the population of North America, now about one hundred and twenty millions. The rapid growth of North America, likely to continue for two generations at least, may make the proportion between the two much the same in A.D. 2000 as it is to-day.

All such speculations are, however, subject to the possibility that the birth-rate, either in the temperate regions, or generally, may decrease. Such a decrease has, as respects Australia, thrown out the calculations made forty or fifty years ago.[153]

More important than the quantity of a population is its quality. Any enquiry as to what that of the South American countries will be when they are tolerably well filled up at the end of the present century can profitably address itself to one point only, viz. the several races and their relations to one another. There are now three races, Whites (of Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian origin),[154] Indians, of many tribes speaking different languages, and Negroes. A very rough estimate of the racial elements in the whole continent[155] might give some such results as these:--

Whites, 15,000,000 (more than half of them in Argentina and Uruguay).

Indians, 8,000,000.

Negroes,[156] 3,000,000.

Mixed whites and Indians (mestizos), 13,000,000.

Mixed whites and negroes (mulattoes and quadroons), 5,700,000.

Mixed negroes and Indians (zambos) (chiefly in Brazil) perhaps 300,000.

The reader will understand that these figures, based partly on a comparison of those given in various books and partly on enquiries addressed to competent observers, are given as only a rough approximation to the facts. There are no data for any exact estimate, and the difficulty of drawing any line between those who ought to be classed as pure whites and those who ought to be classed as mestizos or mulattoes, would be insuperable even if a regular and careful census were taken.[157] In arriving at this conjectural estimate, those who have three-fourths or more of white blood are counted as whites, those who have less than three-fourths as mestizos, or mulattoes.

If these figures are somewhere near the truth it will be seen that if we deduct 8,000,000, representing the two purely white republics of Argentina and Uruguay, we shall find that in the other Spanish republics, taken together, the mestizo element is much larger, and the Indian element somewhat larger than the white element. To explain the practical significance of these figures let me repeat what was said in an earlier chapter, that the mestizos and whites are, for political and social purposes, practically one class and that the ruling class, the Indians being passive, and in a political sense outside the nation. Even in Paraguay, an almost purely Indian state, the comparatively few mestizos dominate politically. In Brazil it is the whites who rule, but many of them are tinged with negro, fewer with Indian, blood.

Four questions may be asked regarding the racial future:--

1. Which of the races is or are increasing?

2. Is the intermingling of races likely to continue?

3. Which type predominates in persons of mixed race?

4. What is likely to be the ultimate outcome of the mixture of races?

1. There are no official figures supplying an answer to this question as regards the northern and the Andean republics; but the traveller receives the impression that the Indians are more prolific than the whites, though their neglect of sanitary conditions gives a high death-rate, especially among children. It is rare to see an old man among them. If either they or the mestizos are now increasing, it is at no rapid rate. The pure whites in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil are certainly increasing, and thus the proportion of white to other blood in the continent as a whole is growing.

2. Everything points to a continuance of the process of race mixture. It is the rule in all parts of the world, except where religion or a strong feeling of race antagonism (such as exists in the United States) prevents it. Neither of these hindrances exists in South America. In Peru and Bolivia, however, the process is so slow that it may be centuries before the white and aboriginal elements have been so completely commingled as to form one race, and leave no pure Indians remaining.

3. In the mixed race (mestizo or mulatto) the white element seems usually to predominate. I do not state this as a physiological fact. It may or may not be so; nobody seems to have investigated the matter. But it is true as a social fact; that is to say, the mestizo deems himself a white, wishes to be a white, tries to live and think as a white, and is practically recognized by others as a white. This is not equally true of the negro, because he is, physically regarded, further off the white than is the Indian. But in Brazil, when the negro is able to take his stand, so far as education and property go, beside the white, he too thinks and acts like a white man and is so treated.

4. The facts just stated make it probable that the nations likely to emerge when the process of fusion is complete, perhaps at a very distant date, will be white much more than Indian nations. Blood is only one factor, and not the most important factor, in the making of men. Environment and the influence of the reigning intellectual type count for more. In the United States the child of the Polish or Rouman or Italian immigrant grows up as an American. He may be a more emotional and impulsive, a more violent or more criminal, a more artistic and sensitive American; but the stamp of the new country is on him. So apparently will it be, so at any rate it has been, with the Indian. Tinged however slightly by the blood of the higher race, he will become a Spanish-speaking man of the colonial kind, which differs from the European kind at least as much as an English-speaking North American differs from an Englishman. These mixed nations will, however, stand nearer, intellectually and socially, to the South European group of nations than to any other white peoples.

It may seem natural to assume that such mixed nations will, in respect of their aboriginal blood, be inferior to their European relatives. But this is a mere assumption. No one has yet investigated scientifically the results of race fusion. History throws little light on the subject, because wherever there has been a mixture of races there have been also concomitant circumstances influencing the people who are the product of the mixture which have made it hard to determine whether their deterioration (or improvement) is due to this or to some other cause. So in these countries there may be reservoirs of dormant strength in the ancient native races waiting to be opened by conditions better than fortune has given them since the days of the Conquest. Who knows whether when the fusion is complete the Bolivian of two or three centuries hence, who will be nine-tenths, or the Paraguayan, who will be nineteen-twentieths, of Indian blood, will be inferior to his neighbours with a smaller aboriginal infusion? The Chilean peasant to-day, who is at least half Indian, is not inferior to the Argentine peasant, who is almost pure white.

In speaking of the future South American type as likely to be in the main "Spanish-colonial," I do not suggest that it will be uniform. Already there are variations in character between the peoples of the several republics; and these are more likely to be accentuated than to disappear. The different extent to which aboriginal elements become absorbed, and the differences in those aboriginal elements themselves, will be among the factors which will produce what may be called national "sub-types" of character. But apart from such causes it seems to be a general--I will not say universal--law of social growth that an independent political community, even if originally the same in race, religion, and habits as its neighbours, tends to draw apart from them, and to form an individuality of its own, creating a national type and impressing that type upon its members.

Were there any forces compelling these various republics to close political alliances, such as the fear of attacks by a Power outside their continent, they might suppress their jealousies and ally themselves close with one another and realize better than they do now all that they have in common. But they are not, and are not likely to be, so threatened. Holland, France, and England all at one time meddled in South America, but all three, while each retaining a foothold in Guiana, have long ago drawn apart and left Latin America to itself. Politically its republics live in a little world of their own; they have their own alliances, their own wars and bitternesses, with which strangers do not intermeddle. Of wars they have had, since 1825, their full share; nor is the danger of war yet extinct. No states seem likely to unite with one another of their own free will, but it is possible that smaller states may be annexed by or partitioned among some of the larger ones, their weakness and internal disorders furnishing to powerful neighbours, as in the famous case of the partition of Poland, at once the temptation and the pretext.

As the Old World no longer interferes with the South American states, so they are unlikely to interfere with the Old World. They have never proclaimed any such self-denying ordinance, and have not hitherto been strong enough to make it seem needed. But even if any among them becomes a first-class power, small is the chance that it can acquire interests in other parts of the globe that would collide with those of other nations. Were Colombia and Venezuela strong states owning strong navies, there might be Caribbean questions to embroil them with neighbouring maritime states. But the three leading powers of South America belong to its southern half, and there are now no unoccupied countries left to be acquired as colonies.

To what has been said in a preceding chapter regarding the internal political conditions and political prospects of the South American republics little need here be added. He who studies their history since Independence, with a knowledge of what they were when it was assured in A.D. 1825, will find nothing surprising in the storms that have buffeted them, nor anything to discourage a hope that they may eventually reach a smoother sea. The moral of that history is that nations have to be trained to self-government, just as individual men have to be trained to every work requiring patience and skill. The error into which the victorious colonists fell when they expected freedom and prosperity to follow at once on their deliverance from Spain was not their error only. It was shared by their friends in Europe and even more fully by their friends in North America. The latter had succeeded in establishing efficient state governments and thereafter an efficient federal government. They attributed this partly to liberty, _i.e._ to their having broken their tie with a European monarchy, partly to the benign influences of a new Continent, free from the evil traditions of the Old World. Many among them made the mistake, which no intelligent North American makes now, of thinking that their history began in 1776, the mistake of ignoring the centuries during which their ancestors had been learning the principles of self-government in England and the century and a half during which they had been putting those principles into practice in the older colonies. In this state of mind and attaching a magic significance to the name of a republic, the people of the United States did not see why Spanish America, which had imitated them in rejecting a European king and was placed, like them, in a new land, should not repeat their happy experiences. Liberal enthusiasts in England and France and Italy were scarcely less sanguine. None of them realized that Spanish America belonged, in 1825, to an age which England and North America had long left behind. Most of the land was wilder than England or Germany had been in the twelfth century, a thin population, no roads, settlements scattered here and there in forests or deserts. The peasantry were further back than those of western Europe in the fifteenth century, not merely rude and ignorant, but speaking native languages and soaked in primeval superstitions. The upper class were further back than those of Europe in the seventeenth century, for few of them had received any sort of higher education and none of them had any personal knowledge of free institutions, or any experience in civil administration. Thus both classes wanted the foundation on which free governments must be erected. The humbler class did not know and could not know how to elect representatives or supervise those whom they elected. The upper class did not know how to legislate or govern. They tried to erect a superstructure of complicated political institutions when there was no solid foundation to build on, when only a few of the choicest minds knew what order meant and what liberty meant and what was the relation between the two. Such experiments were foredoomed to failure.

The troubles of these ninety years have, accordingly, nothing in them that need dishearten either any friend of Spanish America or any friend of constitutional freedom. The person who ought to reconsider his position is the man who holds that any group of human beings called "the people" are always right, that the best and sufficient way to fit men for political power is to give it to them, and that the name of Republic has the talismanic gift of imparting virtue and wisdom to the community which adopts it. The mistaking of names for things is an old error, and has sometimes proved a fatal one.

Yet there was something noble in the over-sanguine confidence of the North American and European liberals, as well as of some of the finest minds among the South Americans themselves when they expected freedom to work miracles. The ideal of liberty that these men set up, though rarely realized, has never been lost. Servility and obscurantism have never resumed their old sway in South America. And as it is true that men need to be trained to self-government, so it is also true that men never become fit for the work till they try it. The ninety years of turmoil have not been altogether wasted. Two real constitutional republics have already emerged from it and their example cannot but tell on those others who, oppressed by less favourable conditions, still lag behind. That sort of progress which consists in getting rid of the old ideas and old habits of thinking and acting and replacing them by better ones must needs be a slow process. Something has already been done, and the closer and more frequent contact with Europe and North America into which these Spanish-American states are being brought ought to accelerate the process. So ought the additional motives for desiring order which the growth of material prosperity brings with it. Already the presence of foreigners imposes a certain check, and their property is generally respected in revolutions. The more the citizens acquire capital and themselves enter on commercial undertakings, and form business habits, and get to look at things with a practical eye, the stronger and more general will grow the public sentiment that insists on replacing the reign of force by the reign of law. When force has been eliminated, the task of making governments pure and rooting out fraudulent methods will become less difficult. It is a fair conclusion from European history that violence is, of all the evils that afflict a state, the evil which must be first extinguished. In England, a period of corruption set in after the great Civil War had ended, and the forms of constitutional government were often grossly perverted, but corruption and perversions ultimately disappeared with the growth of a higher sentiment.

Those South American states which have a large aboriginal population, even if they cannot become--and is it desirable that with such a population they should become?--democracies of the modern type, may at least try to secure order and such material prosperity as will bring them into closer touch with the outer world, and enable their peoples to learn, and be influenced by, the ideas and the methods of government that prevail among the great nations.

Intellectual and social progress were both in the ancient world and in the Middle Ages largely due to the reciprocal influences of nations on one another. As the want of these influences retarded the movement towards civilization of the Peruvians and Mexicans before the Conquest, so the isolation of the Spanish Americans has retarded their development ever since. They stood almost entirely outside the current of European thought and had little personal contact with Europeans till English and German merchants and English railway men, and North American mining engineers began to come among them from about 1860 onwards, and till somewhat later, the wealthy Argentines and Brazilians found their way to Paris. Although this contact has brought capital in its train, and given a start to material development, it has been a force rather among the people than of the people. It comes from without and is pumped into them like oxygen from a tube. It touches only one section of the inhabitants, and one side of their life. It is teaching them business methods and all that is therein implied, but it affects them only slightly on the literary, or scientific, or artistic side. This is of course less true of countries like Argentina and Chile than of the smaller northern republics, yet even in the former it is material interests that are dominant. This is, no doubt, in our day true of all European countries as well as of North America. In Europe, however, and also in the United States and Canada, the number of men who occupy themselves with science and letters is far larger in proportion to the population than it is in the South American countries, and the provision made for higher education incomparably more ample. Argentina has, indeed, not only the University of Buenos Aires, already staffed by able and energetic teachers, but the older and more ecclesiastically coloured University of Cordova and the new University of La Plata and its excellent military school, as Chile has its university in Santiago, and as Uruguay has the University of Montevideo. But these stand almost alone. Isolation, as well as poverty, has been a cause of the weakness of these organs of national life, a deficiency which order and prosperity ought presently to remove in other states as they have in Argentina.

One cause of the isolation I have referred to is found in the fact that there has been comparatively little literary production during the last two centuries in the language which these nations speak. Spanish is no doubt what the Germans call a "World Speech." It is now used by sixty millions of people in the New World as well as by twenty millions in Old Spain. But Old Spain never supplied to her colonies through books anything approaching the volume of that perennial stream of instruction and stimulation which English-speaking writers have for nearly four centuries supplied to those who can read English all over the world, and which France has likewise supplied to all who can read her language. In South America, men now learn French in increasing numbers, but they are still a small percentage of the educated population of Spanish America.

Of the eight or nine millions of people in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay probably one-half are not only illiterate, but cannot speak even Spanish. These facts constitute no reproach on the peoples of these states. They are a result of the circumstances attending the Conquest in the sixteenth century and of the way in which Spain thereafter administered her colonial empire.

That political conditions will improve during the next century seems altogether probable, and although social advance must be slow, especially where the native population is very large, political progress is sometimes unexpectedly rapid. To anyone observing England during the Wars of the Roses civil strife might have seemed so ingrained a habit as to be likely to last for generations. Yet after the accession of the first Tudor there were only a few slight troubles down till 1641, when a really great issue appeared which had to be fought out and was fought out within four years. So in our own days we have seen a new country, Bulgaria, as soon as it was delivered from a foreign despotism, step forward towards settled government with a firm tread which surprised all Europe. Democracy in the North American sense may be still far distant, but a settled government, maintaining order, giving opportunities for educational and social as well as material improvement, and responsible to the opinion of the more educated classes, may be much nearer than the never-ending, still beginning, troubles of the last ninety years have led most Europeans to expect.

To forecast what one may call the intellectually creative future of the Spanish-Americans is far more difficult. Considering themselves not Spaniards, but a new people, or peoples, they hold that views or predictions about them based on the history and tendencies of Spaniards are beside the mark. Nevertheless, as the other race factors--the quality of the aboriginal element and the results of an intermingling of the aboriginal with the Spanish colonial stock--are obscure, it is only in the Spanish element that any sort of basis for speculation can be found. Now the Spanish, or so-called Iberian, race, more or less Latinized during the ages of Roman dominion, and slightly Teutonized by the Germanic invasions of the fifth century, has been always a strong race. It was strong when it fought against Rome, and strong when it resisted the Moors in its mountain fastnesses and drove them step by step backwards, and ultimately out of the peninsula. It produced in the Middle Ages and afterwards many warriors and statesmen of the first rank. But the genius of the race seems to have at all times run more to practical life than towards intellectual creation. Two or three writers are of world fame, and so are two or three artists, without reckoning the mostly unnamed or unknown mediæval architects who reared ecclesiastical buildings of unsurpassed beauty. Metaphysical talent, turned into theological channels, gave birth to some dogmatic and casuistical writings of unquestionable power. Still the total quantity of literary or artistic product of high excellence is small when compared with that of Italy or France. That this is more markedly true of the later seventeenth and the eighteenth than of earlier centuries may be explained by the extinction in the sixteenth of intellectual freedom. French literature still flourished while Spanish was sinking under ecclesiastical censure.

In Spanish America, where remoteness from European influences darkened the firmament still further, scarcely any literary or scientific work of permanent merit was accomplished, though the fountain of pleasing verse did not cease to flow.[158] The stormy times of the War of Independence and the domestic turmoil that everywhere followed gave no opportunities for acquiring knowledge nor any leisure to use it. It is only recently, and chiefly in Mexico and in the southern South American states, that the day of more benignant conditions has seemed to be dawning. It is true that in them, as political conflicts subside, material interests come first to the front, and, like a rank growth, so cover the ground that not much room is left for the play of intellect upon matters promising no direct pecuniary gain to the nation or to individuals. This was to be expected at a time when the development of natural resources attracts foreign capital and fills the minds of enterprising men. It is the salient feature of the life to-day of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil, and to a slighter extent of Chile also. But it need not be permanent. Just as in North America there came, not long after the Civil War, a passionate eagerness to found universities and extend the range and improve the efficiency of the higher scientific and literary teaching, so the leading men in these more advanced states may realize the need for basing their civilization on the enlightenment of the people. The task before them is harder than that which the North Americans had, because their system of elementary and secondary education is far less complete. With this extension of higher instruction and the closer communion of the best minds with those of the northern hemisphere, there may at any time come an outburst of purely intellectual activity. Prediction is so much more difficult in this field than in the field of politics that one must abstain from venturing to enter it. Shrewd observers living in the middle of the eighteenth century were able to foretell some sort of political upheaval as approaching in France; but nobody foretold the flowering in Germany of the great literature which began with Kant and Lessing and continued in Goethe and Schiller, Fichte and Hegel.

The traveller in South America who confines himself, as many do, to the larger cities, finds them so like those of Europe and North America in their possession of the appliances of modern civilization, in their electric street cars and handsome parks, in their ably written press, in the volume of business they transact--I might add in the aspect of the legislatures and in the administrative machinery of their government--that he is apt to fancy a like resemblance in the countries as a whole. But the small towns and rural districts are very far behind, though least so in Chile and Argentina. If one regards these various nations as a whole, one is struck by the want of such an "atmosphere of ideas," if the phrase be permissible, as that which men breathe in Europe and in North America. Educated men are few, books are few, there is little stir of thought, little play of cultivated intelligence upon the problems of modern society. Most of these countries seem to lie far away from the stream of intellectual life, hearing only its distant murmur. The presence of a great inert mass of ignorance in the native population partly accounts for this; and one must remember the difficulty of providing schools and the thinness of a population scattered through mountainous or desert or forest-covered regions. These disadvantages may in years to come be lessened, but in the meantime those who are born with superior talents are born into an ungenial environment, ill-fitted to develop and polish such talents to their own and to the public benefit. The traveller finds, now and then in some of these states, gifted men who would be remarkable in any country. One whom I knew in Mexico years ago was as brilliant and as accomplished in many lines of knowledge as any person I have ever known. But it takes a large number of such men to influence a nation and guide the course of its opinion. Men of marked ability abound, but their talent, like the system of instruction of the country, is directed almost exclusively to practical ends, and does less than it ought either for political progress or for the expansion of the national mind. Their interest in science is almost entirely an interest in its applications, and their hero is the great inventor. Science and learning, pursued for their own sake, have not yet won the place they ought to hold. Those in whom a taste for philosophical speculation or abstract thought of any kind appears, seldom devote themselves to patient investigation. They are apt to be captured by phrases and formulas, perhaps of little meaning, which seem to give short cuts to knowledge and truth.[159]

Another fact strikes the traveller with surprise. Both the intellectual life and the ethical standards of conduct of these countries seem to be entirely divorced from religion. The women are almost universally "practising" Catholics, and so are the peasantry, though the Christianity of the Indians bears only a distant resemblance to that of Europe. But men of the upper or educated class appear wholly indifferent to theology and to Christian worship. It has no interest for them. They are seldom actively hostile to Christianity, much less are they offensive when they speak of it, but they think it does not concern them, and may be left to women and peasants. The Catholic revival or reaction of the first half of the nineteenth century did not touch Spanish America, which is still under the influence of the anti-Catholic current of the later eighteenth. The Roman Church in Spain and Portugal was then, and indeed is now, far below the level at which it stands in France, Germany, and Italy. Its worship was more formal, its pressure on the laity far heavier, its clergy less exemplary in their lives. In Spanish America the obscurantism was at least as great and the other faults probably greater. There was not much persecution, partly, no doubt, because there was hardly any heterodoxy, and the victims of the Inquisition were comparatively few. But the ministers of religion had ceased not only to rouse the soul, but to supply a pattern for conduct. There were always some admirable men to be found among them, some prelates models of piety and virtue, some friars devoted missionaries and humanely zealous in their efforts to protect the Indians. Still the church as a whole had lost its hold on the conscience and thought of the best spirits, and that hold it has never regained. In saying this I am comparing Catholic South America not with the Protestant countries of Europe, but with such Roman Catholic countries as France, Rhenish Prussia, and Bavaria, in all of which the Roman Church is a power in the world of thought and morals. In eastern Europe the Orthodox Church has similarly shrivelled up and ceased to be an intellectual force, but there it has at least retained the affection of the upper class, and is honoured for its fidelity during centuries of Musulman oppression. In the more advanced parts of South America it seems to be regarded merely as a harmless Old World affair which belongs to a past order of things just as much as does the rule of Spain, but which may, so long as it does not interfere with politics, be treated with the respect which its antiquity commands. In both cases the undue stress laid upon the dogmatic side of theology and the formal or external side of worship has resulted in the loss of spiritual influence. In all the Spanish countries, the church had trodden down the laity and taken freedom and responsibility from them more than befell anywhere else in Christendom, making devotion consist in absolute submission. Thus when at last her sway vanished, her moral influence vanished with it. This absence of a religious foundation for thought and conduct is a grave misfortune for Latin America.

The view which I am here presenting is based chiefly on what I saw in Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil, the three countries in which there is a larger educated class than in the less populous republics. It applies in a less degree to Chile; and there are, of course, exceptions in the three first-named republics also, though not numerous enough to affect the general truth of what I am trying to state. The phenomenon is all the more remarkable because in the days when America began to be settled there was no part of Europe where religion had so strong a hold on the people as it had in Spain and Portugal. The Conquistadores, whatever may be thought of the influence of their faith upon their conduct, were ardently pious in their own way. Even in the desire they professed for the propagation of the faith among the Indians, they were not consciously hypocritical, though they never allowed their piety to stand in the way of their avarice.

The fiery vigour of that extraordinary group of men has often blazed out in their descendants. It is the appearance in almost every state of men of tireless energy and strenuous will that gives their chief interest to the wars and revolutions of the last hundred years. Few of these men, besides the heroes of Independence, such as San Martin, Belgrano, Miranda, Bolivar, and Sucre, are known to Europe, and of those who are known, some like Francia and Artigas and Rosas and Lopez, have won fame by ruthlessness more than by genius. Of late years the leading figures have been more frequently statesmen and less frequently soldiers. Both types are honourably represented to-day in many of the republics. There is plenty of strength in the race, and Juarez of Mexico is only one of many examples to show that Indian blood does not necessarily reduce its quality. Into what channels its force will be hereafter directed, and whether it will develop a gift for thought and for artistic creation commensurate with the activity which it has shewn in other fields, is a question upon which its history since 1825 sheds little light. The wind bloweth where it listeth.

In the more progressive states, conditions are changing as fast as anywhere else in this changeful age. Here, as everywhere, the Present is the child of the Past, but the features of the child change as it grows up, and all we know of the future is that it will be unlike the past. No countries have more possibilities of change than those of South America. European immigrants are streaming into the southern republics. The white race is commingling with the aboriginal Indians in the west and with the negroes in the east. Scientific discovery is bringing its latest appliances into contact with countries still undeveloped and with peoples long left behind in the march of progress. Till the middle of the eighteenth century the world of trade, politics, and thought was practically a European world. It then expanded to take in North America, then southern Asia and Australia, and then, last of all, the ancient nations of the Far East. South America, which has hitherto, except at rare intervals, stood outside, has now begun to affect the commercial and financial movements of the world. She may before long begin to affect its movements in other ways also, and however little we can predict the part that her peoples will play, it must henceforth be one of growing significance for the Old World as well as for the New.

NOTES

NOTE I. The reader who desires fuller information regarding the countries treated of here may wish to be referred to some books in English. The most convenient general historical accounts are perhaps to be found in Mr. Akers' _History of South America, 1854-1904_, and in Mr. T. C. Dawson's _The South American Republics_ (2 vols.). For Peru Sir Clements Markham's _History of Peru_ is still the best, to which may be added, for the earlier period, his recent work, _The Incas of Peru_. Mr. Scott Elliot's _History of Chile_ is useful. The chapters on Peru in _The History of the New World_, by Mr. E. J. Payne, a scholar of great talents too soon lost to historical science, contain a thoughtful study of the causes to which the progress towards civilization of the ancient Peruvians was due. The two books of Professor Moses, _The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America_ and _South America on the Eve of Emancipation_, are fair in spirit and throw much light upon topics regarding which little has been written in English. The fullest and most careful account of Peruvian and Bolivian antiquities is still that of Mr. Squier: _Peru, Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas_ (1877). Of more recent works of travel that which stands first in the field of natural history is John Ball's _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_ (1887). Among others of a more general kind the following may be named: _Across South America_, by Hiram Bingham; _The South Americans_, by Albert Hale; _The Other Americans_, by Arthur Ruhl; _Uruguay_, by W. H. Koebel; _Argentine Plains and Andine Glaciers_, by Walter Larden; _Panama_, by Albert Edwards; _Argentina_, by W. A. Hirst; and the _Ten Republics_, by Robert P. Porter. Sir M. Conway's _Travels and Explorations in the Bolivian Andes_ is addressed primarily to mountain climbers, but contains much that is interesting to other readers also. A recent book in French entitled _Le Brésil au XXme Siècle_, by M. Pierre Denis, is short, but singularly clear, well informed, and judicious.

In the publications issued by the Pan American Union in Washington a great deal of valuable statistical information brought up to date may be found. The South American Supplements issued monthly by the London _Times_ are well edited and constitute a useful current record of what is going forward.

NOTE II. Some readers may also wish to hear what are the facilities for travel in the parts of South America covered by this book. There are now many well-appointed railways in Argentina and Uruguay, and a smaller number in Chile and Brazil, and both in these and other states the work of construction is going on steadily. Roads fit for driving are still comparatively few and rough, but in level countries like Argentina one drives over the Pampa wherever wire fences do not bar the way. Travel in the Andes is mostly upon mule back; it is slow and has become expensive. The capital cities of the republics have good hotels. In Arequipa, the larger coast towns of Chile, and three or four of the Argentine and Brazilian cities, fair accommodation can be had. Elsewhere it is very poor, and the food no better. The scale of prices is everywhere high, but most so in Buenos Aires and Montevideo, which have won the reputation of being the most expensive places in the world to live in, surpassing even Petersburg and Washington.

A great deal of what is most interesting in the six republics above referred to can now be seen by railway, and if a few plain but fairly comfortable hotels (such as that at Santa Rosa de los Andes on the Transandine Railway) were placed here and there upon the chief Peruvian, Chilean, and Brazilian lines, journeys along them would present no exceptional difficulties. There is now no yellow fever except in Guayaquil and on the Amazon; and the conditions of health are on the whole not unfavourable. Those who intend to travel in the loftier parts of the Andes ought, however, to satisfy themselves that their hearts and lungs are sound.

NOTE III. A remarkable testimony to the harm wrought by the Spanish Conquest on the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru may be found in the will of Leguisamo, one of the last survivors of the Conquistadores, made at Cuzco in 1589, and printed in Sir Clements Markham's book, _The Incas of Peru_.

"I took part in the conquest and settlement of these kingdoms when we drove out the Incas who ruled them as their own. We found them in such order and the Incas governed them in such wise that there was not a thief nor vicious man nor adulterer nor bad woman admitted among them. The men had honest and useful occupations. The lands, forests, mines, pastures, houses, and all kinds of products were regulated and distributed in such sort that each one knew his property without any one else seizing it, nor were there lawsuits. The operations of war, though numerous, never interfered with the interests of commerce or agriculture. All things from the greatest to the smallest had their proper place and order. The Incas were feared, obeyed, and respected by their subjects as men capable and versed in the arts of government.... We have subdued these kingdoms and we have destroyed by our evil example the people who had such a government as these natives enjoyed. They were so free from committing crimes that the Indian who had a large quantity of gold in his house left it open, only placing a small stick across the door as a sign that its master was absent. With that according to their custom no one could enter or take anything.... But now they have come to such a pass, in offence of God, owing to the bad example we have set them in all things, that these natives have changed into people who do no good or very little."

Some allowance must be made in this description for the disappointment and sadness in which Leguisamo wrote, as appears from other parts of his will; and other evidence at our disposal shews that his picture of Peru under the Incas is too favourable, yet even after making these deductions, the admission of the harm wrought by the conquerors and the consequent decline in native character and conduct carries weight.

INDEX

A

Aboriginal population, present condition of, in Andean regions, 180-186; the Araucanians in southern Chile, 232-238; of Brazil, 367; influence of, on differentiation of various parts of Spanish America into nations, 432-433; importance of, as a factor in all parts of the continent except Argentina and Uruguay, 454 ff. _See_ Indians.

_Achachila_, Mountain Spirit, 186.

Aconcagua, Mt., 57, 142, 214, 268; description of, 257-258.

Adams, John Quincy, diplomacy of, 497, 508.

Adobe houses, Payta, 41; at Sicuani, 88; in Lake Titicaca region, 123.

Agriculture, in Peru, 41-42, 78; of Indians in interior of Peru, 87-88; on central plateau of Peru, 120, 122-124; importance of, to Bolivia, 193; in southern Chile, 231, 240; difficulties of practice of, on Falkland Isles, 310; in Argentina, 329-331; risks to, in Argentina, from drought and locusts, 333-334, 557; rank of Argentina in agricultural products, 336; in Uruguay, 354; in Brazil, 403 ff.; retardation of, by the unassimilated Indian population, 475-476; suitability of Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil for, 556-557.

Aguas Calientes, town of, 87.

Akers, _History of South America_ by, 587.

Alakaluf tribe of Fuegians, 294.

Albatrosses, seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287, 288.

Alcaldes of Indian villages, 91; powers and duties of, 180-181.

Alcohol from sugar-cane, made by Peruvian Indians, 467.

Alexander VI, Pope, bull of, dividing New World between Spain and Portugal, 366.

Alfalfa, 177, 202, 263, 334.

Almagro, Diego de, 204, 218.

Alpacas, 78, 81.

Alpaca wool, 122.

Alps, comparison of Andes and, 277.

Altars of churches, Cuzco, 99.

Altitude, mountain sickness resulting from high, 83; effects of, of La Paz, 171-174; of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia a deterrent to immigration, 555.

Amazonian plain (the Selvas), 369-370; future of, 558-562.

Amazon River, 40, 369; forests of the, 75-76, 393-394; sources of the, 86.

_American Commonwealth_, cited, 340 n.

Americas, the two: the naming of, 484-487; names which might have been given, 487; physical similarities between, 488-489; points of similarity in settlement of, 489-490; points of divergence, 490 ff.; Latin America and Teutonic America, 490; differences in the aboriginal tribes, 491-492; differences in climate, in discoveries of mines, and in class of immigrants to, 492-494; differences in the sphere of government and administration, 494-495; resultant unlikeness of, in everything but position in Western Hemisphere, 495-496; effect on mutual relations of achievement of independence, 496-497; divergence of fortunes of, as to wealth and population, 497-499; difference in the formation of nations,--two in Teutonic America against nineteen states in Latin America, 499-500; points of resemblance to be found in republican forms of government, in social equality, and in detachment from European politics, 501-504; contrasts between people of, in ideas and temperament, 504-505; present attitude of, toward one another, 507 ff.; common relations between, shown to be wholly wanting, 507-520; the Monroe Doctrine, and South American view of, 508-510.

Ampato, Mt., 57, 81.

Anahuac, Peruvian Indians compared with those of, 159, 160; plateau of, compared with the Andes, 278.

Anarchist propaganda in Argentina, 343.

Ancohuma (Hanko Uma), peak of, 142.

Ancon, hill of, 9-12.

Ancon, village of, 27.

Ancud, channel of, 239.

_Andenes_, terraces in Lake Titicaca region, 122.

Andes mountains, 38, 39, 42, 47; description of peaks of Western Cordillera, 55-58, 60, 61, 63, 81, 82; gold in the, 192; splendor of scenery of, 200-201, 203, 241-242; tunnel through the, 251, 256; trips across the, 252-261, 267-271; passage of, by San Martin's army, 268, 280-281; the Christ of the, summit of Uspallata Pass, 269-270; descent of, on open trolley, 270-271; comparisons of, with other great ranges, 271 ff.; as a field for mountain climbers, 272; advantages of distance for viewing, 272-275; why an unfavourable field for landscape painters, 275-276; comparison of, with Himalayas, 276-277; comparison with Alps and North American ranges, 277-279; expense and difficulty of travel in the, 588.

Andrez, nephew of Tupac Amaru, 92.

Animals, on Peruvian highlands, 77-78, 81-82; of Bolivia, 177; of forests of southern Chile, 245; absence of, among Fuegians, 294-295; on Pampas of Argentina, 325-326.

Antarctic current, the, 38, 39, 43, 45, 489.

Antimony mines, 87.

Antiquities. _See_ Ruins.

Antiquity of Cuzco, 109 n.

Antofagasta, 169, 202, 210, 211, 215.

Antofagasta and Bolivia Railroad, 187, 189-190, 191-192.

_Araucana_, epic by Alonzo de Ercilla, 236.

Araucanian Indians, 159, 225; home of, in Central Valley of Chile, 232-233; primitive semi-civilization of, 233-234; maintain their independence against the Spanish, 233-235; Chile asserts authority over, 235-236; remain the one unconquered native people of South America, 236; estimates of former and present numbers, 236; inroads of disease and drink among, and government protection of, 236-237; religion of, 237-238.

_Araucaria_, conifer of southern Chile, 244.

Arawak Indians, 457.

Areche, Spanish judge, 116.

Arequipa, Peru, 60; history, 60; altitude, 60; climate, 60-61; Harvard Observatory at, 61; scenic wonders at, 62-64; houses, streets, and people, 64-66; Indian labourers in, 66; an ecclesiastical stronghold, 66-67; romance of the runaway nun at, 69-74; terminal of Southern Railroad of Peru, 80.

Argentina, 52; entrance to, across the Andes, 251-260; contrasts between Chile and, 264-265; railways of, 264, 329, 337, 588; difference as to interest aroused between Peru, Bolivia, and Chile and, 315, 346; proportion of population of, dwelling in Buenos Aires, 322-323; natural features of, 324-325; the Pampas, 325-329; farms and cattle ranches of, 329-331; allotment of land into large estates held by great landowners, 331-333; Italians in, 332-333, 339-340, 438, 516-517; leading agricultural products of, 336; cattle, sheep, and horses in, 336 n.; possibilities of, as to growth in wealth and population, 337-338; composition of population of the country, 338-340; effect on future of nation of European commingling, 339-341, 346-348; separation of church from politics in, 342-343; anarchist propaganda in, 343; relative positions held by politics, literature, and business in, 344-346; excessive patriotism of people, 346; influence of geographical position on its differentiation as a separate political entity, 429; a true nation by the test of possessing a distinctive national quality and a strong national sentiment, 441; armament maintained by, 449; slight influence of Italians on political and intellectual life of, 516-517; British capital invested in railways of, 517; a _bona fide_ republic, after a troubled and sanguinary political history, 544-545; pre-eminent fitness of, for immigration, 556-557; universities and schools in, 575; writers on theoretical jurisprudence and international law in, 578 n.

Arias, Pedro de, 477.

Arica, 169.

Aridity of the Pampas of Argentina, 333.

Armies of South American countries, 449.

Arrow points found at Tiahuanaco, 148.

Art, displayed in altars of churches at Cuzco, 99; lack of excellence in, in South America, 99; ancient Peruvian, 106-107; inferiority of ancient Peruvian, as a whole, 154.

Artigas, José, savage treatment of prisoners by, 548, 584.

Ascotan, 201.

Assassinations, political, in South America and in Europe, 548.

Asuncion, 179.

Atacama, Desert of, 204.

Atahuallpa, treachery of Pizarro to, 98, 192.

Aullagas Lake, 126, 190-191.

Australia, effect of Panama Canal on trade to, 34; decreasing birth-rate of, 563 n.

Australian gum trees, world-wide spread of, 92-93; at La Paz, 176-177; on the Pampas, 335; in Montevideo, 353.

Ausungate, Mt., 108.

Avenida Central, Rio de Janeiro, 381.

Avenida de Mayo, Buenos Aires, 316-317, 346.

Ayacucho, battle of, 166.

_Ayllu_, Indian clan, 180.

Aymará Indians, 121-124; traditions of the, 149; at La Paz, 179, 182; one of the two divisions of Indians found by Spanish, 183-184; present condition of, 460-462; isolated social position of, 474-475.

Ayuntamiento, municipal council, 535.

B

Bahia, city of, 400-401.

_Bahia_, battleship, 396-399.

Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, 1, 4, 8, 11, 37, 283, 477.

Balboa Hill, Panama, 8.

Ball, John, _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_ by, 227, 289, 587.

Ballivian, Señor, 178.

Balmaceda, President of Chile, 222; advanced policies, defeat, and death of, 544.

Balsas, boats of _Totora_, Lake Titicaca, 125, 141.

Bandelier, _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_ by, quoted and cited, 63-64, 142 n., 185 n., 465-466, 467-468.

Barley, grown on central plateau of Peru, 120, 122.

Barnevelt Island, 293.

Barrios, Gerardo, 545.

Bas Obispo, 21.

Bath of the Inca, Island of the Sun, 133.

Beagle Sound, 292.

"Big Trees" of California, comparison of South American trees with, 245, 391.

Bingham, Professor Hiram, ascent of Coropuna by, 57 n.; cited on antiquity of Cuzco, 109 n.; _Across South America_ by, cited, 113 n., 588; quoted on South American view of Monroe Doctrine, 509-510; on number of North Americans as compared with number of Germans in Brazil, 510 n.

Biobio River, 225, 227, 235.

Birds seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287-288.

Birth-rate, acceleration of, among immigrants to Argentina, 339, 566; decrease in the world's, may help to solve overpopulation problem, 554-555; unreliability of estimates based on, as shown by Australia, 563; higher among Indians than among whites, 566.

Blanco, Guzman, 519, 525.

Blanco, Rio, 254.

Boats of Indians on Lake Titicaca, 125, 141.

Bogota, 52.

_Boleta_, weapon of Gauchos, 328.

Bolivar, Simon, 167; fame of, exceeds merits, 507; Pan-American Union project of, 511 n.; form of government favoured by, 538, 540.

Bolivia, 42, 57; distinction between Peru and, purely arbitrary, 121-122; reasons for lack of natural boundaries, explained by history of, 166-167; named for Simon Bolivar, 167; an entirely inland state, 167; people, 167; area, population, and towns, 168; railways of, 168-169, 186-187, 191-192, 193-194; minerals of, 190, 192-193; necessity of railways to, for sake of cohesiveness of country, 193-194; the risk of a future partitioning of, 448; proportion of Indians in population of, 458; population in proportion to area, 527; not a country for immigrants to turn toward, 555.

_Bolson_, basin-shaped hollow, 95.

Borax, lakes of, 199; mining and preparing of, 199-200.

Botafogo Bay, Rio de Janeiro, 381.

Botanical Garden, Buenos Aires, 319; Montevideo, 353-354; Rio de Janeiro, 382.

Bougainville, colony planted at Falkland Isles by, 312.

Brazil, area and aboriginal Indians of, 367; mountains, valleys, and inland plain of, 368-369 (_see_ Selvas); exportation of coffee, 372; wonders of scenery of, 385 ff.; character of villages, 389-390; trees, flowers, and forests of, 390-394; how it fell to the Portuguese to colonize, 401-402; negroes in, 401, 404-405, 408; account of different regions of, 402 ff.; proportion of foreign population in, 407; political history of, 410-411; present political conditions, 411-413; chief economic and political issues in, 413; transitional state of society in, 414; status of coloured population, 414-415, 479-480; financial standing of the nation, 415; letters and oratory in, 416-417; possibilities of, in other hands than its present possessors, 420-421; characterized by true national qualities, 441; armament maintained by, 449; slavery in, 456; effect of intermixture of blood in, 480; titles of nobility in, 502 n.; slight influence of Italians on political and intellectual life in, 516-517; pre-eminent fitness of southern, for immigration, 556-557.

Brewery, at Cuzco, 102; at Valdivia, 229.

Brigandage, decrease in, 548.

British, at Valdivia, 229; population of Falkland Isles composed of, 310; capital invested by, in Argentine railways, 337; in Argentina, 340-341; capital of, in railways of Uruguay, 354-355; Santos-São Paulo railway line built and owned by, 372; Leopoldina railway owned by, 386; capital of, invested in South America generally, 517. _See also_ English.

Buccaneers, English, 12, 15-16.

Bueno, Rio, excursion on the, 242-243.

Buenos Aires, city of, 216 n., 262; dulness of water approach to, 315-316; general appearance, streets, houses, etc., 316-318; business rush and social gaiety of, 318; docks and harbour works at, 319-320; shanties in suburbs of, 320; outer rim of pretentious places, 320-321; make-up of population of city, 321-322; predominance of Spanish and Italian speech in, 322; proportion of population of whole country dwelling in, 322-323; terms used to designate population of, as opposed to that of rest of nation, 323; anarchists in, 343; the press of, 344; numbers of North Americans and of Germans in, 510 n.; University of, 575; expense of living in, 589.

Buenos Aires, viceroyalty of, 166, 327, 349.

Building, excellence of ancient Peruvians in, 154-155.

C

Cabildos, municipal councils, 535.

_Caboclos_, half-breeds called, 408.

Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 366-367.

Cachendo, town of, 56.

Calama, village of, 202.

Calcutta, comparison of Botanic Garden at, with that at Rio de Janeiro, 382.

California poppy about Valparaiso, 214.

Callao, 46.

Canal Zone, the, 4-35.

Canary Isles, mummies of primitive inhabitants of, 157 n.

Candelaria, celebration of feast of, Copacavana, 129-130.

Candido, João, mutineer leader, 396.

Cannibalism in ancient Peru and among Amazonian tribes, 157.

Canning, George, diplomacy of, 497, 508.

Cape Horn, 293.

Caracoles, 270.

Cara Indians, 159.

Carbajal, Francisco, 477.

Carib Indians, 456-457.

Casas, Bartolomé de las, 464.

Castro, dictator of Venezuela, 525.

Cathedral, Lima, 48-49; Arequipa, 65, 67; Cuzco, 97-98; La Paz, 175; Santiago, 217.

Catholicism, position of, in Argentina, 342-343; effect of, on attitude of whites toward Indians and negroes, 471-472; status of the Church in Spanish America generally, 582-584.

Cattle, transportation of, across the Andes, 252 n.; breeding of, about Buenos Aires, 321; on Pampas of Argentina, 327, 328; numbers of, in Argentina, 336 n.; in Uruguay, 354.

Caupolican, Araucanian chief, 184, 235; memorial to, at Temuco, 516.

Cedars of southern Chile, 245.

Census of Peruvian Indians taken by Viceroy Toledo, 457.

Central America, ruins in Peru contrasted with those in, 106, 113; to be grouped with South America rather than North, 490; impossibility of existence of a real democracy in, 539.

Cereals, the important production of Argentina, 336.

Ceremonial dances of aboriginal tribes, 130, 185, 467-468.

Cerro, hill and castle of, Montevideo, 353.

Chachani, Mt., 56-57, 60, 62, 81.

Chagres River, 6, 7, 8, 15, 20-21, 24.

Challa, Bay of, 134.

Charles V, Emperor, 12, 98, 284, 499, 500.

Charrua Indians, 159, 355.

_Chenopodium_, 120.

Chibcha Indians, Bogota, 13, 457.

Chicha, drink brewed from maize, 90, 123, 467, 468 n.

Chile, 52, 57; Peruvian nitrate provinces conquered by, 42; peculiarity of length and breadth of, 205; mountains and valleys of, 205-206; three regions of, 206-207; the nitrate fields, 207-209; revenue to, from export duties on nitrates, 209; large estates and landed aristocracy of, 220; predominance of politics in, 221; civil war in (1890), 222; party divisions and an election in, 222-223; description of southern portion, 223 ff.; coast towns and seaports of the south, 225-232; fusion of whites and Indians in, 232; immigration into southern, from Europe, 239-240; lake, river, and mountain region of, 241-247; contrasts between Argentina and, 264-265; influence of its geographical position on separate political status of, 429; a true nation in possessing a distinctive national quality and a strong national sentiment, 441; armament maintained by, 449; successful working of real republican government in, 543-544; room for increased population in, 557-558; university in Santiago, 575.

Chile River, 60, 82.

Chiloe, island of, 223, 239.

Chimborazo, Mt., 40.

Chimu city, ruins of, near Truxillo, 44, 153, 183.

China, slight immigration into South America from, 438; improbability of danger to South America from, 504.

Chincha Islands, guano deposits on, 46.

Chinchilla, habitat of the, 200.

Chingana, Labyrinth, on Titi Kala, 136-137.

_Cholos_, half-breeds at Oruro, 190, 195 n.

Choqquequirau, ruins at, 113.

Christianity, attitude of Indians toward, 465-466.

Christ of the Andes, statue of, 256, 269-270.

Chucuito, lake of, 136 n.

Chullpas, on Island of the Sun, 133.

Chuquisaca (Sucre), 166, 167, 168, 193-194.

Church, of Company of Jesus, Arequipa, 67; at Copacavana, 129-130; at Tiahuanaco, 148.

Church, the Roman Catholic, separation of, from politics in Argentina, 342-343; party antagonistic to, in Uruguay, 363-364; complete separation of state and, in Brazil, 412-413; slight influence of, on progress of South American countries toward national life, 436-437; present status in Spanish America, and causes, 582-584.

Churches, Cuzco, 98-99; La Paz, 174-175.

Cities, phenomenon of growth of, out of proportion to that of the countries to which they belong, 322.

Clémenceau, Georges, _South America of To-day_ by, quoted, 412, 417.

Climate, on coast of Peru, 38-39; at Lima, 51; effect of differences in, on development of the two Americas, 431, 492.

Coal, lignite, at Punta Arenas, 300; lack of, in Argentina, 336.

Coast Range, western South America, 81, 224, 225, 297; of Brazil, 381, 384.

Coca, liquor made from, 89-90.

Coca-leaf chewing, 182, 467.

Cochabamba, 168, 193.

Cochrane, Lord, 230, 280.

Cockburn Channel, 292, 298-299.

Coffee, exportation of, from Brazil, 372; description of a plantation, 387-388; region where grown, in Brazil, 403.

Cog-wheel railway on Transandine line, 252.

Coillelfu, town of, 244.

Collahuasi copper mine, 198.

Collao, country called the, 121, 183.

Collao Indians, 86.

Colombia, 17, 76; forests of coast, 39; question of true national qualities of, 441-442; population in proportion to area, 527; poetic output of, 578 n.

Colon, city of, 5, 11, 13, 23.

Colour line, absence of a, in South America, 470-474, 479, 482.

Columbus, Christopher, statue of, 5; voyage of Magellan as compared with voyages of, 282; belief of, that it was India he had reached, 484-485.

Commerce, effect of Panama Canal on European, 34.

Concepcion, 225-226.

Condorcanqui, José Gabriel (Tupac Amaru), 92, 116.

Congresses of American republics, 511 n.

Conquistadores, undeniable piety of, 584. _See_ Pizarro.

Conway, Sir Martin, climbing in the Bolivian Andes by, 142; on composition of mountains in Cordillera Real, 143; on varying effects of rarity of air, 173; attempted ascent of Mt. Sarpiento by, 299; book by, 588.

Copacavana, shrine of Virgin of the Light at, 126, 129.

Copan, ruins of, comparison of ruins at Cuzco with, 106.

Copper mines, Peru, 42; near Aguas Calientes, 87; Bolivia, 189, 190, 192; the Collahuasi mine, 198.

Copper smelting, Corral, 229.

Coquimbo, 39, 206, 211.

Corcovado, peak of, Rio de Janeiro, 380.

Cordillera range in Peru, 55-58, 77-79.

Cordillera Real, the, 127, 141-143.

Cordova, Argentina, 323, 326; University of, 323, 575.

Coronel, port of, 227.

Coropuna, Mt., 57, 83.

Corral, town of, 229-230, 280.

Cortes, 516.

Costa Rica, 13, 503.

Cotton, production of, in Argentina, 336; labour on Brazilian plantations of, 404-405.

Courtship, South American, 51.

_Criollos_, the, 513.

Criticism, susceptibility of South Americans to, 506.

Croker Peninsula, 292.

Crooked Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293, 297.

Crucero Alto, the, 83.

Cuahtémoc, last of the Aztec kings, 516; statue of, 516.

Cuba, influence of geographical position on its status as a political entity, 429.

Culebra Cut, Panama Canal, 8-9, 20, 21-22, 23, 24-25.

Cumbre, the, 267, 268, 280.

Cusipata, plaza of, Cuzco, 97.

Cuzco, 54; position as an ancient capital, 95; description of the present-day city, 95-97; cathedral of, 97-98; churches at, 98-99; merits and demerits as a place of residence, 100; University of, 100-101; Indian population of, 101-102; walls at, 103 ff.; walls of Sacsahuaman, 106 n., 107-112, 118; proof of extreme antiquity of, 109 n.; rumours of subterranean passages at, 110; the Rodadero, 111; the Seat of the Inca, 111-112; Sacsahuaman probably older than, 112-113; other ruins of walls about, 113; horrors of Spanish rule at, 115-117; memories and reflections aroused by, 117; railway lines to, 194; contrast between Santiago and, 217.

D

"Dago" and "Gringo," use of the words, 506.

Dances, primitive heathen, 130, 185, 467-468.

Darwin, Charles, _Voyage of the Beagle_ by, 294 n.

Darwin, Mt., 293.

Davis, John, discoverer of Falkland Isles, 311.

Dawson, T. C., _The South American Republics_ by, 587.

Death rate, Canal Zone, 29; a high, among Indians of South America, 236-237, 457-458, 566.

De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 4, 18.

Delimitation Award, 449.

Democracies, impossibility of existence of real, in Spanish American states, 539.

Denis, Pierre, work on Brazil by, 588.

Desaguadero River, 126, 143-144; Indians on lagoons of the, 183.

Deseado, Cabo (Cape Pilar), 285, 290, 291.

Deserts, 40-41, 75; in Bolivia, 167, 196; scenery on, 196-197; of Argentina, 266-267.

Desolation Island, 291, 293, 295.

Diaz, Bartholomew, 283.

Diaz, Porfirio, 532 n., 548; autocratic government of, the form best suited for Mexico, 542-543.

Dictatorships in young South American republics, 538-539.

Dominican missionaries, 464-465.

Drake, Sir Francis, 15, 17; attack of Araucanians on, 235; passage of Straits of Magellan by, 286.

Dramas of ancient Peruvians, 155-156.

Dress, of Indians of Peru, 89; of Indians at La Paz, 175-176; of Gauchos, 328.

Drought, the risk of, in Argentina, 333, 557 n.

Dry farming, 330.

Dumas, Alexandre, a saying of, quoted, 490.

Dungeness, Cape, Tierra del Fuego, 305.

Duties, protective, in Brazil, 413.

E

Earthquakes, freedom of Panama from, 24; prevalence of, at Lima, 48; at Arequipa, 64; at Valparaiso, 203; at Mendoza, 262; absence of, at Buenos Aires, 317.

Earth Spirit of Indian tribes, 185, 466.

Easter Island, figures on, compared with figures at Tiahuanaco, 150.

Eastern Cordillera, 188.

East Indian coolies in Guiana, 564 n.

Ecuador, 39, 40, 76, 342; question of true national qualities of, 442; not a country for immigrants, 555.

Eden, _Decades of the New World_ by, 303.

Education, comparatively small provision made for in South America, 575; the outlook for a wider, 579-580.

Edwards, A., _Panama_ by, 588.

Elliot, Scott, _History of Chile_ by, 587.

_Encomienda_, system of the, 455.

English, residing at La Paz, 179; at Valparaiso, 215-216; adverse criticism on, quoted, 216; at Buenos Aires, 321; in Argentina, 340-341; in state of São Paulo, 377; lack of sympathy of feeling between South Americans and, 506; influence of, restricted to commercial relations, 517-518. _See also_ British.

English names of headlands, bays, and channels of Straits of Magellan, 292-293.

English Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293, 298.

Ercilla, Alonzo de, _Araucana_ of, 236.

Espiritu Santo, Cape, 305.

Estates of great landowners, Chile, 220-221; in Argentina, 331-333.

Eucalyptus trees in South America, 92-93, 176-177, 335, 353.

Evangelists, islands called, 290.

Export duties on nitrates, 209.

F

Falkland Isles, visit to, 308-314; sheep industry predominant on, 310; possibilities for development of, 310-311; chequered history of, 311-312; present form of government, 312; impressions of nature obtained at, 313-314.

Farming country, Argentina, 329-330. _See_ Agriculture.

Ferro Carril Transandino, 251.

Fevers, Isthmus of Panama, 3; preventive measures, Canal Zone, 28-30; at Guayaquil, 40.

Fitzgerald, E. A., _High Andes_ by, 258 n.

Fitzroy, Cape, 292.

_Flor del Inca_, shrub called, 133.

Flowers, Isthmus of Panama, 7; in forests of southern Chile, 243, 244, 245, 246; of Brazil, 391-394.

Flying fish, 43.

Forests, of Colombia and Ecuador, 39; of the Amazon, 75-76; of Brazil, 390-394; of southern Chile, 241-247; of the Selvas, 558-560.

Formosa, Cape, 291.

Fortifications, Panama Canal, 19, 32-33.

Francia, José Gaspar Rodriguez, 465, 525, 584.

Franciscan monks, Copacavana, 129.

Frazer, J. G., _Golden Bough_ by, cited, 159 n.

Free trade, an issue in Brazil, 413.

French, attempts of, to construct Panama Canal, 18, 31-32; mining carried on by, at Pulucayo, 195; copper smelting at Corral by, 229; residing at Coillelfu, 244; on the Falkland Isles, 311-312; colony at Buenos Aires, 321; in Argentina, 340; in state of São Paulo, 377; influence of, in things intellectual and social, 518-520; spread of language and literature of, in South America, 576.

Froward, Cape, 293, 298, 305.

Fuegian Indians, 292, 294.

Fury Island, 293.

G

Gama, Vasco da, voyage of, as compared with that of Magellan, 282.

Garden, at Lota, 227-228; Botanical Garden at Buenos Aires, 319; at Montevideo, 353-354; at Rio de Janeiro, 382.

Garden Mountain, the, 201.

Garibaldi, story of fighting by, in Uruguay, 358.

Gatun Dam, 6, 21-22, 23-24.

Gaucho horsemen, Argentina, 321, 328; in Uruguay, 355-356; in Brazil, 406.

Gavea, Mt., 383.

Germans in South America, 102; at La Paz, 179; at Valparaiso, 215-216; at Valdivia, 229; immigration of, into Chile, 239, 438; at Osorno, 239; at Buenos Aires, 321; in Argentina, 340-341; in state of São Paulo, 377; large number of, in Rio Grande do Sul, 406; in Brazil, 438; in Uruguay, 438; a factor to be reckoned with commercially in Brazil and South America generally, 510 n.; influence of, restricted to commercial relations, 517-518.

Glaciers, Andean, 84, 85; of Cordillera Real, 141, 143; on Mt. Illimani, 176; on Mt. Aconcagua, 249, 258; on mountains along Straits of Magellan, 295, 296.

Goethals, Colonel, 26-27, 30.

Gold, in Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, 192; retardation of real development of Spanish America caused by, 493.

Gold Hill, 21, 25 n.

Gorgas, Colonel, 29.

Governments of Spanish American states, effect of physical conditions on, 527-528; of racial conditions, 528-531; of economic and social conditions, 532-534; of historical conditions during the colonial period, 534-536; of historical conditions at close of War of Independence, 536-539; have never been real democracies, 539-540; question of what form might have been preferable, 540-541; three classes of states under republican forms, 541-545; encouragement to be got from Chile and Argentina, 543-546; states still unfitted for popular self-government, 547-548; leniency called for in judging Spanish American, 549-551.

Graham Land, 284.

Gran Chaco, the, 327, 329, 338, 478; plagues of locusts emanating from, 334.

"Gringo," use of word, 506.

Guanacos, in Tierra del Fuego, 304; in Argentina, 326.

Guano, 42, 45-46; a source of evil to Peru, 209.

Guaqui, Bolivia, 125, 144, 169.

Guarani Indians in Paraguay, 441, 459.

Guayaquil, city of, 40, 589.

Guayaquil, Gulf of, 38-39, 40.

H

Hale, Albert, _The South Americans_ by, 510, 588.

Half-breeds, in Brazil, 407-408; social status of, in South America, 472-473; a negligible quantity in North America, 491-492. _See_ Mestizos _and_ Mulattoes.

Hanko Uma, peak of, 142.

Harvard Observatory, Arequipa, 61.

Hayti, government of, 542.

Himalaya Mountains, comparisons between Andes and, 276-277.

Hindus in British Guiana, 438.

Hirst, W. A., _Argentina_ by, 588.

Horse-racing, in Chile, 221-222; at Buenos Aires, 318, 345; in Brazil, 415.

Horses, importance of, in Uruguayan insurrections, 359; found on Pampas of Argentina, 327, 328; numbers of, in Argentina, 336 n.

Hotel accommodations, 589.

Houses, adobe, 41, 88, 123; cane and reed, Lima, 47-48; ancient Peruvian, 131-132.

_Huaca_, sacred object (fetish), 139.

Huanchaca, 195.

Huayna Capac, Inca sovereign, 111.

Huayna Potosi, Mt., 142, 187.

_Huillca_ of ancient Peruvians, 157.

Humboldt current, the, 38, 39, 43, 45, 489.

I

_Ilacata_, Indian official, 180.

Iles Malouines, French name for Falkland Isles, 311.

Illampu, Mt. (Sorata), 57, 134, 141-142.

Illimani, Mt., 134, 142, 176, 177, 186, 188.

Immigration, to southern Chile, 239-241; to Argentina, 338-339; of Germans and Italians to Brazil, 405-407; of Portuguese, Spaniards, and Syrians, 407; slight effect of, on national differentiation in South America, 437-438; from Spain, 514; of Italians to Argentina and Brazil, 516; mountainous parts of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia unsuited for, 555; the three sections of South America to be regarded as a field for, 555; pre-eminent fitness of Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil, 556-557; room for, to Chile, 557-558; the Amazonian Selvas considered with a view to, 560-562.

Incas, the, 41, 44, 45, 46, 60, 92, 94; civilization of the, 78-79; ancient highway of the, 86; traces of empire of, at Cuzco, 102-118; stories of the gold of the, 110; depth of the fall of the, 114-115; relics of, at Copacavana, 128-130; on Sacred Isles, Lake Titicaca, 132, 133, 135-139; Sacred Rock honoured as the ancient home of race of, 139; traces of people who antedated the, at Tiahuanaco, 149-150; type of civilization of, compared with that of Aztecs, 160; administration of government, roads, rest-houses, etc., of, 160-161; political astuteness of, 161-162; disastrous results of overthrow of, by Spanish, 162; destruction of people of, 162-163; question of completeness of development of semi-civilization of, when overthrown, 164-165; belonged to the Quichua race of Indians, 183; naming of unusual natural phenomena after the, 258-259.

Inca's Bridge, the, 258-259.

Indian runners, service of, under the Incas, 60, 161.

Indians, prehistoric, 3, 13; of San Blas, 13-14; on Isthmus of Panama, 13-14; at Arequipa, 66; enslavement of, by rubber producers, 76, 458; as shepherds, Peru, 81, 83; of towns in interior of Peru, 84; at Sicuani, 88-92; predominance of, at Cuzco, 101-102; of central plateau of Peru, 121-124; inferiority of Andean, compared with other tribes, 159-160; in Bolivia, 168; large proportion of, among population of La Paz, 179; present condition of aborigines in Andean regions, 180 ff.; tribal organization of, 180-181, 461-462; _Ilacatas_ and _Alcaldes_ of, 180-181; illiteracy of, 181-182, 468; indulgence in alcohol and more especially in coca leaf chewing, 181-182; two divisions of, the Quichuas and the Aymarás, 182-184; characteristics of, 184-185; religion of, 185; feelings toward white men, 185-186; fusion of, with white race in Chile, 232; the Araucanians, 232-238; to south of Araucanians, 238-239; on islands off south Chilean coast, 288, 478; along Straits of Magellan, 294; of the Pampas of Argentina, 326, 327, 338; among the police of Buenos Aires, 343; of Uruguay, 355; of Brazil, 367, 369; statistics of, in Brazil, 408 n.; influence of, on differentiating various parts of Spanish America from one another into separate nations, 432-433; have nothing to do with government of countries they inhabit, 439, 469-470, 529; constitute an economic factor of the first magnitude except in Argentina and Uruguay, 454; attitude of Spanish conquerors toward, 454-456; vast differences in qualities of aboriginal, 456-457; present numbers of, 457; proportion of, in population of Mexico and South America, 458-460; numbers of wild tribes, 460; civil and ecclesiastical oppression of, under the Spaniards and later, 460-465; religion of, 462-466; work of Dominicans and Jesuits among, 464-465; attitude toward Christianity, 465-466; indulgence of, in drinking and dancing, 467-468; safety of white people among, 468-469; relations between whites and, in Paraguay, 470-473; constitute separate nationalities from those of the combined white and mestizo, 474; retardation of industrial and intellectual progress by, 475-476, 580-581; effect of intermarriage with, on the Spanish stock, 476-477; Peruvian Indians free from bloodthirstiness, 477; of the Selvas, 559; estimated total number in whole continent, 564; rate of increase of, 566.

_Indios bravos_, wild Indians, 460, 470, 530 n.

Inquisition, hall of the, Lima, 50.

Insurrections, South American and other, 359-361, 362-363. _See also_ Revolutions.

Intensive cultivation, postponement of fear of overpopulation by, 554.

Intermarriage, of whites and Indians in Paraguay, 471; effect of, on quality of Spanish stock, 476-477, 530-531; between whites and negroes in Brazil, 480.

Invention, lack of, in ancient Peruvians, 155.

Inventors, esteem of Spanish Americans for scientists as, 581.

Iodine, a by-product of nitrate, 208.

Iquitos, town of, 559.

Irrigation, Lima, 47; at Mendoza, 263.

Isabella the Catholic, statue of, returned to Spain, 515.

Island of the Sun, Lake Titicaca, 132-140.

Isthmuses, interest attached to, geographically and commercially, 1-2.

Italians, at Mendoza, 263; increasing numbers of, in Argentina, 264-265, 438; in Buenos Aires, 321-322; as labourers in Argentina, 332-333; distribution of, in Argentina, 339; birth-rate among immigrants, 339; question of influence of, on future nation, 339-340; in Uruguay, 355; in São Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, 376-377, 406-407; slight effect of, on political and intellectual life in South America, 516-517.

Italiaya, Mt., 368.

J

Japanese, slight immigration of, to South America, 438; remoteness of danger from, 504.

Jesuit annalist quoted, 63-64.

Jesuits, churches of, in Peru, 67, 98-99; mission work of, among the Indians, 464-465.

Jockey Club, Buenos Aires, 318.

John VI of Portugal, 410.

Johnson, Sir H. H., on coloured race in Brazil, 408 n.

Juarez, Benito, 184, 521, 585.

Jujuy, town of, 330, 478.

Juliaca, village of, 84.

Juncal, town of, 254, 270.

Juncal Valley, the, 271.

Jungle, Isthmus of Panama, 6-7; of Amazonian plain, 75, 76, 393-394.

K

Kaka Aka, Mt., 142.

Koati (Koyata), Island of the Moon, Lake Titicaca, 131-132.

Koebel, W. H., _Uruguay_ by, 588.

L

Labourers, Panama Canal, 26 n., 27-30; negro, on Brazilian cotton and sugar plantations, 404-405; in coffee, cattle, and cereal regions of Brazil, 405-407; importance of Indian population as, 454.

Ladrone Islands, Magellan reaches the, 285.

Lakes in southern Chile, 246-247.

Landowners, class of great, in Chile, 220-221; in Argentina, 331-333; absence of a middle class of small, in South America, 532-533.

La Paz, 121, 141, 144; population, 168; the approach to, 168-169; site called Our Lady of Peace, 170; choice of singular site of, 170-171; altitude of, 171; effects on strangers of altitude, 172-174; streets, churches, houses, and people, 174-176; fascination of strange scenes and scenery at, 176-178; museum at, 178; legislative session at, 178-179; contrast between Santiago and, 217.

La Plata, University of, 575.

La Raya, pass of, 85.

Larden, Walter, work by, 588.

Las Cuevas, 257, 267, 269.

La Serena, town of, 211.

Las Heras, Colonel, 280.

Latin America and Teutonic America, 490. _See_ Americas.

Lautaro, Araucanian chief, 184, 235.

Lemaire, Neveu, work by, cited, 191.

Leopoldina Railway, 386-390.

Lignite coal near Punta Arenas, 300.

Lima, ancient importance of, 46-47; situation, 47; streets and houses, 47-48; square and cathedral, 48-50; notable buildings, 49-50; University of, 50; climate, 50-51; gaiety and social enjoyment at, 51-52; Spanish air retained by, 52-53; lack of evidences of the past and lack of progress at, 53; contrast between Santiago and, 217; society in, for the protection of the Indians, 470 n.

Limon, Bay of, 6, 20.

Linseed, production of, in Argentina, 336.

Literature, of ancient Peruvians, 155-156; place of, in Argentina, 344; influence of the French on South American, 518-519; comparative smallness of output, 576; outlook for, 578-580.

Llai Llai, station of, 251.

Llamas, Peru, 65, 77, 81, 86, 92, 94; droppings of, used as fuel, 121; at La Paz, 169, 176, 177.

Loa River, 202.

Locks, Panama Canal, 22, 23, 24, 31 n.

Locusts, plagues of, 333-334, 557.

Long Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293, 295.

Lopez, Francisco Solano, 465 n., 525, 545, 584.

Los Patos Pass, 268.

Lota, town of, 227, 286; garden at, 227-228.

Lowell, James Russell, quoted, 283.

Lumbering on the Amazonian plain, 559-560.

_Lusiad_, Camoens', 416.

Lynch, Patricio, 230.

Lynching practically unknown in South America, 480.

M

Macchu Pichu, ruins at, 113.

_Machete_, cutlass-like knife, 7, 385.

Madre de Dios River, 194.

Magellan, Ferdinand, remarkable voyage of, 282, 291-292, 305, 486; discovery and exploration of Straits of Magellan by, 284-286, 297-298, 299; great geographical importance of voyage of, 307.

Magellan, Straits of, discovery, 282-286; Francis Drake's passage of, 286; account of trip from Lota, Chile, to, 286-290; entrance to, from the west, 290-291; English names of headlands, bays, and channels of, 292-293; mountains along the, 293, 295-297; First and Second Narrows, 304-305; general physical character of, 305-307.

Maine, Sir Henry, work on Popular Government by, 524-525.

Maize, on central plateau of Peru, 120; in Argentina, 336; in Uruguay, 351.

Maize Mother in Peruvian mythology, 157.

Malarial fever, Guayaquil, 40.

Malthusian theory, question of correctness of, 554.

Mamelucos, half-breeds called, 407.

Manaos, town of, 559.

Manco Capac, Inca sovereign, 108, 137, 138.

Manufacturing, small amount of, in Argentina, 336.

Mapoche Indians, 233, 236, 238. _See_ Araucanian Indians.

Maranon River, 86.

Markham, Sir C., works on South America by, 147 n., 587.

Marriage between races, 471, 480. _See_ Intermarriage.

Marriage fees imposed on Indians, 461.

Maule River, 225.

Maya Indians, 13.

Meat-packing, Argentina, 336; Uruguay, 354.

_Médanos_, sand hills, 58-59.

Medina, José Torribio, historian and bibliographer, 221.

Megillones, 202, 210-211.

Mendoza, Spanish governor, 249.

Mendoza, town of, 249, 250, 253, 256, 261, 280; location and growing importance of, 261-262; description of, 261-263; beauty of scenery at, 265-266.

Mendoza River, 262.

Merced, church of, Cuzco, 98-99.

Mercedario, Mt., altitude of, 260 n.

Mestizos, half-breeds of Spanish and Indians, 90-91; position of, regarding Indians, 186; proportion of, in population of Mexico, Peru, and South America generally, 458-460; social status of, 472-473; forceful leaders found among, 477; estimated total number of, in the continent, 564; numerical predominance of (excepting in Argentina and Uruguay), 565; rate of increase of, 566; predominance of the white element in, 566-567.

Mexican War, suspicions of South America against United States aroused by, 447, 497, 508.

Mexico, ruins in Peru contrasted with those in, 106, 113; the qualities of a true nation possessed by, 441; proportion of Indians in population of, 458; secret idol worship in, 466; characteristics of Indians of, 474; to be grouped with South America rather than North, 490; impossibility of existence of a real democracy in, 539; suitability of Diaz' autocratic form of government for, 542-543.

Military school, University of La Plata, 575.

Minas Geraes, state of, Brazil, 370.

_Minas Geraes_, battleship, 396-399.

Mineral springs, Aguas Calientes, 87.

Mines, silver and copper, Peru, 42.

Mining, at Oruro, Bolivia, 189; condition of, in Argentina, 336; evils to early Spanish America resulting from, 493-494.

Miraflores, Isthmus of Panama, 22, 27.

Misti, volcano, Peru, 56-57, 60, 61, 63, 81, 82, 392.

_Mita_, personal service rendered landlords by Indians, 462.

Mitla, comparison of ruins of, with ruins at Cuzco, 106.

Mitre, _Historia de San Martin_ by, 281.

Mochica Indians, 457.

Mochica language, 44, 183.

Mollendo, town of, 54-55, 187, 215.

Monolithic gateway at Tiahuanaco, 146-147.

Monroe Doctrine, 508-510.

Montaña, district called the, 75.

Montevideo, 314; description of, 351-354; population, 352; University of, 575; expense of living in, 589.

Moon, Island of, Lake Titicaca, 131-132.

Moon, worship of, by Peruvians, 157.

Morgan, English buccaneer, 12, 15-16, 17.

Moses, Bernard, works by, quoted and cited, 463-464, 587.

Mosquitoes, preventive measures against, in Canal Zone, 28-29.

Mountain climbers, Andes considered from viewpoint of, 272.

Mountains, Isthmus of Panama, 7-8; Andes, 38, 39, 42, 47; Western Cordillera of Andes, 55-58, 60, 61, 63, 77-87, 198, 203; Coast Range, 81, 224, 225, 297; Cordillera Real, 127, 141-143; attitude of aborigines toward, in the way of names, 142-143; Eastern Cordillera, 188; along Straits of Magellan, 293, 295-297; Brazilian Coast Range, 368; about Rio de Janeiro, 379-381, 384-386. _See also_ Andes.

Mountain sickness, 83, 172.

Mulattoes, estimated total number of, in the continent, 564; predominance of the white element in, 566-567.

Mummies, Peruvian, 107, 157.

Museum, at La Paz, 178.

Museums, inferiority of South American, 376.

Mussulmans, negroes of Brazil as, 409 n.

Mutiny on battleships at Rio de Janeiro, 395-400.

Mythology of primitive Peruvians, 156-159.

N

Napoleon III, theories of, concerning the "Latin" peoples, 512 n.

Nassau Bay, 293.

Nations, the division of Spanish America into, 422-424; question of what constitutes, 424-426; lines of old administrative divisions a primary factor in determining territorial limits in Spanish America, 427-428; influence of geographical position in differentiating, 429-430; influence of physical environment, 430-431; effect of presence of aboriginal tribes, 432-434; effect of War of Independence and later civil wars, 434-436; effect of conditions of industrial and commercial life, 437; position of different Spanish-American countries as true nations, 438 ff.; judged by the test of possessing a distinctive national character and a strong national sentiment, 439-443; test of creative activities in art, science, and letters applied to South American republics, 443; question concerning the sense of a common Hispano-American nationality, 444 ff.

Naval harbour of Talcahuano, Chile, 226-227.

Navies of South American countries, 449.

Negroes, West Indian, as labourers on Panama Canal, 26 n.; living in Peru, 66; in Uruguay, 355; in state of São Paulo, 376; in Bahia, Pernambuco, and other cities, 401; in Brazil, 401, 404-405, 408, 456; status of, as compared with coloured race in United States, 414-415, 472-475, 479-480; influence of, felt as a race factor, 433-434; numbers of, in all South America, 459 n., 564.

New Granada, Republic of, 17.

New South Wales, decrease in birth-rate of, 563 n.

Newspapers, Argentine, 344.

Nictheroy, town of, 378, 390.

Nitrates, deposits of, 42, 202, 206; account of work in fields, 207-208; export duties on, 209; question of benefits of this natural wealth, 209-210.

Nombre de Dios, 5, 14, 15.

North Americans at La Paz, 179. _See under_ Americas.

Norway, scenery of Straits of Magellan compared with that of, 296.

Novo Friburgo, town of, 389.

Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, convent of, Arequipa, 69.

O

Oca, grown on central plateau of Peru, 120.

Ocean currents, 489.

O'Higgins, Bernardo, 230.

Oil wells, Piura, 41.

Ollague, Mt., 198, 199.

Ollantay, drama of, 156.

Ollantaytambo, ruins at, 113.

Ornate, volcano of, 63, 64 n.

Ona tribe of Patagonian Indians, 303-304, 478.

Orchids, Isthmus of Panama, 7; in Brazilian forests, 393.

Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgãos), 381, 384-385.

Oribe, General, 357.

Oriental quality in Spanish-American cities, 65-66.

Oruro, town of, 168, 183, 189-190.

Osorno, town of, 224, 239.

Our Lady of Peace, original name given to La Paz, 170.

Overpopulation, the danger of, 552-554; partial solution of problem of, by intensive cultivation, developments of chemical science, and decline in birth-rate, 554-555; South America viewed as a means of postponing menace of, 555 ff.

P

Pachacamac, Earth God of Peruvians, 156.

Pachacamac, Peru, excavations at, 153-154.

Pacific Steam Navigation Company, 54.

Paganism, among Andean tribes, 158, 467.

Palace of the Inca Roca, Cuzco, 104-105.

Palace of the Viceroys, Lima, 49.

Palace of the Virgins of the Sun, Koati, 132.

Palacios, Dr., _Raza Chilena_ by, cited, 531.

Palenque, comparison of ruins of, with ruins at Cuzco, 106.

Palermo, park at Buenos Aires, 318-319.

Pampaconas River, ruins on the, 113 n.

Pampa of Peru, 58-59; of Argentina, 262, 266.

Pampas of Argentina, 324-325; horses and cattle on the, 327; Gauchos on the, 328; agricultural possibilities of, 333-334; monotony of scenery, 334-335.

Panama, city of, 9, 11, 12, 15-16, 19.

Panama, Isthmus of, 1-36.

Panama, Republic of, 14, 18-19, 503.

Panama Canal, 4-5; French attempts to construct, 18; enterprise taken over by United States, 18-19; length, breadth, and width, 20; description of the four sections, 20-23; the Culebra Cut, 20-22, 23, 24-26; the Gatun dam, 23-24; labourers and conditions of labour, 26 ff.; mortality rate, 29; importance of sanitation of Canal Zone, 30; cost of canal, 32; fortifying of, 32-33; effect of, on international trade, 33-35; the last of large changes in earth's surface, 35-36.

Panama Railway, 5-9, 12, 17-18.

Pan Americanism, 488.

Pan American Union, 511 n.; publications issued by, 588.

Pan de Azucar, Rio de Janeiro, 380.

Pando, General, 179.

Paraguay, question of true national qualities of, 441; despotisms of Francia and Lopez in, 465; social relations of white and Indian races in, 470-472.

Paraguay River, 326.

Parahyba River, 386, 387; scenery along the, 388-389.

_Paramo_, bleak regions between valleys in Peru, 79 n.

Paraná, state of, 403.

Paraná River, 167, 316, 326, 429.

Paris, the Mecca of South American pleasure-seekers, 519.

Patagonia, 284; aborigines of, 303-304, 327.

Paterson, William, 16.

Patriotism of Argentines, 346.

Payne, E. J., chapters on Peru by, 587.

Payta, Peru, 40-42, 54.

Pearl Islands, 10, 37.

Pedrarias, Spanish viceroy, 11, 14.

Pedro I of Brazil, 410; statue of, 376.

Pedro II of Brazil, 384, 410.

Pedro Miguel, Isthmus of Panama, 22.

Pelucon, the word, 232 n.

"Penitentes" in the Andes, 259-260.

Peons in Argentina, 332.

Peru, coast of, 37 ff.; coast towns, 44; ruins, 44-45, 152 ff.; mountains of Western Cordillera, 55-58; great inner plateau of, 58-60; central Peru, 77 ff.; height of central plateau, 77; area and population, 78; plateau surrounding Lake Titicaca, 119-124; distinction between Bolivia and, purely arbitrary, 121-122; antiquity of the semi-civilization of, 149-151; disadvantages of isolated position of, as to civilization, 151; reasons for importance of prehistoric remains in, 152-153; discussion of religion, mythology, and semi-civilization of primitive inhabitants of, 152-165; true national qualities possessed by, 441; proportion of Indians in population of, 458; not a country for immigrants to turn toward, 555.

Peruvian Corporation, the, 80.

Petrels seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287.

Petropolis, 384, 385.

Philip II of Spain, 4, 36.

Pichu Pichu, Mt., 56, 60, 62.

Pigafetta, Magellan's chronicler, 284, 285; quoted, 285-286, 303.

Pilar, Cape (Magellan's Cabo Deseado), 290, 291.

Pinzon, Martin Alonso, 96, 367, 494.

Pisac, ruins at, 113.

Piura, town of, 41.

Piura, valley of, ancient population, 44.

Pizarro, Francisco, 11-12, 37, 39, 44, 46, 47, 60, 96, 97, 102, 103 n ., 192, 307, 494; assassination of, 49; massacre of Atahuallpa's followers by, 98.

Pizarro, Gonzalo, 96, 170, 494.

Plata, Rio de la, 167, 284, 316, 486; advantages to Montevideo from the, 351-352.

Plaza, La Paz, 175.

Plaza de Armas, Lima, 48-49.

Plazas, Cuzco, 96-97.

Politics, interest in, in Chile, 221; in Argentina, 344; in Uruguay, 358-359.

Polo-playing, Valparaiso, 214-215.

Poncho, dress of Gauchos, 328.

Poopo, Lake, 124, 126, 190-191, 488.

Population, growth of, of cities, 322-323; questions raised by the growth of, 552 ff.; forecasts of growth of, in South America, 562-565; estimates of total number of whites, Indians, negroes, mestizos, and mulattoes, 564-565; of the future will be white rather than negro or Indian, 567-569. _See_ Races.

Porteños and Campos, Argentina, 323.

Porter, R. P., _Ten Republics_ by, 588.

Port Louis, Falkland Isles, 312.

Port St. Julian, 303.

Port Stanley, Falkland Isles, 308-309, 313.

Portuguese, in Uruguay, 349, 350; explanation of possession of Brazil by, 366-367.

Potatoes, raised on central plateau of Peru, 120, 122.

Potosi, 168; silver mining at, 192.

Pottery, Peruvian, 106.

Prehistoric monuments at Tiahuanaco, 144-148. _See_ Ruins.

Protection, economic issue of, in Brazil, 413.

Protector of the Indians, office of, 237.

Puente del Inca, 258-259.

Puerto Bello, 5.

Puerto Montt, 206.

Pulucayo, mine at, 195.

_Puna_, mountain sickness, 172.

Puno, port on Lake Titicaca, 84, 125.

_Puno_, the, 77, 84.

Punta Arenas (Sandy Point), 284, 300; the commercial centre of southern South America, 300-301.

Q

_Quebradas_, narrow glens, of the Andes, 224.

Quichua Indians, 90, 101-102, 110, 121; one of the two divisions of Indians found by Spanish, 183-184; present condition of, 460-462; isolated social position of, 474-475.

Quinoa, grown on central plateau of Peru, 120.

_Quipus_, knotted strings of various colours used by primitive Peruvians, 160.

R

Races, mixture and numbers, in Brazil, 407-410, 414-415; discussion of relations between, in South America generally, 452-483; difference in relations between, in South America and United States, 470-475; conclusions on relations of the, 480-483; favourable or unfavourable results of commingling of, 530-531; total population of the continent according to, 564-565; questions as to their respective increase, as to continuation of their intermingling, as to which type predominates in persons of mixed race, and as to ultimate outcome of the mixture, 566-567.

Rafts of _Totora_, Lake Titicaca, 125, 141.

Railways: Panama Ry, 5-9, 12, 17-18; in Peru, 41, 54, 55-56, 59; Southern Railroad of Peru, 80-86, 125; Bolivian, 168-169, 186-187, 191-192, 193-194; Chilean, 223-224, 244, 588; Transandine line, 249-261; Argentine, 264, 329, 337, 588; British capital invested in, 337, 372-373, 517; Uruguayan, 354, 588; line from Santos to São Paulo, 372-373; São Paulo-Rio Janeiro line, 377-378; Leopoldina Railway, 386-390; facilities for travel by means of, 588.

Rainfall, Isthmus of Panama, 3; absence of, on coast of Peru, 45; in Chile, 224; at Punta Arenas, 301; on the Pampas of Argentina, 325; smallness of, in Argentina, 333.

Reds and Whites, parties called, in Uruguay, 357-359.

Religion: of primitive Peruvians, 156-159 (_see under_ Indians); open attacks on, in Uruguay, 363-364; of Indian population, 462-466; a matter for women and peasants only, 582-584.

Religious toleration in Argentina, 342-343.

Republics, division of Spanish America into, 422 ff.; lack of success of South American countries as, 524-526; impossibility of real democracies existing in Spanish-American states, 539.

Revolutions, Lima, 51-52, 53; in Brazil, 410-411; frequency of, in early South American republics, 524-525; breaking the habit of, by a growing sense of order, 546.

Rimac River, 47.

Rinihue, Lake, 244, 246-247.

Rio Blanco, station of, 270.

Rio Branco, Baron do, 416.

Rio de Janeiro, 216 n.; description of, 378 ff.; harbour, 378-379; mountain landscapes about, 379-381, 382-383; settlement, and growth in population, 383-384; comparisons of, with ancient and modern European cities, 394-395; account of mutiny on battleships at, 395-400.

Rio Grande do Sul, state of, 370, 403, 405.

Rivera, General, 357.

Roads, of the Incas, 161; scarcity of modern, for driving, 588.

Rock of the Sun and the Wild Cat, shrine of, island of Titicaca, 126.

Rodadero, the, at Cuzco, 111.

Romero, Dr., _Los Lagos de los Altiplanos_ by, 191 n.

Root, Elihu, common Court of Justice for Spanish-American countries set up through efforts of, 448; speech by, 506 n.

Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 327, 329, 477, 544-545, 584.

Rosas Pata, ruins at, 113.

Ross, Sir James, Antarctic Expedition of, 310.

_Rotos_, Chilean peasants, 208, 232 n., 253, 502.

Rubber, production of, on Amazonian plain, 75-76, 403, 559; cruelties perpetrated upon Indians by gatherers of, 75, 458, 559.

Ruhl, Arthur, _The Other Americans_ by, 588.

Ruins, of cities on coast of Peru, 44; of Chimu, 44; of walls at Cuzco, 103, 105-106; of Sacsahuaman, 106 n., 107-112, 118; of Ollantaytambo, Pisac, Macchu Pichu, and Rosas Plata, 113; on Island of the Moon, Lake Titicaca, 131-132; Island of the Sun, 132-133; at Tiahuanaco, 144-151; summing up and conclusions on subject of, 151-165.

Runaway nun, romance of the, 69-74.

_Rurales_ organized by Diaz, 542.

S

Sacred Isles, Lake Titicaca, 130-134.

Sacred lake, a, 85-86.

Sacred tree of Araucanian Indians, 238.

Sacsahuaman, fortress hill of, Cuzco, 97; walls of, 106 n., 107-112, 118.

Sahama, Mt., 188.

St. Dominick, church and convent of, Cuzco, 105.

St. George, Cape, 289.

St. Paul, Indian village of, Lake Titicaca, 141.

St. Paul, volcano of, 201-202, 203.

St. Peter, village of, 141.

St. Peter, volcano of, 201-202, 203.

St. Philip, fort of, Callao, 46.

St. Thomas, legends of presence of, in South America and Mexico, 138.

Salt marsh on plateau of southern Bolivia, 196-198.

Salvador, Republic of, 503.

San Bias, church of, Cuzco, 99.

San Bias, Colombia, Indians of, 13-14.

San Cristobal, hill of, Valparaiso, 220.

Sanctuary of the Rock, Lake Titicaca, 135.

Sand hills, plateau of Peru, 58-59.

San Francisco, church of, La Paz, 174-175.

San Francisco, plaza of, Cuzco, 97.

San Isidro, 299.

San Martin, General José de, 49, 281; statue of, 262; leads army across the Andes, 268; account of passage of the Andes, 280-281; tribute to character and achievements of, 281, 522; form of republican government favoured by, 538, 540.

Santa Catharina, state of, 370, 403.

Santa Cruz (de la Sierra), 168, 193.

Santa Lucia, hill of, Santiago, 218-220.

Santa Rosa, village of, Peru, 85.

Santa Rosa de los Andes, 251, 252, 280; hotel at, 589.

Santiago, capital of Chile, 216 ff.; striking position of, 216-217; description of, 217-218; hill of Santa Lucia at, 218-220; predominating influence of, in the nation, 220, 221; social life of, 220-221; horse-racing at, 221-222; an election in, 223; rainfall and height of Coast Range at, 224; San Martin's march upon, 280; university in, 575.

Santissima Virgen de la Candelaria, image of, 129-130.

Santo Domingo, position as a separate political entity determined by its geographical situation, 429.

Santos, town of, 371-372; coffee exported from, 372.

São Paulo, city of, 216 n., 372; description of, 374-377.

São Paulo, state of, 370, 403, 405.

_São Paulo_, battleship, 396-399.

Sarmiento, Mt., 299, 300.

Schools, inadequate provision for, in Uruguay and South America generally, 365; elementary, in state of São Paulo, 376.

Science and learning, forecast concerning, in South America, 577-581.

Scots, settlement of, Isthmus of Panama, 16; ubiquity of Aberdonians, 190; on Falkland Isles, 310.

Sculptures, prehistoric, at Tiahuanaco, 145-148, 154.

Sea-birds, coast of Peru, 43; seen on voyage to Straits of Magellan, 287-288.

Seals on coast of Falkland Isles, 311.

Sea Reach, Straits of Magellan, 293.

Seat of the Inca, Cuzco, 111-112.

Seebey, F., cited, 344 n.

Selvas (woodlands), 168, 369; as a field for development by immigration, 555, 558, 560-562; area and surface features, 558; vegetation on, 558-559; Indians of the, 559; production of rubber on, 559; timber trees on, 559-560.

Serra do Mar (Sea Range), 372; trees of the, 390-394.

Serra dos Orgãos, 381, 384-385.

Setebos, discussion of the word, 303.

Shakespeare, material found by, in account of Magellan's voyage, 303.

Sheep, farming of, in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, 300-301; on Falkland Isles, 310; numbers of, in Argentina, 336 n.

Shrines, about Lake Titicaca, 126, 129-130.

Sicuani, town of, 88-92.

Silver, mines of, in Peru, 42; mining of, in Bolivia, 189, 190, 192; existence of, a misfortune to Spanish America, 493.

Slavery, in Brazil, 404-405, 456.

Smyth's Channel, 288, 291, 292.

Snowy Range, 143.

Soldier's Leap, the, 254.

Songs of Peruvians, 155.

Sorata, Mt. _See_ Illampu.

Sorata, village of, 141, 142; Spanish city at, destroyed by Peruvian Indians, 467.

_Soroche_, mountain sickness, 83, 172.

Southern Railroad of Peru, 80, 125.

Spain, restrictions placed on South American trade by, 326, 513; relations of Spanish Americans with, 513-516; literature not supplied to her colonies by, 576.

Spaniards, in Panama, 14-17, 35; atrocities practised by, at Cuzco, 92, 115-117; fewness of, at La Paz, 179; in Buenos Aires, 321-322; in Argentina, 338; immigration of, to Uruguay, 355; treatment of aboriginal population by, 454-456; decrease of Indians under régime of, 457.

Spencer, Herbert, popularity of, among philosophically inclined South Americans, 581 n.

Spirit worship among Indians, 63, 157, 185, 466, 529.

Squier, _Travels in Peru_ by, cited, 467, 587.

Stars, worship of, by Peruvians, 157.

Staten Island, Argentina, 293.

State socialistic propaganda in Uruguay, 363-364.

Statues, absence of, of the Conquistadores, 515-516.

Steamboats, Lake Titicaca, 125; on Rio Bueno, 242.

Steamship lines, west coast of South America, 42, 54; running south from Chile, 288-289; Pacific Steam Navigation Company's line through Straits of Magellan, 308 n.; between Buenos Aires and Italian ports, 516; activity of Germans in running, to South America, 517.

Stock exchange, Valparaiso, 215.

Straits, interest attached to, geographically and commercially, 1-2.

Subterranean passages, reports of famous, 110-111.

Sucre (Chuquisaca), 193-194.

Suez Canal, comparisons and contrasts between Panama Canal and, 2-4, 23; competition between Panama route and, 34.

Sugar, production of, in Argentina, 336; region where produced, in Brazil, 403; labour on plantations of, 404-405.

Sugar Loaf, the, Rio de Janeiro, 380.

Sun, Island of the, Lake Titicaca, 132-140.

Sun, worship of, by aborigines, 113, 157.

Superstitions of primitive Peruvians, 158-159.

Swamps, Isthmus of Panama, 6, 9.

Switzerland, solidarity of government of, despite its three races, 424-425, 531 n.

Syrian immigrants to Brazil, 407.

T

Talcahuano, 210, 225, 226-227.

_Taquia_, use of, as fuel, Peru, 121.

Tarapaca, province of, 42.

Tehuelche Indians, 303.

Temple of the Sun, Cuzco, 105, 113, 114.

Temuco, 231, 235.

Teutonic America _vs._ Latin America, 490.

Tiahuanaco (Tihuamacu), ruins at, 144-151, 154; builders at, antedated the Incas, 149-150.

Tibet, comparisons between Peruvian plateau and, 119, 122.

Tierra del Fuego, 300-304.

Tijuca, Mt., 382.

_Times_, London, South American Supplements, 588.

Tin mining, Bolivia, 189, 190, 192.

Tiquina, Straits of, 141.

Tirapata, town of, 84, 194.

Titicaca, Lake, 54, 82, 84, 86, 488; altitude of, 119; area and shape, 120; coasts, depth, waters, fauna and flora, 124-125; purity of water, 126; native craft on, 125; steamboats on, 125; shrines about, 126; colour of, 126-127; Sacred Islands in, 130-140; evidence of waters of, receding, 144.

Titicaca Island, illiteracy of Indians on, 181.

Titi Kala, Sacred Rock, at Lake Titicaca, 135-140.

Titles of nobility in Latin America, 502 n.

Tocantins River, 558.

Toledo, Francisco de, 115; census of Peruvian Indians taken by, 457.

Tolls, Panama Canal, 33, 34.

Tolorsa, Mt., 268-269.

_Totora_, water plant on Lake Titicaca, 125; native craft made of, 125, 141.

Trade, effect of Panama Canal on international, 33-35.

Trade restrictions imposed by Spain, 326, 513.

Transandine railway line, 249-261; effect of, on traffic _via_ Straits of Magellan, 301.

Travel, facilities for, in South America, 588-589. _See_ Railways, Steamship lines, _etc._

Trees, Isthmus of Panama, 5-6; of the Montaña, 75, 76; on central plateau of Peru, 120; of southern Chile, 244-246; Brazilian, 390-394; of the Selvas, 558-560.

Tres Montes, headland of, 289.

Trevelyan, G. M., work by, cited, 358 n.

Trolley ride down the Andes, 270-271.

Trumajo, town of, 242.

Truxillo, town of, 44; ruins of Chimu city near, 153-154.

Tuberculosis, among Araucanian Indians, 237; among the Onas, 478.

Tucuman, town of, 326, 330, 478.

Tumbez, town of, 39.

Tunnel through the Andes, 251, 256.

Tupac Amaru, last of the Inca line, 92, 115, 466-467, 514.

Tupac Amaru, a second, 92, 116.

Tupiza, 191.

Tupungato, Mt., 254, 268, 392; altitude and description, 260.

Tussock grass, Falkland Isles, 310.

U

Ubinas, volcano of, 64 n., 82.

Ucayali River, 86.

Ulloa, Antonio, 463 n.

Ulloa, Juan, quoted on Indians of Peru and Ecuador, 463.

Underground passages, legends of, 110-111.

United States, people from, in Buenos Aires, 321; suspicious watch kept on actions of, by South American countries, 447, 497; influence of, used to avert hostilities between South American states, 449-450; difference in relations between races in South America and, 470-475; causes of differences between South American republics and, traced from early settlement, 488 ff.; little change in relations resulting from achievement of independence by both South America and, 496-497; complete divergence of fortunes of, and causes, 497-500; sole point of resemblance to-day their location in New World, 501; states-system of, has been the same as South American republics', 502-503; departure of, from original policy in conquering the Philippines and annexing Pacific islands, 502; sympathy of, extended to Spanish colonies in revolt against Spain, 507, 524; Constitution of, taken as a model by new republics in Spanish America, 508, 538; present South American view of Monroe Doctrine of, 508-510; general attitude of South Americans toward, 510-512.

Universities in Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile, 50, 100-101, 323, 575.

Urcos, lake of, 111.

Urubamba River, 86.

Uruguay, 52; history of, leading up to independence, 349-350; area and character of country, 350-351; economic outlook for, 354; people of, 355 ff.; revolutions in, 356-360; Red and White factions, 357; growth in wealth and population, despite revolutions, 362-363; schemes tending toward state socialism in, 363-364; an attractive country, whose political conditions need remedying, 364-365; true national qualities possessed by, 441; lacking in Indian population, 459; fitness of, for immigration, 556-557; University of Montevideo in, 575.

Uruguay River, 316, 354.

Urus, Indian tribe, 121, 183.

Uspallata, plain of, 260-261, 267.

Uspallata Pass, 250, 280.

Uyuni, 168, 183, 191, 194-197.

V

Valdez, Dr., 156.

Valdivia, Pedro de, 218-219, 229; statue of, 220, 516; invasion of Araucanians' country by, 234.

Valdivia, town of, 224, 228-230.

Valley of Desolation, the, 261, 267.

Valparaiso, 39; harbour of, 212; description of, 212-214; flourishing commerce of, 215-216; comparison of Germans and English at, 215-216.

Valverde, Vicente de, 97-98.

Van Dyck, paintings attributed to, 67, 97.

Van Dyke, _The Desert_ by, 196 n.

Vega, Garcilaso de la, 117.

Vegetation, in southern Chile, 241-247; on the Selvas, 558-560.

Venezuela, question of true national qualities of, 442.

Vespuccius, Americus, 367 n.; the naming of the two Americas for, 484-487.

Viacha, railroad junction, 169, 170, 186, 187.

Viceroys, despotic power of Spanish, in South America, 535.

Victoria, Australia, decrease in birth-ate of, 563 n.

Victoria, Mt., 298.

Vicuñas, 82; rugs from wool of, at La Paz, 178.

Vilcamayu River, 86, 92, 94, 180; ruins along valley of the, 113.

Vilcañota, Sierra of, 85, 93, 121.

Vina del Mar, suburb of Valparaiso, 214-215.

Vinamarca, Lake, 141, 143.

Vines, Mr., ascent of Aconcagua by, 258; of Tupungato, 260 n.

Vineyards, at Mendoza, 263; in Uruguay, 351.

Viracocha, Inca sovereign, 91 n., 95.

_Viracocha_, Indian name for white man of superior station, 91.

Virgenes, Cape, 284, 305, 308.

Virgin of the Light, shrine of, Copacavana, 126.

Virgins of the Sun, Palace of the, Koati, 132.

Volcanoes: El Misti, 56-57, 60, 61, 63, 81, 82, 392; Omate, 63, 64 n.; Ubinas, 64 n., 82; below Sicuani, 93; of Western Cordillera, 200-201.

Voyages of Columbus, Da Gama, and Magellan compared, 282-284.

W

Walls, ruins of, at Cuzco, 103, 105-106; of Sacsahuaman, 106 n., 107-112, 118; on island of Koati, 131; at Titi Kala, 136-137. _See also_ Ruins.

War, prospects and possibilities of, in South America, 448-451, 569-570.

War of Independence, the, 166, 327; influence of, on awakening of national life, 434-436.

Waterfalls, Parahyba River, 387, 389.

Wealth, hope for political progress in increase of, 546-547.

Western Cordillera, 55-58, 198, 203.

West Indian negroes, as labourers on Panama Canal, 26 n.

Westminster Hall, island of, 292.

Whales, coast of Peru, 43.

Wheat, production of, in Argentina, 336, 351.

Wild Indians, 460, 470, 478, 530 n.

William III of England, 16.

Wine, made at Mendoza, 263, 336.

Women as priests among the Araucanians, 238.

Wool, trade in, at Punta Arenas, 300-301; production of, in Uruguay, 354.

Y

Yahgan tribe of Fuegians, 294.

_Yareta_ moss as fuel, 121, 200.

Yellow fever, on Isthmus of Panama, 3; measures taken against, 28-29; in city of Guayaquil, 40; former inroads of, at Santos, 371-372; extinction of, at Rio de Janeiro, 384; general freedom from, 589.

Yunca Indians, 457.

Yungas, region called the, 177.

Yupanqui, Francisco Tito, 129.

Yura, village of, Peru, 81.

Z

Zambos, half-breeds of Indians and negroes, 66; estimated total number of, 564.

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] All things tend naturally towards non-existence. So in the original statutes of Oriel College, Oxford (founded in A.D. 1327).

[2] All that comes into being deserves to perish.

[3] The trade to the Philippines crossed the Continent at Tehuantepec.

[4] The reader will find at the end of the volume a small map which may help him to understand the topography of the region.

[5] The highest point of excavation at Gold Hill is 534 feet above sea level and the highest elevation of the original surface of the ground along the centre line of the Canal was 312 feet above sea level. The vertical depth of the cut on the centre line is thus 272 feet, the bottom of the cut being 40 feet above sea level.

[6] The unskilled labourers employed are mostly West Indian negroes from Jamaica and Barbadoes, with some Spaniards, but no Chinese. The skilled men are from the United States. Many Chinese were here in the French days and died in great numbers.

[7] Among the white population of the Zone, excluding the cities of Panama and Colon, the rate was higher, viz. 16.47 for 1910 and 15.32 for 1911, the part of the population not under official control being less careful to observe health rules.

[8] Fascinated by the example of Suez, and not realizing how greatly the problem of construction was affected by the difference between the very wet climate of Panama and the absolutely dry climate of Suez, the French engineers originally planned a sea-level canal. To have carried out that plan would have added enormously to the cost, for the Culebra cutting must have been not only eighty feet deeper, but immensely wider. Few who examine the spot seem now to doubt that the decision to have a lock canal has been a wise one.

[9] The last estimate presented puts the amount at $375,000,000. The fortifications are expected to cost about $12,000,000 more.

[10] London to Sydney via Suez 11,531 miles, via Panama 12,525; London to Auckland via Suez 12,638 miles, via Panama, 11,404.

[11] Since our visit Coropuna has been ascended by my friend Professor Hiram Bingham of Yale University (U.S.A.). The average of his observations gives it a height of 21,700 feet. A very interesting account of his long and difficult snow climb may be found in _Harper's Magazine_ for March, 1912.

[12] The Harvard Observatory Report gives it as 7550.

[13] Quoted in the learned notes to Mr. Bandelier's valuable book, _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, p. 161, from a MS. in the National Archives at Lima. Omate is probably the volcano now usually known as Ubinas.

[14] Chapter XVI.

[15] _Paramo_ is the name applied to these bleak regions between the valleys.

[16] This is the term of respect by which an Indian usually addresses a white man of superior station. The word was in Inca mythology the name of a divine or half-divine hero--it was also the name of one of the Inca sovereigns.

[17] Above this valley, nearly a hundred miles away to the northeast, rises the splendid peak of Salcantay, whose height, said to approach 22,000 feet, will some day attract an aspiring mountain climber.

[18] It is fair to say that when the conquest was once accomplished, Valverde seems to have protested against the reduction of the Indians to slavery.

[19] While these pages are passing through the press (April, 1912), I am informed that a serious effort is about to be made to lay drains in and generally to clean up Cuzco.

[20] The name "Inca" properly belongs to the ruling family or clan in the Peruvian monarchy, of whose ethnic relations to its subjects we know very little, but I use it here to denote not only the dynasty, but the epoch of their rule, which apparently covered two centuries (possibly more) before the arrival of Pizarro. The expression "The Inca" means the reigning monarch.

[21] A patient archæologist might be able by examining and photographing specimens of each style to determine their chronological succession and thus throw some light on the history of the city. The oldest type appeared to be that of the Inca Roca wall, very similar to that of the Sacsahuaman walls to be presently described.

[22] Good specimens of all these things may be seen in the American Museum of Natural History of New York.

[23] Some of the granite blocks in the fortress at Osaka in Japan are even larger, but these belong to the time of Hideoshi, early in the seventeenth century. There is some reason to think that the city or at least the neighbourhood of Cuzco may have been inhabited from very remote times.

[24] Such as that at Choqquequirau described by my friend Professor Bingham in his book entitled _Across South America_. He discovered, in 1911, an Inca building at a place on the river Pampaconas fifteen days' journey north of Cuzco and only two thousand feet above sea-level. It was not previously known that their power had extended so far in that direction.

[25] Dr. Sven Hedin gives the height of Tso Mavang as 15,098 feet above sea level.

[26] In some parts of Mexico the Indians use the seeds of a species of _Chenopodium_ for food. Civilized man has not yet troubled himself to enquire what possibilities of development there may be in some of the plants which primitive or barbarous man turned to account.

[27] Dr. Uhle has suggested that the so-called seats may have been places on which to set images. Mr. Bingham thinks they were more probably spots on which priests stood to salute the rising sun by wafting kisses with their hands, a Peruvian practice described by Calancha, who compares the book of Job, chap. xxxi, v. 27.

[28] Lake Titicaca was originally, it would seem, called the lake of Chucuito, from an ancient town on its western shore.

[29] St. Thomas, according to an early legend, preached the Gospel on the coast of Malabar, so the Spanish ecclesiastics when they came to Mexico and Peru and heard tales of a wise deity or semi-divine teacher who had long ago appeared among the natives, concluded this must have been the Apostle, the idea of the connection of Eastern Asia with these new Western lands being still in their minds.

In the ancient city of Tlascala in Mexico I have seen a picture representing St. Thomas preaching to the natives in the guise of the Mexican deity Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Snake. St. Thomas is depicted as half serpent, half bird, but with a human head.

[30] Sir M. Conway gives the height of the higher peak Ancohuma (Hanko Uma) at 21,490. The loftiest summits in Peru seem to be Huascaran (some way N.N.E. of Lima), about 22,150 feet, and Coropuna (see p. 57), 21,700 feet. Aconcagua in Chile is the culminating point of the Andes and the whole Western World (see p. 260).

[31] _Climbing and Exploration in the Bolivian Andes_, 1901.

[32] See Bandelier, _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, ch. I, and notes.

[33] They have some likeness to the carved stone found at Chavin in northern Peru, figured in Sir C. Markham's _The Incas of Peru_, p. 34. There was also found lately in a grave near Lima a textile fabric with a pattern resembling this.

[34] The arrow point may however have been brought from the northeastern shores of Titicaca. Mr. Bingham tells me that such obsidian tips are sometimes found in auriferous gravels there.

[35] The primitive inhabitants of the Canary Isles, who were apparently of Berber stock, also preserved their dead as mummies.

[36] Abundant evidence on this subject may be found in Mr. J. G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_. In Cornwall and Ireland sacred wells still receive offerings. I once met a French peasant who believed in were-wolves and knew one; and I remember as a boy to have been warned by the peasants in the Glens of Antrim to beware of the water spirit who (under the form of a bull) infested the river in which I was fishing.

[37] It is, however, probable that the early Spanish accounts of the excellence of the roads were exaggerated, for few traces of them can be discerned to-day.

[38] See note III at end of book.

[39] It is not clear how much territory this enumeration covered and it was probably only a rough estimate; still, the fact that the population was far larger in the middle of the sixteenth than it was in the eighteenth century seems beyond doubt.

[40] A vast deal still remains to be done both in Mexico and Peru, perhaps even more in the latter than in the former, to examine thoroughly both the accounts given by the early Spanish writers and the existing remains of buildings and graves and the objects found in or near them, so as to lay a foundation for some systematic account of the ancient native civilizations.

[41] Its habitual use may have contributed to give the Aymarás that impassive dulness which characterizes the race.

[42] Mr. Bandelier (_Islands of Titicaca and Koati_) gives an interesting description of such a ceremony.

[43] Mountain Spirit.

[44] This line has now (December, 1912) been completed.

[45] I take these details from Dr. Romero's _Los Lagos de los Altiplanos_, translated from the French of Dr. Neveu Lemaire.

[46] The name _Cholo_ properly means the offspring of a mestizo and an Indian, but it seems to be currently used to describe a peasant with a marked Indian strain.

[47] An admirable study of desert scenery may be found in a book by Mr. Van Dyke of Rutgers College (in New Jersey), entitled _The Desert_.

[48] Pronounced Oyawe.

[49] It is called Yareta, and reminds one a little (though it is larger and harder) of the _Cherleria sedoides_ of the Scottish Highlands.

[50] In the thirty years from 1880 to 1909 the Chilean treasury received £82,637,000 (about $412,000,000) in export duties on nitrates.

[51] Buenos Aires, Rio, and São Paulo are the three larger cities.

[52] It is sometimes said that one hundred families rule Chile.

[53] A distinguished Chilean officer whose presence added greatly to the pleasure of the trip was detailed to accompany us.

[54] Except when Spanish ships of war bombarded Valparaiso in 1866.

[55] The word _roto_ seems originally to have been a term of disparagement; it meant 'a broken man.' Now it merely denotes one of the poorer class, and is opposed to _pelucon_, one of the upper class (literally a wig wearer).

[56] The Yaquis of Sonora in Northwestern Mexico have never been subdued, but they are a small tribe dwelling in mountain fastnesses difficult of access.

[57] This is the form of the name that was given to me at Temuco. Others call them Moluche or Maluche.

[58] First part written in Chile, where he was fighting, in 1558, and published in 1569.

[59]

Ἀλλ' ἀεὶ Ζεφυροῖο λιγυπνείοντας ἀήτας Ὠκεανὸς ἀνίησιν ἀναψύχειν ἀνθρώπους. --_Odyss._ IV.

[60] _Thuja gigantea._

[61] Many cattle are exported from Argentine to Chile, but these can here, as in the passes of southern Chile, be driven over the top of the ridge, though many now go by rail.

[62] An account of the ascent and of all this region will be found in Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald's _High Andes_, the author of which was prevented by illness from reaching the summit.

[63] This name is in the Andes usually applied to the sharp little peaks of ice that stand up, like the pyramidal points of seracs, on the surface of Andean glaciers, and it suits them better, because penitents wear white garments. The similarity of form has however caused it to be applied to these black towers also.

[64] It was first ascended by Mr. Vines in 1897. The measurements of Aconcagua vary from 23,200 to 22,425 feet. Mercedario is given at 22,300 and Tupungato at 22,015.

[65] The finest representation I have ever seen is a twelfth-century mosaic figure of Christ in the apse of the Norman cathedral at Cefalu in Sicily.

[66] The distant view of Badrináth and Trisul from the heights above Naini Tal in Kumaon is also quite as imposing as anything we saw in the Andes.

[67] Whether the discovery of India was his original aim, a point recently brought into question, there is no doubt that he thought after his first voyage that he had found some part of eastern Asia.

[68] Unless Magellan had got farther to the west than the rest of the narrative would imply, three days seems a short time for the boats to proceed to the western opening and back again.

[69] Cape Horn was discovered in 1616 by Van Schouten and Le Maire sailing from the East.

[70] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America._

[71] It is hardly necessary to refer for information regarding the Fuegians to the classic book of Charles Darwin, the _Voyage of the Beagle_, in which the genius for observation and speculation of that great man was first made known to the world.

[72] _Fagus_ (or _Nothofagus_) _betuloides_, or _Fagus antarctica_.

[73] He is called Settaboth in the record of Sir Francis Drake's voyage (_The World Encompassed_, p. 487, Hakluyt Society Edition). (I take this reference from Robertson's edition of Pigafetta.) "Sycorax my dam," "the foul witch Sycorax," does not appear in Pigafetta, and comes from somewhere else: the name sounds Greek. As to Caliban and the Patagonians, see the notes to Dr. H. H. Furness's monumental edition of the _Tempest_, p. 379. Every one remembers Robert Browning's _Caliban upon Setebos_, or _Natural Theology in the Island_. The Settaboth mentioned in Drake's voyage is probably a mere repetition from Eden, for the Indians to whom Fletcher (in narrating that voyage) refers were encountered on the Chilean coast in lat. 38° S., a different set of people altogether. Fletcher's account is in many points hardly credible. See Barrow's _Life of Sir Francis Drake_, p. 121.

[74] The guanaco is the only large wild quadruped of these regions. He belongs to the same genus (_Auchenia_) as the llama, alpaca, and vicuña, but is bigger than any of them. Pigafetta describes him as having "the head of a mule, the body of a camel, the feet of a stag, and the tail of a horse."

[75] The steamers of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company began to run through the Straits about 1840.

[76] The enormous herds of fur seals which existed a century ago in the islands of South Georgia, the South Orkneys, and the South Shetlands have vanished. 300,000 are said to have been killed within five years in the South Shetlands alone.

[77] I reckon Oakland and Berkeley as, for this purpose, parts of San Francisco.

[78] The population of the Republic is about 7,000,000, and that of Buenos Aires 1,300,000.

[79] The English, adopting this term, talk of the rural parts of Argentina as "the Camp," an expression which at first puzzles the visitor.

[80] There were, in 1911, 30,000,000 cattle, 68,000,000 sheep, and 7,500,000 horses.

[81] The total amount of British capital invested in Argentine railroads, tramways, banks, and land was, in 1910, £295,000,000. In writing about a country which attracts the world chiefly by its material development it is impossible to avoid figures, but I wish to give the reader no more than are absolutely needed.

[82] There is, however, a small population of mixed Indian and colonial stock in the plateau of the Andean northwest adjoining Bolivia.

[83] 844,000 were from Italy, 424,000 from Spain.

[84] Some remarks upon this obscure question will be found in Chapter XCII of the author's _American Commonwealth_ (edition of 1910). The problem is rather simpler here than in the United States because the recently injected elements are here less various.

[85] I was told that many of the street police are Indians from the north of the country.

[86] They have a mass of readers near at hand and a revenue from advertisements comparable to those which are found in the United States and Australia, but are not found in Spanish America outside Buenos Aires.

Mr. F. Seebey states that, in 1903, 212 periodicals were published in Buenos Aires in various languages or dialects, including Basque, Catalan, and Genoese.

[87] The account of the origin of the red shirt given by Mr. G. M. Trevelyan in his interesting book, _Garibaldi and the Defence of Rome_, is not quite the same as that which I heard in Uruguay, but not incompatible therewith.

[88] Such legal or quasi-legal questions have arisen several times in Central America.

[89] This question is involved with that relating to the voyages, real or alleged, of Americus Vespuccius in 1497, and is too intricate to be discussed here.

[90] See Chapter XVI, _post_.

[91] Opposite the Montanvert at Chamouni.

[92] See page 368.

[93] The tops range from 4500 to 7000 feet.

[94] _Sequoia gigantea_ of the Mariposa and Calaveras groves.

[95] _Sequoia sempervirens._

[96] John White.

[97] Chapter XVI.

[98] How many Indians there are nobody knows, but the common (probably exaggerated) estimate puts them at nearly 2,000,000, half of these pagans in the Amazonian forests, while the mixed race is calculated at 1,700,000.

[99] Sir H. H. Johnson (_The Negro in the New World_) conjectures the pure blacks at about 2,720,000 and the mulattoes and quadroons at about 5,600,000. The rest of the population, that which may be described as white because it bears no conspicuous marks of any infusion of color, may approach 8,000,000. The Indians and half-breeds (Indian and white) would make up the rest of the non-European population. Of the pure blacks, from 20,000 to 30,000, living on the northeast coast, are either Mussulmans or heathen fetichists.

[100] M. Georges Clémenceau in his _South America of To-day_.

[101] Brazil would make a seventeenth, but it was in 1808 a possession of Portugal. The three island republics, Cuba, Hayti, and Santo Domingo, bring up the total number of independent Latin-American states to twenty.

[102] Whether the same can be said of some of the Central American republics may be doubted.

[103] See above, Chapter IX.

[104] Though, no doubt, there is between the inhabitants of southern Mexico and their neighbours, the men of Guatemala and Honduras, no marked difference, just as there is not much between the men of Northern Peru and their neighbours in Ecuador.

[105] However, a North American friend tells me that he can usually tell a Venezuelan from a Colombian.

[106] Steps have recently been taken for smoothing down this controversy, and diplomatic relations between Chile and Peru seem likely to be now resumed. (Note to edition of February, 1913.)

[107] Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the United States, Belgium, Holland, and Portugal.

[108] The more usual estimates (_e.g._ that in the Statesman's Year Book for 1912) give 19 per cent of pure Spaniards, 43 per cent mestizos, and 38 per cent Indians, but enquiries made from many well-informed people in Mexico led me to believe that the proportion of Indians is much larger, and probably about that stated in the text.

[109] Brazil is believed to have nearly two millions of aborigines, most of them savages, Argentina perhaps fifty thousand, Chile one hundred twenty thousand (including the Fuegians). For the four northern republics and for the five of Central America no figures exist, but the bulk of their population, which may be roughly taken at nine millions, is Indian, and pure whites constitute a small minority, which is probably largest in Costa Rica, Colombia, and Panama.

[110] There are also eight or nine millions of negroes and mulattoes (nearly all in Brazil).

[111] Chapters III-V.

[112] See Chapter V, p. 180.

[113] _Noticias Secretas de America_, p. 353. This remarkable book, published by David Barry in 1826, quarto (Taylor, London), from a manuscript which he obtained in Madrid, gives a frightful description of the cruelties and oppressions practised on the Indians. It does not, however, seem to have led to any efforts at reform. It is accepted as authentic by good authorities. I owe the reference to the book of Professor Bernard Moses, _South America on the Eve of Emancipation, The Southern Colonies_.

[114] _Noticias Secretas_, _ut supra_, p. 343.

[115] Half the population of Paraguay perished in the war of the younger Lopez, the third of the line of dictators that ruled the country from 1818 to 1870.

[116] _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, quoted in Chapter IV.

[117] _Travels in Peru_, p. 305 _sqq._

[118] _Islands of Titicaca and Koati_, p. 40 _sqq._ This learned student of Indian customs thinks that the drinking may have originated in the ceremonial offerings of chicha to the spirits. Its continuance needs no explanation.

[119] There has been formed in Lima a society for the protection of the Indians, but I could not learn that it has been able to do much in the parts of Peru that lie far from the capital.

[120] The sense of membership in a concrete community (a Visible Church) consisting of persons of whatever race who participate in the same sacraments is stronger in the Roman than in the Protestant churches; and as a member of a lower race who has been ordained a priest is thereby raised to a position which is in a sense above that of any layman, the race itself is raised in his person.

[121] An infusion of negro blood, sometimes met with in the coast towns of Peru, is regarded with less favour than a like infusion of Indian blood, for while the first negro ancestor must have been a slave, the Indian ancestor may have been an Inca.

[122] A few years ago in northern Mexico a truck carrying a load of dynamite for use at a mine was suddenly discovered to be on fire at a village station. The risk was imminent, so the driver of a locomotive engine picked the truck up and ran it away into the country at all the speed he could put on. He bade the brakeman jump off and save himself, adding, "I go to my death." When he had got a mile away, the dynamite exploded. Every window in the village was broken, and he was blown to atoms, but the inhabitants were saved. He was a pure-blooded Indian.

[123] Some of these now come south to work on Argentine farms.

[124] Though doubt has lately been thrown upon the letter of Toscanelli and upon the received belief that it was India that Columbus was seeking, he clearly believed on his return to Spain that it was India he had found.

[125] The question as to the truth of Amerigo Vespucci's account of his voyages, and especially of the first one (1497) in which he claimed to have discovered a new land 1000 leagues west southwest of the Canary Islands is still the subject of controversy among learned men, but the prevalent opinion seems to be that the account is unworthy of credence. The letters were translated into Latin and ran through several editions.

The name "Americus, Amerigo" is an Italianized form of Amalrich, a name borne by some of the Gothic kings mentioned by Jordanes, and also by two of the Latin kings of Jerusalem in the twelfth century. It is the German Emeric and the French Amaury.

[126] Each has, moreover, other currents of somewhat less climatic importance: the Japan current on the Pacific and the Arctic current on the Atlantic coast of North America, as well as the equatorial current on a part of the east coast of South America.

[127] Teutonic may appear to be no satisfactory term, considering not only the French-speaking population of eastern Canada, but also the large Celtic, Italic, and Slavonic elements within the United States. Nevertheless, the general social type of that country and of Canada is Teutonic, as are also their institutions and their language.

[128] Although one-fifth of the produce was, as a rule, transmitted to the government at home.

[129] See as to Peru, which was only the central part of that Empire, the figure of 8,000,000, given for 1575, after the great slaughter of the Spanish Conquest (pp. 162-163).

[130] Had the Slave States succeeded in dissociating themselves from the northern and western Free States in the Civil War of 1861-1865, there would have been at least three. It may be suggested that if there had been neither steamships nor railroads, the Pacific slope of North America (California, Oregon, and Washington) might possibly have become the home of yet another independent nation.

[131] Chapter XII.

[132] There are no titles of nobility in use in Latin America, except in Brazil, where a very few families still have the titles of Viscount and Baron.

[133] One question exists which might possibly create friction between Argentina and Brazil, but there is reason to believe that any collision will be avoided.

[134] One is told, but I had no means of verifying the statement, that Scotchmen and Irishmen and Germans get on rather better with the Latin Americans.

[135] In a remarkable speech made in New York in 1909, a speech which shewed his comprehension of the good points of Spanish-American character, Mr. Root deplored the fact that the North American press was apt to indulge in criticisms of Spanish Americans displeasing to the latter, the effect of which their authors, accustomed to criticise their own fellow-countrymen freely, did not realize.

[136] In some of the colonies the revolt was at first rather on behalf of the Spanish king against the Napoleonic government in Spain, but the movement everywhere soon passed into one for independence.

[137] Mr. Hiram Bingham in _Across South America_, published in 1911. Mr. Bingham adds in the same connection: "The number of 'North Americans' in Buenos Aires is very small. While we have been slowly waking up to the fact that South America is something more than 'a land of revolutions and fevers,' our German cousins have entered the field on all sides. The Germans in southern Brazil are a negligible factor in international affairs, but the well-educated young German who is being sent out to capture South America commercially is a power to be reckoned with. He is going to damage England more truly than dreadnoughts or airships." See also the judicious remarks of Mr. Albert Hale in his book, _The South Americans_, pp. 303-309.

[138] The idea of bringing all American republics together in congresses to discuss matters of common interest, was started by Bolivar with the view of organizing joint resistance to any action by the Holy Alliance against the new republics. At his instance such a gathering met at Panama in 1826. Delegates met again in 1883 at Caracas and Buenos Aires, but accomplished nothing. In 1899 a more largely attended gathering assembled at Washington, the chief result of which was the establishment there of an institution, now called the Pan-American Union, which under its zealous and energetic director collects, publishes, and distributes information, chiefly statistical and commercial, regarding the various republics. Similar congresses have been subsequently held at Mexico, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires, at which friendly sentiments have been interchanged, but no encouragement has been given to suggestions proceeding from the United States for reciprocal "Pan-American" trade preferences.

[139] In the days when Louis Napoleon was trying to establish for France a hegemony over the Romance-speaking peoples of Europe, the days when his _Life of Julius Cæsar_ was published and his expedition to Mexico despatched, this term first came into common use. It was the fashion for his literary court to represent the French people as the heirs of ancient Rome, the modern perpetuator of her spirit and her greatness. Yet in reality the character and the conduct of the English government during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries bear a closer resemblance than ever did the French, both in their strong and in their weak points, to the government of the Roman republic.

[140] Cortes tortured him to compel the disclosure of treasure.

[141] Though Francia had been created dictator for life.

[142] The wild tribal Indians, _Indios bravos_, have, of course, no votes.

[143] The Magyars of Hungary, the Finns of Finland, and the Basques of the western Pyrenees.

[144] Dr. Palacios in his interesting book _Raza Chilena_.

[145] Remembering Switzerland with its three languages, one cannot make the proposition absolute. But in Switzerland the three races are, as respects intelligence and education, practically on a level, whereas in South America the Indians stand far below.

[146] This was ceasing, under the rule of Diaz, to be true of Mexico.

[147] Though much more ought to have been done towards the solution of land questions and for the promotion of education. [Mexico seems to have now relapsed into a condition as bad as that from which Juarez and Diaz rescued her. Note to edition of 1914.]

[148] There would seem to have been more in Europe within the last fifty years than in any preceding period of equal length since the seventeenth century.

[149] The small cultivator in Argentina is under this disadvantage that a severe drought or a swarm of locusts may ruin him, whereas the large farmer with more capital can bear the loss of one season's crop.

[150] This is Manaos in Brazilian territory. Higher up, in Peruvian, is the smaller town of Iquitos. Ocean-going steamers ply as far as Manaos.

[151] See _ante_, p. 76. The evil is widespread and horrible.

[152] I include English, Dutch, and French Guiana.

[153] In Victoria the annual rate of increase per cent of population which in 1871 was 3.07 per cent was in 1901 only .48 per cent. In New South Wales it was in 1871, 3.7 per cent, in 1901, 1.8 per cent.

[154] The Italians are chiefly in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil.

[155] There are also some East Indian coolies in Guiana, perhaps 100,000.

[156] The negroes are almost all in Brazil, but a few exist on the coasts of Peru, Colombia, Panama, and Venezuela.

[157] The United States census returns do not attempt to discriminate between mulattoes, quadroons, and octoroons; all are reckoned as coloured; and no doubt a certain number of quadroons and octoroons pass as white.

[158] The country which has of late years produced most good poetry is, I believe, Colombia. Argentine writers have distinguished themselves chiefly in the sphere of theoretical jurisprudence and international law.

[159] One is told that the European books most popular among the few who approach abstract subjects are those of Mr. Herbert Spencer, whose influence was always greater in the South European countries and in Russia than in England or the United States. Those few are unwilling to believe that he is not deemed in his own country to be a great philosopher.

Transcribers' Notes:

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected.

Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.

Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.

Some instances of "Argentine" perhaps should be "Argentina"; none were changed here.

"de iure" was printed that way twice.

Text uses both "Musulman" and "Mussulman", "fetish" and "fetich".

Index was minimally checked for accuracy of page references and consistency with spellings in referenced pages.

Page 154: "or fly clamping them" likely is a misprint for "by".

Page 255: "Märjelen See" was printed that way, not as "Märjelensee".

Page 258: The anchor for footnote 62 (originally "1") was missing from this and several other editions of the book, but was inserted by the Transcriber based on the context of the text.

Page 330: "pastural" was printed that way. The book uses "pastoral" several times, but "pastural" may be intentional in this case, and has not been changed.

Page 338: "bought back" probably should be "brought".

Transliteration of Greek text in Footnote 59:

All aei Zephuroio ligupneiontas aêtas Ôkeanos aniêsin anapsuchein anthrôpous.