Soil and Water Pollution : Presented to the American Public Health Association at New Orleans, Dec. 1880

Part 2

Chapter 23,466 wordsPublic domain

in one family, and all the persons who drank the water were constantly ailing. The third sample was taken from a well where four cases of typhoid fever had occurred. A thorough search had been made for the cause of the trouble. The well water had been suspected and was condemned by the attending physician.

Seventy feet from the wall there was a privy vault overflowing. Another vault was within twenty-five feet of the well. To the effluvia from the former was attributed one case of typhoid fever. The stench was so great at night that not even the windows in the upper stories of the houses in the neighborhood could be kept open. People living near had sore throats, malarial fever and diarrhœal disorders.

The fourth sample was obtained from a surface dug well, from which the inmates of the State Female Reformatory were supplied with drinking water. Since the first of last August thirty-nine cases of well defined typhoid fever, and thirteen milder cases of the same disease appeared in the Reformatory. The attending physician attributed the outbreak of the fever to the water from the well. After a thorough chemical examination of the water, the well was condemned and filled up, and the water supply now comes from a driven well.

It is worthy of remark that the persons attacked by typhoid fever, had been daily drinking the foul water from the well until the appearance of the fever; that the immediate surroundings of the well and the sanitary condition of the building were good, and that no direct cause of typhoid fever outside of the well could be discovered.

The fifth sample was taken from a well which supplied a family of six persons with water. Diarrhœal troubles,

SYMPTOMS OF TYPHOID FEVER,

sore throats, etc., were not uncommon, and the family physician was frequently consulted. One privy vault forty feet north from the well was full. Another privy vault was fifty feet northeast of the well. The contents of the vaults undoubtedly contaminated the well water to some extent, and of course the evil would be increased with time.

The sixth sample was drawn from a well on the south side of the city. No privy vault or cess-pool is located within fifty feet of it. To all appearances the surroundings are good. The well water has been used for drinking purposes for several years. One person in the family had typhoid fever three years ago, and malarial and bilious attacks have annoyed the other members of the family frequently.

The seventh sample was obtained from a well from which three cases of typhoid fever had previously been supplied with water. The attending physician attributed the development of the disease to the unwholesomeness of the water.

The eighth sample was obtained from one of the wells at the water works.

The following table gives the analyses of waters from driven wells extended below the first or second stratum of clay. These wells are located in different parts of the city. Excepting the permanganate of potash test, previously explained, the quantities are in one litre.

======================================================================= | TOTAL | MATTER,| |PERMAN-| ALBUM- | FREE | Sample| SOLIDS.| ORGANIC| CHLOR- |GANATE | INOID |AMMONIA.| REMARKS. | | & | INE. | TEST. | AMMONIA.| | | | VOLA- | | | | | | | TILE. | | | | | -----+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+--------+----------- |_Gramme_|_Gramme_|_Gramme_|_Drops_|_Gramme_ |_Gramme_| 1. | 0.400 | .012 | .008 | 10 | .000045 | none |Good water. 2. | 0.586 | .28 | .004 | 12 | .00005 | none |Good water. 3. | 0.699 | .047 | .025 | 9 | none | none |Excellent. 4. | 0.496 | .08 | .006 | 10 | none | none |Excellent. 5. | 0.454 | .069 | .038 | 9 | none | .0001 |Excellent. ======================================================================

I have in my possession partial and complete analyses by Prof. E. T. Cox, of waters from nine other driven wells in the city. The analyses show that these wells furnish good potable water.

The occupants of large buildings are often supplied with water from tanks on the upper floors. If the tanks are not properly constructed and well inclosed, the water pumped into them may be contaminated at any time by impurities.

Given below are analyses of waters drawn from tanks in large blocks.

The quantities are in one litre.

=============================================================== | TOTAL | MATTER | | FREE |ALBUMINOID| Sample|SOLIDS. | ORGANIC | CHLOR- |AMMONIA.| AMMONIA. |REMARKS. | | & | INE. | | | | |VOLATILE.| | | | ------+--------+---------+--------+--------+----------+-------- |_Gramme_|_Gramme_ |_Gramme_|_Gramme_| _Gramme_ | 1. | 1.032 | .14 | .09 |.00004 | .00012 | Bad. 2. | .554 | .089 | .075 |.00015 | .00009 | Good. ===============================================================

One person who lived in the former block died of typhoid fever, and many others had sickness from the use of the water.

The question of drainage and water supply of cities, should take the precedence of every other question, for upon its proper solution depends thousands of lives. Those in authority should understand its importance, and feel the pressing necessity of more thorough sanitary work. Hygiene is not only a subject of scientific interest to the medical man, but its problems and discoveries ought to be of great practical importance to political economists and legislators, who usually occupy themselves with subjects which benefit the common people very little. It appears that the best engineering talent, and great amounts of money, have been employed, to furnish cities and towns with _inexhaustible supplies of water without sufficient regard to quality_.

To economically furnish water in ample quantity, is an object of great importance; but it is of more consequence that the water obtained is not contaminated by sewers, cess-pools, and surface drainage to such an extent that disease and death shall be scattered broadcast; among those who drink the water. There are those who claim that a small proportion of sewage in drinking water does not necessarily prove deleterious to health.

The English Rivers’ Pollution Commission published conclusions based on the examination of some two thousand samples of water claimed to be drinkable; condemning river water because it is liable to contamination from drainage of cultivated land, towns and manufactories. According to their decision “the admixture of even a small quantity of the infected discharges (of persons suffering from cholera or typhoid fever), with a large volume of drinking water, is sufficient for the propagation of those diseases among persons using such water.”

Dr. Folsom, in the report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, states that “excessive dilution simply diminishes the chances of danger from any particular tumblerful.” To show how disease may be transmitted in dilute sewage and that disease germs are not exterminated by diffusion through a large body of running water, Dr. E. D. Mapother, of Dublin, reports forty cases of typhoid fever occurring in a hospital which received its supply from a river. The cause was traced to some barracks twenty-five miles higher up, from which typhoidal dejections had been emptied through drains into the river.

The following classification of drinkable waters which was made by the English commissioners, should be received by us as entirely trustworthy.

_Wholesome_—Spring water, deep well water, and upland surface water.

_Suspicious_—Stored rain water, and surface water from cultivated land.

_Dangerous_—River water to which sewage gets access, and shallow well water.

The fact that foul water will breed disease, should no longer be ignored. The citizens of Indianapolis have been drinking water from the city water works not above suspicion, and it is about time that the pollution of the water by filth should excite public attention.

Below I give analyses of samples of water drawn at different times and places from the faucets of the city water works.

The following report is from Prof. Thos. C. Van Nuys, of the State University.

BLOOMINGTON, Ind., May 10, 1880.

The water you sent on Thursday was received on Friday evening. The following is the report of my chemical and microscopic examinations:

In one litre (1,000 cubic centimetres).

Nitric acid anhydride, N₂O₅. 10.72 milligrammes Ammonia, NH₃, 0.03 ” Carbonic acid anhydride, CO₂. 0.439 gramme. Calcium oxide, CaO, 0.148 ” Magnesium oxide, MgO, 0.04128 ” Chlorine, 0.09218 ” Degree of hardness (English) 25.7

The organic matter in 100 cubic centimetres of the water required 3.11 cubic centimetres of the 1-100 normal solution of potassium permanganate to oxidize it; therefore one litre of the water would require 31.1 cubic centimetres of the 1-100 normal solution KMnO₄ to oxidize the organic matter. In 31.1 c. c. of this solution there is 0.0098 gramme KMnO₄ or 0.0247 gramme oxygen liberated. I would remark here that there is no method of estimating the exact quantity of organic matter in water. The method of estimating the carbon and hydrogen by combustion analysis (Frankland and Armstrong’s) has been found defective,—also the methods based on the estimation of nitrogen and reduction of silver oxide. The method employed in this case (Schultze’s) is the most reliable, and yet not all the organic matter is oxidized, for some is volatized in boiling.

I found the following infusorial animalaculcæ: Stylonchia pustulata, actinurus neptunius, rotirfer vulgaris, monostylaquadridentata, navicular baltica.

I give here the magnified pictures.

I did not examine the first sample of water with the microscope. In the water of the second bottle I found but one kind of infusoria, _viz._, stylonchia pustulata, but they were numerous. In the water sent on Thursday I found the others named, but few in number. In both samples of water there was but a small quantity of mineral matter, a few crystals of CaCO₃. The water was somewhat cloudy and the suspended particles were evidently of vegetable origin. I have not adopted any standard in judging water for drinking purposes.

As yet none has been found having a scientific basis. But let us see how this water would be rated by some of the standards of men who have justly distinguished themselves by their labor in water analysis. The Grenzzahlen limitary numbers are of E. Reichardt, Kubel, and Tiemann and Fischer.

One litre (1,000 cubic centimetres).

This water contains in milligrammes per litre: Nitric Acid Anhyd. 10.72; Chlorine, 92.18; Lime, 14.8; Magnesia, 41; degrees of hardness (German), 20.596.

The limitary quantity of organic matter in 100 c. c. should not exceed that necessary for the deoxidation of K Mn 04 in 2 c. c. of the 1-100 normal solution. This is given by Fresenius. For 100 c. c. of this water 3.11 c. c. of the 1-100 normal solution was required. The organic matter in the water is considerable, yet is no doubt variable in quantity. On account of the quantity of the organic matter, by exposure to the air doubtless many other species of infusoria would be formed. The water is hard and by chemical technologists would be condemned, as with them 10 degrees German, or 12.5 degrees English, is the limit.

The ammonia is in a mere trace, yet accurately estimated as given. Nearly all rain water contains more. I have estimated the chlorine in water sent on Thursday last (by the volumetric method), and found 0.05992 gramme chlorine in one litre. This makes a difference of 0.0322 gramme chlorine as found in one litre of the water of the first bottle sent. In what way could there be such a great increase or rather decrease of the chlorides? Are there any privy vaults or slaughter houses near the source of the water? May I ask where this water was obtained?

In a letter of March 12, 1880, Prof. E. T. Cox gives the following: “I fully believe that whenever any form of disease rages as an epidemic in any locality, it is due in a large measure to water pollution. The three streams of subterranean water beneath Indianapolis, flow from northeast to southwest. Wells that are supplied from the upper water, contain more and more chloride of sodium (common salt) as you go to the south part of the city, and this is absolute proof of sewer-pollution, and all the well water from the first and second seams is absolutely dangerous, and its use should be prohibited. The lower stratum is safe if the upper seams are shut off from it. When water works were first contemplated at Indianapolis, I was called upon for information, and had my advise been taken, you would now have the best possible water, instead of water of doubtful character, to use the mildest term.” On the 20th of March a sample of water was obtained from the water works for examination. The analysis showed in one litre,

Total solids, .985 gramme Organic and volatile, .08 ” Chlorine, .055 ”

Fifty centimetres of the water required fourteen drops of the permanganate of potash solution to render it permanently red. The same amount of distilled water required but eight drops. The microscope, with a lens of 100 diameters, revealed considerable vegetable matter.

Inasmuch as White river is used by the water works as a source of supply when the water in their wells get low, and also in time of fire in the city, it was thought advisable to ascertain the condition of the river water. Therefore, on April 30, 1880, a sample was drawn from the river at middle of the iron bridge at the foot of Washington street.

One litre contained:

Total solid constituents .36 gramme. Organic and volatile matter .032 ” Chlorine .105 ” Free ammonia .00072 ” Albuminoid ammonia .00048 ”

Fifty cubic centimetres of this water required thirty-six drops of the permanganate of potash solution to render it permanently red. The same amount of distilled water required but eight drops of said solution to become permanently red.

The microscope revealed sand, clay, legs, and other parts of insects, foreign matter of many kinds, and animalculæ. This water is but little better than sewage. It is due to the water works to state that the water taken from the river is filtered through a bed of sand and gravel about four feet deep.

Professor Edward R. Taylor, of Cleveland, examined two samples of water from the water works with the following result:

1st sample. 2d sample. Specific gravity 10019 10021 In grams per litre the analyses show Solid residue .5876 .5696 Organic and Volatile matter .3150 .1213 Chlorine .0598 .0738 Free ammonia .0015 .0002 Albuminoid ammonia .0038 .0018

The amount of chlorine is very considerable in both samples. It would properly be presumed that both had a bad origin.

The following is taken from _The State Press_, Iowa City, Iowa, April 14, 1880:

“The Des Moines City Council spent several days inspecting the various systems of water works through Iowa, Illinois and Indiana and came back discouraged and disgusted with what they had seen.” The _Leader_ says: “The last report made was from Indianapolis, where the water was bad, the contract bad, and all the conditions were very bad. But for that matter those things are getting monotonous. On the whole route, from Burlington to Peoria, water was not found fit to drink, and in several places it was too bad to wash in. At Springfield water is taken out of the Illinois river, thick and black, and pumped about the city without even an excuse made toward filtering it, and yet the money spent on her water works aggregates nearly three times the hundred thousand of dollars the works in Des Moines are offered at. The State Board of Health has declared the water unfit for use. At Indianapolis the Secretary of the Water Company said they could not recommend the water; at Burlington, with her new and cheap works, the filter is reported broken and the yellow Mississippi mud is daily dished up for men to wash their eyes in. There was no excuse made for the mixture of mud and water at Keokuk, it is probably past the day of excuses.”

On May 18, 1880, a sample of water was drawn from a faucet of the Water Works Company. The analysis revealed the following. Each litre contained:

Total solids .84 gramme. Organic and volatile matter .43 ” Chlorine .047 ” Free ammonia .00008 ” Albuminoid ammonia .00024 ” Nitrates and nitrites Large amount.

The value of the above figures can best be understood when it is known that pure spring water never contains over .000005 gramme of free ammonia, and .00002 gramme albuminoid ammonia per litre. The best authorities state that, that water is suspicious which contains above .0001 gramme of albuminoid ammonia per litre; and over .00015 gramme of albuminoid ammonia per litre ought to condemn absolutely.

Another sample of water from the water works was sent to Prof. Van Nuys, on May 27, 1880. He reports that the water contained much more organic matter than that in which an estimation of organic matter was made before.

The following statement is from Prof. Van Nuys, July 14, 1880, in regard to water from the water works. _Chemical and microscopic examination of water received from Dr. M. T. Runnels, of Indianapolis, on June 23 and 29, 1880_:

“The organic matter in 100 cubic centimetres of the water required 5.35 cubic centimetres of the one one-hundredth normal potassium permanganate solution. In 5.35 cubic centimetres of this solution there are 1.6932 milligrammes potassium permanganate or 0.428 milligrammes oxygen was liberated, hence in one litre of the water the organic matter would require 53.5 cubic centimetres of the one one-hundredth normal permanganate solution, or 4.28 milligrammes oxygen would combine with the carbon and hydrogen of the organic matter.

Residue (one litre filtered) heated to 180° centimetres 473.8 Chlorine 189.3 Nitric acid anhyd (N₂O₅) 17.448 Nitrous acid anhyd (N₂O₃) a trace Ammonia (NH₃) 0.38 Calcium oxide (CaO) 128.8 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 46.2 Degree of hardness, English 21.93 or, degree of hardness, German 17.54

No microscopic examination was made of the water received June 23d. In that received June 29th, there were numerous flakes of what appeared to be organic bodies with granular matter, the following infusorial animalculæ were found:

The residue, organic matter, chlorine, nitric acid anhyd, and ammonia were estimated in the water received June 23d. The calcium and magnesium were estimated in the water received June 29, 1880.”

Although much has lately been said regarding impure water and the startling mortality of Indianapolis, there are a great many people who persistently refuse to accept the facts and would rather submit to a large death rate than to “clean up” or go to the necessary expense of obtaining good water. The complaint is often made that doctors do not discharge their duties in warning the people against the dangers of sickness. The fact is that the medical profession gives enough wholesome advice to the public, but very few persons make practical use of the information kindly given.

I commenced last January a series of soil and water investigations. A partial report of my investigations was published in the Indianapolis _News_, May 25 and July 13, 1880, and the Indianapolis _Saturday Herald_, June 5, 1880. Since that time with the assistance of the best chemists I have zealously prosecuted the work.

It is not an exaggeration to say that no dug well within a mile of Circle street, can be depended upon for a continuous supply of good water. The water furnished to the people by the water works company is no better than the water from the average dug well. Water from deep driven wells is the best well water we have.

I found the alleys, by-ways, back yards and stables all through the city in a very filthy condition. Privy vaults have been dug without being cemented, and no care whatever has been taken to keep them clean.

The drainage of the city is very defective. It is only along a few of the principal streets that sewers have been constructed, and the greater portion of the city has no drainage at all. It is a very common thing to find standing water and large mud holes in every direction through the city. It is a notable fact that the water level in many cellars corresponds with the water level of dug wells and privy vaults adjacent. Is it any wonder that infant mortality is so great in the city?

If “infants of one year and under drink but little water,” they do breathe in this city the deadly gases developed by the action of the hot sun on decaying organic and vegetable matters, and the effluvia arising constantly from overflowing privy vaults and cess-pools. Sickness is sure to follow and death may abruptly terminate the young life. According to the report of the Board of Health the deaths in this city have been since January 1, 1876, as follows:

In 1876 the number of deaths were 1,641 ” 1877 ” ” ” ” ” 1,528 ” 1878 ” ” ” ” ” 1,296 ” 1879 ” ” ” ” ” 1,470 ” 1880 ” ” ” ” ” (9 months) 1,352 ——— Total 7,287

Assuming that the population has been 75,125, the annual death rate would be: