CHAPTER VII

Standard Methods for the Sampling and Analysis of Commercial Fats and Oils[22]

The following report of the _Committee on Analysis of Commercial Fats and Oils_ of the _Division of Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers_ of the American Chemical Society was adopted April 14, 1919, by unanimous vote:

W. D. RICHARDSON, _Chairman_, Swift and Co., Chicago, Ill.

R. W. BAILEY, Stillwell and Gladding, New York City.

W. J. GASCOYNE, W. J. Gascoyne and Co., Baltimore, Md.

I. KATZ,[A] Wilson and Co., Chicago, Ill.

A. LOWENSTEIN,[A] Morris and Co., Chicago, Ill.

H. J. MORRISON, Proctor and Gamble Co., Ivorydale, Ohio.

J. R. POWELL, Armour Soap Works, Chicago, Ill.

R. J. QUINN,[A] Midland Chemical Co., Argo, Ill.

PAUL RUDNICK, Armour and Co., Chicago, Ill.

L. M. TOLMAN, Wilson and Co., Chicago, Ill.

E. TWITCHELL,[A] Emery Candle Co., Cincinnati, Ohio.

J. J. VOLLERTSEN, Morris and Co., Chicago, Ill.

[Note A: Resigned.]

Scope, Applicability and Limitations of the Methods.

SCOPE.

These methods are intended to aid in determining the commercial valuation of fats and fatty oils in their purchase and sale, based on the fundamental assumption commonly recognized in the trade, namely, that the product is true to name and is not adulterated. For methods for determining the identity of oils and fats, the absence of adulterants therein and for specific tests used in particular industries, the chemist is referred to standard works on the analysis of fats and oils.

APPLICABILITY.

The methods are applicable in commercial transactions involving fats and fatty oils used in the soap, candle and tanning industries, to edible fats and oils and to fats and fatty oils intended for lubricating and burning purposes. The methods are applicable to the raw oils used in the varnish and paint industry with the exceptions noted under limitations, but special methods have not been included.

LIMITATIONS.

The methods have not been developed with special reference to waxes (beeswax, carnauba wax, wool wax, etc.) although some of them may be found applicable to these substances. The Committee considers the Wijs method superior to the Hanus method for the determination of iodine number of linseed oil as well as other oils, although the Hanus method has been considered standard for this work for some time and has been adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials and in various specifications. It has been customary to use the Huebl method for the determination of iodine value of tung oil (China wood oil) but the Committee's work indicates that the Wijs method is satisfactory for this determination.

Sampling.

TANK CARS.

1. SAMPLING WHILE LOADING--Sample shall be taken at discharge of pipe where it enters tank car dome. The total sample taken shall be not less than 50 lbs. and shall be a composite of small samples of about 1 pound each, taken at regular intervals during the entire period of loading.

The sample thus obtained is thoroughly mixed and uniform 3-lb. portions placed in air-tight 3-lb. metal containers. At least three such samples shall be put up, one for the buyer, one for the seller, and the third to be sent to a referee chemist in case of dispute. All samples are to be promptly and correctly labeled and sealed.

2. SAMPLING FROM CAR ON TRACK[23]--(_a_) _When contents are solid._[24] In this case the sample is taken by means of a large tryer measuring about 2 in. across and about 1-1/2 times the depth of the car in length. Several tryerfuls are taken vertically and obliquely toward the ends of the car until 50 lbs. are accumulated, when the sample is softened, mixed and handled as under (1). In case the contents of the tank car have assumed a very hard condition, as in Winter weather, so that it is impossible to insert the tryer, and it becomes necessary to soften the contents of the car by means of the closed steam coil (in nearly all tank cars the closed steam coil leaks) or by means of open steam in order to draw a proper sample, suitable arrangements must be made between buyer and seller for the sampling of the car after it is sufficiently softened, due consideration being given to the possible presence of water in the material in the car as received and also to the possible addition of water during the steaming. The Committee knows of no direct method for sampling a hard-frozen tank car of tallow in a satisfactory manner.

(_b_) _When contents are liquid._ The sample taken is to be a 50-lb. composite made up of numerous small samples taken from the top, bottom and intermediate points by means of a bottle or metal container with removable stopper or top. This device attached to a suitable pole is lowered to the various desired depths, when the stopper or top is removed and the container allowed to fill. The 50-lb. sample thus obtained is handled as under (1).

In place of the device described above, any sampler capable of taking a sample from the top, bottom, and center, or from a section through car, may be used.

(_c_) _When contents are in semi-solid condition, or when stearine has separated from liquid portions._ In this case, a combination of (_a_) and (_b_) may be used or by agreement of the parties the whole may be melted and procedure (_b_) followed.

BARRELS, TIERCES, CASKS, DRUMS, AND OTHER PACKAGES.

All packages shall be sampled, unless by special agreement the parties arrange to sample a lesser number; but in any case not less than 10 per cent of the total number shall be sampled. The total sample taken shall be at least 20 lbs. in weight for each 100 barrels, or equivalent.

1. BARRELS, TIERCES AND CASKS--(_a_) _When contents are solid._ The small samples shall be taken by a tryer through the bunghole or through a special hole bored in the head or side for the purpose, with a 1-in. or larger auger. Care should be taken to avoid and eliminate all borings and chips from the sample. The tryer is inserted in such a way as to reach the head of the barrel, tierce, or cask. The large sample is softened, mixed and handled according to TANK CARS (1).

(_b_) _When contents are liquid._ In this case use is made of a glass tube with constricted lower end. This is inserted slowly and allowed to fill with the liquid, when the upper end is closed and the tube withdrawn, the contents being allowed to drain into the sample container. After the entire sample is taken it is thoroughly mixed and handled according to TANK CARS (1).

(_c_) _When contents are semi-solid._ In this case the tryer or a glass tube with larger outlet is used, depending on the degree of fluidity.

(_d_) _Very hard materials, such as natural and artificial stearines._ By preference the barrels are stripped and samples obtained by breaking up contents of at least 10 per cent of the packages. This procedure is to be followed also in the case of cakes shipped in sacks. When shipped in the form of small pieces in sacks they can be sampled by grab sampling and quartering. In all cases the final procedure is as outlined under TANK CARS (1).

2. DRUMS--Samples are to be taken as under (1), use being made of the bunghole. The tryer or tube should be sufficiently long to reach to the ends of the drum.

3. OTHER PACKAGES--Tubs, pails and other small packages not mentioned above are to be sampled by tryer or tube (depending on fluidity) as outlined above, the tryer or tube being inserted diagonally whenever possible.

4. MIXED LOTS AND PACKAGES--When lots of tallow or other fats are received in packages of various shapes and sizes, and especially wherein the fat itself is of variable composition, such must be left to the judgment of the sampler. If variable, the contents of each package should be mixed as thoroughly as possible and the amount of the individual samples taken made proportional to the sizes of the packages.

Analysis.

SAMPLE.

The sample must be representative and at least three pounds in weight and taken in accordance with the STANDARD METHODS FOR THE SAMPLING OF COMMERCIAL FATS AND OILS. It must be kept in an air-tight container, in a dark, cool place.

Soften the sample if necessary by means of a gentle heat, taking care not to melt it. When sufficiently softened, mix the sample thoroughly by means of a mechanical egg beater or other equally effective mechanical mixer.

MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER.

APPARATUS: _Vacuum Oven_--The Committee Standard Oven.

DESCRIPTION--The Standard F. A. C. Vacuum Oven has been designed with the idea of affording a simple and compact vacuum oven which will give as uniform temperatures as possible on the shelf. As the figure shows, it consists of an iron casting of rectangular sections with hinged front door made tight by means of a gasket and which can be lowered on opening the oven so as to form a shelf on which samples may be rested. The oven contains but one shelf which is heated from above as well as below by means of resistance coils. Several thermometer holes are provided in order to ascertain definitely the temperature at different points on the shelf. In a vacuum oven where the heating is done almost entirely by radiation it is difficult to maintain uniform temperatures at all points, but the F. A. C. oven accomplishes this rather better than most vacuum ovens. Larger ovens containing more than one shelf have been tried by the Committee, but have been found to be lacking in temperature uniformity and means of control. The entire oven is supported by means of a 4-in. standard pipe which screws into the base of the oven and which in turn is supported by being screwed into a blind flange of suitable diameter which rests on the floor or work table.

_Moisture Dish_--A shallow, glass dish, lipped, beaker form, approximately 6 to 7 cm. diameter and 4 cm. deep, shall be standard.

DETERMINATION--Weigh out 5 grams (= 0.2 g. of the prepared sample) into a moisture dish. Dry to constant weight in _vacuo_ at a uniform temperature, not less than 15deg. C. nor more than 20deg. C. above the boiling point of water at the working pressure, which must not exceed 100 mm. of mercury.[25] Constant weight is attained when successive dryings for 1-hr. periods show an additional loss of not more that 0.05 per cent. Report loss in weight as MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER.[26]

The vacuum-oven method cannot be considered accurate in the case of fats of the coconut oil group containing free acid and the Committee recommends that it be used only for oils of this group when they contain less than 1 per cent free acid. In the case of oils of this group containing more than 1 per cent free acid, recourse should be had temporarily to the routine control method for moisture and volatile matter[27] until the Committee develops a more satisfactory method.

The air-oven method cannot be considered even approximately accurate in the case of the drying and semi-drying oils and those of the coconut oil group. Therefore, in the case of such oils as cottonseed oil, maize oil (corn oil), soy bean oil, linseed oil, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, etc., the vacuum-oven method should always be used, except in the case of fats of the coconut group containing more than 1 per cent free acid, as noted above.

INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES.

Dissolve the residue from the moisture and volatile matter determination by heating it on a steam bath with 50 cc. of kerosene. Filter the solution through a Gooch crucible properly prepared with asbestos,[28] wash the insoluble matter five times with 10-cc. portions of hot kerosene, and finally wash the residual kerosene out thoroughly with petroleum ether. Dry the crucible and contents to constant weight, as in the determination of moisture and volatile matter and report results as INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES.

SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.

Place the combined kerosene filtrate and kerosene washings from the insoluble impurities determination in a platinum dish. Place in this an ashless filter paper folded in the form of a cone, apex up. Light the apex of the cone, whereupon the bulk of the kerosene burns quietly. Ash the residue in a muffle, to constant weight, taking care that the decomposition of alkaline earth carbonates is complete, and report the result as SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.[29] When the percentage of soluble mineral matter amounts to more than 0.1 per cent, multiply the percentage by 10 and add this amount to the percentage of free fatty acids as determined.[30]

FREE FATTY ACIDS.

The ALCOHOL[31] used shall be approximately 95 per cent ethyl alcohol, freshly distilled from sodium hydroxide, which with phenolphthalein gives a definite and distinct end-point.

DETERMINATION--Weigh 1 to 15 g. of the prepared sample into an Erlenmeyer flask, using the smaller quantity in the case of dark-colored, high acid fats. Add 50 to 100 cc. hot, neutral alcohol, and titrate with _N_/2, _N_/4 or _N_/10 sodium hydroxide depending on the fatty acid content, using phenolphthalein as indicator. Calculate to oleic acid, except that in the case of palm oil the results may also be expressed in terms of palmitic acid, clearly indicating the two methods of calculation in the report. In the case of coconut and palm kernel oils, calculate to and report in terms of lauric acid in addition to oleic acid, clearly indicating the two methods of calculation in the report. In the case of fats or greases containing more than 0.1 per cent of soluble mineral matter, add to the percentages of free fatty acids as determined 10 times the percentage of bases in the soluble mineral matter as determined.[30] This addition gives the equivalent of fatty acids combined with the soluble mineral matter.

TITER.

STANDARD THERMOMETER--The thermometer is graduated at zero and in tenth degrees from 10deg. C. to 65deg. C., with one auxiliary reservoir at the upper end and another between the zero mark and the 10deg. mark. The cavity in the capillary tube between the zero mark and the 10deg. mark is at least 1 cm. below the 10deg. mark, the 10deg. mark is about 3 or 4 cm. above the bulb, the length of the thermometer being about 37 cm. over all. The thermometer has been annealed for 75 hrs. at 450deg. C. and the bulb is of Jena normal 16''' glass, or its equivalent, moderately thin, so that the thermometer will be quick-acting. The bulb is about 3 cm. long and 6 mm. in diameter. The stem of the thermometer is 6 mm. in diameter and made of the best thermometer tubing, with scale etched on the stem, the graduation is clear-cut and distinct, but quite fine. The thermometer must be certified by the U. S. Bureau of Standards.

GLYCEROL CAUSTIC SOLUTION--Dissolve 250 g. potassium hydroxide in 1900 cc. dynamite glycerin with the aid of heat.

DETERMINATION--Heat 75 cc. of the glycerol-caustic solution to 150deg. C. and add 50 g. of the melted fat. Stir the mixture well and continue heating until the melt is homogeneous, at no time allowing the temperature to exceed 150deg. C. Allow to cool somewhat and carefully add 50 cc. 30 per cent sulfuric acid. Now add hot water and heat until the fatty acids separate out perfectly clear. Draw off the acid water and wash the fatty acids with hot water until free from mineral acid, then filter and heat to 130deg. C. as rapidly as possible while stirring. Transfer the fatty acids, when cooled somewhat, to a 1-in. by 4-in. titer tube, placed in a 16-oz. salt-mouth bottle of clear glass, fitted with a cork that is perforated so as to hold the tube rigidly when in position. Suspend the titer thermometer so that it can be used as a stirrer and stir the fatty acids slowly (about 100 revolutions per minute) until the mercury remains stationary for 30 seconds. Allow the thermometer to hang quietly with the bulb in the center of the tube and report the highest point to which the mercury rises as the titer of the fatty acids. The titer should be made at about 20deg. C. for all fats having a titer above 30deg. C. and at 10deg. C. below the titer for all other fats. Any convenient means may be used for obtaining a temperature of 10deg. below the titer of the various fats. The committee recommends first of all a chill room for this purpose; second, an artificially chilled small chamber with glass window; third, immersion of the salt-mouth bottle in water or other liquid of the desired temperature.

UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER.

EXTRACTION CYLINDER--The cylinder shall be glass-stoppered, graduated at 40 cc., 80 cc. and 130 cc., and of the following dimensions: diameter about 1-3/8 in., height about 12 in.

PETROLEUM ETHER--Redistilled petroleum ether, boiling under 75deg. C., shall be used. A blank must be made by evaporating 250 cc. with about 0.25 g. of stearine or other hard fat (previously brought to constant weight by heating) and drying as in the actual determination. The blank must not exceed a few milligrams.

DETERMINATION--Weigh 5 g. (+-0.20 g.) of the prepared sample into a 200-cc. Erlenmeyer flask, add 30 cc. of redistilled 95 per cent (approximately) ethyl alcohol and 5 cc. of 50 per cent aqueous potassium hydroxide, and boil the mixture for one hour under a reflux condenser. Transfer to the extraction cylinder and wash to the 40-cc. mark with redistilled 95 per cent ethyl alcohol. Complete the transfer, first with warm, then with cold water, till the total volume amounts to 80 cc. Cool the cylinder and contents to room temperature and add 50 cc. of petroleum ether. Shake _vigorously_ for one minute and allow to settle until both layers are clear, when the volume of the upper layer should be about 40 cc. Draw off the petroleum ether layer as closely as possible by means of a slender glass siphon into a separatory funnel of 500 cc. capacity. Repeat extraction at least four more times, using 50 cc. of petroleum ether each time. More extractions than five are necessary where the unsaponifiable matter runs high, say over 5 per cent, and also in some cases where it is lower than 5 per cent, but is extracted with difficulty. Wash the combined extracts in a separatory funnel three times with 25-cc. portions of 10 per cent alcohol, shaking vigorously each time. Transfer the petroleum ether extract to a wide-mouth tared flask or beaker, and evaporate the petroleum ether on a steam bath in an air current. Dry as in the method for MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER. Any blank must be deducted from the weight before calculating unsaponifiable matter. Test the final residue for solubility in 50 cc. petroleum ether at room temperature. Filter and wash free from the insoluble residue, if any, evaporate and dry in the same manner as before. The Committee wishes to emphasize the necessity of thorough and vigorous shaking in order to secure accurate results. The two phases must be brought into the most intimate contact possible, otherwise low and disagreeing results may be obtained.

IODINE NUMBER--WIJS METHOD.

PREPARATION OF REAGENTS--_Wijs Iodine Solution_--Dissolve 13.0 g. of resublimed iodine in one liter of C. P. glacial acetic acid and pass in washed and dried chlorine gas until the original thiosulfate titration of the solution is not quite doubled. The solution is then preserved in amber glass-stoppered bottles, sealed with paraffin until ready for use.

Mark the date on which the solution is prepared on the bottle or bottles and do not use Wijs solution which is more than 30 days old.

There should be no more than a slight excess of iodine, and no excess of chlorine. When the solution is made from iodine and chlorine, this point can be ascertained by not quite doubling the titration.[32]

The glacial acetic acid used for preparation of the Wijs solution should be of 99.0 to 99.5 per cent strength. In case of glacial acetic acids of somewhat lower strength, the Committee recommends freezing and centrifuging or draining as a means of purification.

_N_/10 _Sodium Thiosulfate Solution_--Dissolve 24.8 g. of C. P. sodium thiosulfate in recently boiled distilled water and dilute with the same to one liter at the temperature at which the titrations are to be made.

_Starch Paste_--Boil 1 g. of starch in 200 cc. of distilled water for 10 min. and cool to room temperature.

An improved starch solution may be prepared by autoclaving 2 g. of starch and 6 g. of boric acid dissolved in 200 cc. water at 15 lbs. pressure for 15 min. This solution has good keeping qualities.

_Potassium Iodide Solution_--Dissolve 150 g. of potassium iodide in water and make up to one liter.

_N_/10 _Potassium Bichromate_--Dissolve 4.903 g. of C. P. potassium bichromate in water and make the volume up to one liter at the temperature at which titrations are to be made.

The Committee calls attention to the fact that occasionally potassium bichromate is found containing sodium bichromate, although this is of rare occurrence. If the analyst suspects that he is dealing with an impure potassium bichromate, the purity can be ascertained by titration against re-sublimed iodine. However, this is unnecessary in the great majority of cases.

_Standardization of the Sodium Thiosulfate Solution_--Place 40 cc. of the potassium bichromate solution, to which has been added 10 cc. of the solution of potassium iodide, in a glass-stoppered flask. Add to this 5 cc. of strong hydro-chloric acid. Dilute with 100 cc. of water, and allow the _N_/10 sodium thiosulfate to flow slowly into the flask until the yellow color of the liquid has almost disappeared. Add a few drops of the starch paste, and with constant shaking continue to add the _N_/10 sodium thiosulfate solution until the blue color just disappears.

DETERMINATION--Weigh accurately from 0.10 to 0.50 g. (depending on the iodine number) of the melted and filtered sample into a clean, dry, 16-oz. glass-stoppered bottle containing 15-20 cc. of carbon tetrachloride or chloroform. Add 25 cc. of iodine solution from a pipette, allowing to drain for a definite time. The excess of iodine should be from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of the amount added, that is, from 100 per cent to 150 per cent of the amount absorbed. Moisten the stopper with a 15 per cent potassium iodide solution to prevent loss of iodine or chlorine but guard against an amount sufficient to run down inside the bottle. Let the bottle stand in a dark place for 1/2 hr. at a uniform temperature. At the end of that time add 20 cc. of 15 per cent potassium iodide solution and 100 cc. of distilled water. Titrate the iodine with _N_/10 sodium thiosulfate solution which is added gradually, with constant shaking, until the yellow color of the solution has almost disappeared. Add a few drops of starch paste and continue titration until the blue color has entirely disappeared. Toward the end of the reaction stopper the bottle and shake violently so that any iodine remaining in solution in the tetrachloride or chloroform may be taken up by the potassium iodide solution. Conduct two determinations on blanks which must be run in the same manner as the sample except that no fat is used in the blanks. Slight variations in temperature quite appreciably affect the titer of the iodine solution, as acetic acid has a high coefficient of expansion. It is, therefore, essential that the blanks and determinations on the sample be made at the same time. The number of cc. of standard thiosulfate solution required by the blank, less the amount used in the determination, gives the thiosulfate equivalent of the iodine absorbed by the amount of sample used in the determination. Calculate to centigrams of iodine absorbed by 1 g. of sample (= per cent iodine absorbed).

DETERMINATION, TUNG OIL--Tung oil shows an erratic behavior with most iodine reagents and this is particularly noticeable in the case of the Hanus reagent which is entirely unsuitable for determining the iodine number of this oil since extremely high and irregular results are obtained. The Huebl solution shows a progressive absorption up to 24 hrs. and probably for a longer time but the period required is entirely too long for a chemical determination. The Wijs solution gives good results if the following precautions are observed:

Weigh out 0.15 +- 0.05 g., use an excess of 55 +- 3 per cent Wijs solution. Conduct the absorption at a temperature of 20-25deg. C. for 1 hr. In other respects follow the instructions detailed above.

SAPONIFICATION NUMBER (KOETTSTORFER NUMBER).

PREPARATION OF REAGENTS. _N/2 Hydrochloric Acid_--Carefully standardized.

_Alcoholic Potassium Hydroxide Solution_--Dissolve 40 g. of pure potassium hydroxide in one liter of 95 per cent redistilled alcohol (by volume). The alcohol should be redistilled from potassium hydroxide over which it has been standing for some time, or with which it has been boiled for some time, using a reflux condenser. The solution must be clear and the potassium hydroxide free from carbonates.

DETERMINATION--Weigh accurate about 5 g. of the filtered sample into a 250 to 300 cc. Erlenmeyer flask. Pipette 50 cc. of the alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution into the flask, allowing the pipette to drain for a definite time. Connect the flask with an air condenser and boil until the fat is completely saponified (about 30 minutes). Cool and titrate with the _N_/2 hydrochloric acid, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Calculate the Koettstorfer number (mg. of potassium hydroxide required to saponify 1 g. of fat). Conduct 2 or 3 blank determinations, using the same pipette and draining for the same length of time as above.

MELTING POINT.

APPARATUS--_Capillary tubes_ made from 5 mm. inside diameter thin-walled glass tubing drawn out to 1 mm. inside diameter. Length of capillary part of tubes to be about 5 cm. Length of tube over all 8 cm.

_Standard thermometer_ graduated in tenths of a degree.

_600 cc. beaker._

DETERMINATION--The sample should be clear when melted and entirely free from moisture, or incorrect results will be obtained.

Melt and thoroughly mix the sample. Dip three of the capillary tubes above described in the oil so that the fat in the tube stands about 1 cm. in height. Now fuse the capillary end carefully by means of a small blast flame and allow to cool. These tubes are placed in a refrigerator over night at a temperature of from 40 to 50deg. F. They are then fastened by means of a rubber band or other suitable means to the bulb of a thermometer graduated in tenths of a degree. The thermometer is suspended in a beaker of water (which is agitated by air or other suitable means) so that the bottom of the bulb of the thermometer is immersed to a depth of about 3 cm. The temperature of the water is increased gradually at the rate of about 1deg. per minute.

The point at which the sample becomes opalescent is first noted and the heating continued until the contents of the tube becomes uniformly transparent. The latter temperature is reported as the melting point.

Before finally melting to a perfectly clear fluid, the sample becomes opalescent and usually appears clear at the top, bottom, and sides before becoming clear at the center. The heating is continued until the contents of the tube become uniformly clear and transparent. This temperature is reported as the melting point.[33] It is usually only a fraction of a degree above the opalescent point noted. The thermometer should be read to the nearest 1/2deg. C., and in addition this temperature may be reported to the nearest degree Fahrenheit if desired.

CLOUD TEST.

PRECAUTIONS--(1) The oil must be perfectly dry, because the presence of moisture will produce a turbidity before the clouding point is reached.

(2) The oil must be heated to 150deg. C. over a free flame, immediately before making the test.

(3) There must not be too much discrepancy between the temperature of the bath and the clouding point of the oil. An oil that will cloud at the temperature of hydrant water should be tested in a bath of that temperature. An oil that will cloud in a mixture of ice and water should be tested in such a bath. An oil that will not cloud in a bath of ice and water must be tested in a bath of salt, ice, and water.

DETERMINATION--The oil is heated in a porcelain casserole over a free flame to 150deg. C., stirring with the thermometer. As soon as it can be done with safety, the oil is transferred to a 4 oz. oil bottle, which must be perfectly dry. One and one-half ounces of the oil are sufficient for the test. A dry centigrade thermometer is placed in the oil, and the bottle is then cooled by immersion in a suitable bath. The oil is constantly stirred with the thermometer, taking care not to remove the thermometer from the oil at any time during the test, so as to avoid stirring air bubbles into the oil. The bottle is frequently removed from the bath for a few moments. The oil must not be allowed to chill on the sides and bottom of the bottle. This is effected by constant and vigorous stirring with the thermometer. As soon as the first permanent cloud shows in the body of the oil, the temperature at which this cloud occurs is noted.

With care, results concordant to within 1/2deg. C. can be obtained by this method. A Fahrenheit thermometer is sometimes used because it has become customary to report results in degrees Fahrenheit.

The oil must be tested within a short time after heating to 150deg. C. and a re-test must always be preceded by reheating to that temperature. The cloud point should be approached as quickly as possible, yet not so fast that the oil is frozen on the sides or bottom of the bottle before the cloud test is reached.

Notes on the Above Methods.

SAMPLING.

The standard size of sample adopted by the committee is at least 3 lbs. in weight. The committee realizes that this amount is larger than any samples usually furnished even when representing shipments of from 20,000 to 60,000 lbs. but it believes that the requirement of a larger sample is desirable and will work toward uniform and more concordant results in analysis. It will probably continue to be the custom of the trade to submit smaller buyers' samples than required by the committee, but these are to be considered only as samples for inspection and not for analysis. The standard analytical sample must consist of 3 lbs. or more.

The reasons for keeping samples in a dark, cool place are obvious. This is to prevent any increase in rancidity and any undue increase in free fatty acids. In the case of many fats the committee has found in its co-operative analytical work that free acid tends to increase very rapidly. This tendency is minimized by low temperatures.

MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER.

After careful consideration the committee has decided that moisture is best determined in a vacuum oven of the design which accompanies the above report. Numerous results on check samples have confirmed the committee's conclusions. The oven recommended by the committee is constructed on the basis of well-known principles and it is hoped that this type will be adopted generally by chemists who are called upon to analyze fats and oils. The experiments of the committee indicate that it is a most difficult matter to design a vacuum oven which will produce uniform temperatures throughout; and one of the principal ideas in the design adopted is uniformity of temperature over the entire single shelf. This idea has not quite been realized in practice but, nevertheless, the present design approaches much closer to the ideal than other vacuum ovens commonly used. In the drawing the essential dimensions are those between the heating units and the shelf and the length and breadth of the outer casting. The standard Fat Analysis Committee Oven (F. A. C. Oven) can be furnished by Messrs. E. H. Sargent & Company, 125 West Lake street, Chicago.

The committee realizes that for routine work a quicker method is desirable and has added one such method and has also stated the conditions under which comparable results can be obtained by means of the ordinary well-ventilated air oven held at 105 to 110deg. C. However, in accordance with a fundamental principle adopted by the committee at its first meeting, only one standard method is adopted and declared official for each determination.

The committee realizes that in the case of all methods for determining moisture by means of loss on heating there may be a loss due to volatile matter (especially fatty acids) other than water. The title of the determination MOISTURE AND VOLATILE MATTER indicates this idea, but any considerable error from this source may occur only in the case of high acid fats and oils and particularly those containing lower fatty acids such as coconut and palm kernel oil. In the case of extracted greases which have not been properly purified, some of the solvent may also be included in the moisture and volatile matter determination, but inasmuch as the solvent, usually a petroleum product, can only be considered as foreign matter, for commercial purposes, it is entirely proper to include it with the moisture.

The committee has also considered the various distillation methods for the determination of moisture in fats and oils, but since according to the fundamental principles which it was endeavoring to follow it could only standardize one method, it was decided that the most desirable one on the whole was the vacuum-oven method as given. There are cases wherein a chemist may find it desirable to check a moisture determination or investigate the moisture content of a fat or oil further by means of one of the distillation methods.

However, in co-operative work the distillation method in various types of apparatus has not yielded satisfactory results. The difficulties appear to be connected with a proper choice of solvent and particularly with the tendency of drops of water to adhere to various parts of the glass apparatus instead of passing on to the measuring device. When working on coconut oil containing a high percentage of free fatty acids, concordant results could not be obtained by the various members of the committee when working with identical samples, solvents and apparatus.

On the other hand, the committee found by individual work, co-operative work and collaborative work by several members of the committee in one laboratory, that the old, well-known direct heating method (which the committee has designated the hot plate method) yielded very satisfactory results on all sorts of fats and oils including emulsions such as butter and oleomargarine and even on coconut oil samples containing 15 to 20 per cent free fatty acids and 5 to 6 per cent of moisture. Unfortunately, this method depends altogether on the operator's skill and while the method may be taught to any person whether a chemist or not so that he can obtain excellent results with it, it is difficult to give a sufficiently, complete description of it so that any chemist anywhere after reading the description could follow it successfully. The method is undoubtedly worthy of much confidence in careful hands. It is quick, accurate and reliable. It is probably the best single method for the determination of moisture in all sorts of samples for routine laboratory work. On account of this fact the committee desires to announce its willingness to instruct any person in the proper use of the method who desires to become acquainted with it and who will visit any committee member's laboratory.

INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES.

This determination, the title for which was adopted after careful consideration, determines the impurities which have generally been known as dirt, suspended matter, suspended solids, foreign solids, foreign matter, etc., in the past. The first solvent recommended by the committee is hot kerosene to be followed by petroleum ether kept at ordinary room temperature. Petroleum ether, cold or only slightly warm, is not a good fat and metallic soap solvent, whereas hot kerosene dissolves these substances readily, and for this reason the committee has recommended the double solvent method so as to exclude metallic soaps which are determined below as soluble mineral matter.

SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.

Soluble mineral matter represents mineral matter combined with fatty acids in the form of soaps in solution in the fat or oil. Formerly, this mineral matter was often determined in combination by weighing the separated metallic soap or by weighing it in conjunction with the insoluble impurities. Since the soaps present consist mostly of lime soap, it has been customary to calculate the lime present therein by taking 0.1 the weight of the total metallic soaps. The standard method as given above is direct and involves no calculation. The routine method given in the note has been placed among the methods for the reason that it is used in some laboratories, but has not been adopted as a standard method in view of the fact that the committee has made it a rule to adopt only one standard method. It should be pointed out, however, that the method cannot be considered accurate for the reason that insoluble impurities may vary from sample to sample to a considerable extent and the error due to the presence of large particles of insoluble impurities is thus transferred to the soluble mineral matter. The committee has found one type of grease (naphtha bone grease) which shows most unusual characteristics. The type sample contains 4.3 per cent soluble mineral matter by the committee method which would be equivalent to 43.0 per cent free fatty acid. The kerosene and gasoline filtrate was particularly clear, nevertheless the ash was found to contain 36.43 per cent P_{2}O_{5} equivalent to 79.60 per cent of Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2} and 9.63 per cent of Fe_{2}O_{3}. The method, therefore, determines the soluble mineral matter in this case satisfactorily but the factor 10 is not applicable for calculating the fatty acids combined therewith. It is necessary, therefore, in order to determine the fatty acids combined with soluble mineral matter in the original sample to determine the actual bases in the soluble mineral matter as obtained by ashing the kerosene and gasoline filtrate. To the bases so determined the factor 10 can then be applied.

FREE FATTY ACID.

The fatty acid method adopted is sufficiently accurate for commercial purposes. In many routine laboratories the fat or oil is measured and not weighed, but the committee recommends weighing the sample in all cases. For scientific purposes the result is often expressed as "acid number," meaning the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free acids in one gram of fat, but the commercial practice has been, and is, to express the fatty acids as oleic acid or in the case of palm oil, as palmitic acid, in some instances. The committee sees no objection to the continuation of this custom so long as the analytical report clearly indicates how the free acid is expressed. For a more exact expression of the free acid in a given fat, the committee recommends that the ratio of acid number to saponification number be used. This method of expressing results is subject to error when unsaponifiable fatty matter is present, since the result expresses the ratio of free fatty acid to total saponifiable fatty matter present.

TITER.

At the present time the prices of glycerol and caustic potash are abnormally high, but the committee has considered that the methods adopted are for normal times and normal prices. For routine work during the period of high prices the following method may be used for preparing the fatty acids and is recommended by the committee:

Fifty grams of fat are saponified with 60 cc. of a solution of 2 parts of methyl alcohol to 1 of 50 per cent NaOH. The soap is dried, pulverized and dissolved in 1000 cc. of water in a porcelain dish and then decomposed with 25 cc. of 75 per cent sulphuric acid. The fatty acids are boiled until clear oil is formed and then collected and settled in a 150-cc. beaker and filtered into a 50-cc. beaker. They are then heated to 130deg. C. as rapidly as possible with stirring, and transferred, after they have cooled somewhat, to the usual 1-in. by 4-in. titer tube.

The method of taking the titer, including handling the thermometer, to be followed is the same as that described in the standard method. Even at present high prices many laboratories are using the glycerol-caustic potash method for preparing the fatty acids, figuring that the saving of time more than compensates for the extra cost of the reagents. Caustic soda cannot be substituted for caustic potash in the glycerol method.

UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER.

The committee has considered unsaponifiable matter to include those substances frequently found dissolved in fats and oils which are not saponified by the caustic alkalies and which at the same time are soluble in the ordinary fat solvents. The term includes such substances as the higher alcohols, such as cholesterol which is found in animal fats, phytosterol found in some vegetable fats, paraffin and petroleum oils, etc. UNSAPONIFIABLE MATTER should not be confused in the lay mind with INSOLUBLE IMPURITIES OR SOLUBLE MINERAL MATTER.

The method adopted by the committee has been selected only after the most careful consideration of other methods, such as the dry extraction method and the wet method making use of the separatory funnel. At first consideration the dry extraction process would seem to offer the best basis for an unsaponifiable matter method, but in practice it has been found absolutely impossible for different analysts to obtain agreeing results when using any of the dry extraction methods proposed. Therefore, this method had to be abandoned after numerous trials, although several members of the committee strongly favored it in the beginning.

IODINE NUMBER--The iodine number adopted by the committee is that determined by the well-known Wijs method. This method was adopted after careful comparison with the Hanus and Huebl methods. The Huebl method was eliminated from consideration almost at the beginning of the committee's work for the reason that the time required for complete absorption of the iodine is unnecessarily long and, in fact, even after absorption has gone on over night, it is apparently not complete. In the case of the Hanus and Wijs methods complete absorption takes place in from 15 minutes to an hour, depending on conditions. Formerly, many chemists thought the Hanus solution rather easier to prepare than the Wijs solution, but the experience of the committee was that the Wijs solution was no more difficult to prepare than the Hanus. Furthermore, absorption of iodine from the Wijs solution appeared to take place with greater promptness and certainty than from the Hanus and was complete in a shorter time. Results by the Wijs method were also in better agreement in the case of oils showing high iodine absorption than with the Hanus solution and showed a slightly higher iodine absorption for the same length of time. However, the difference was not great. The committee investigated the question of substitution since it has been suggested that in case of the Wijs solution substitution of iodine in the organic molecule might occur, and found no evidence of this in the time required for the determination, namely, 1/2 hr., or even for a somewhat longer period. One member of the committee felt that it was not desirable to introduce the Wijs method into these standard methods since the Hanus method was already standardized by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, but the committee felt that it must follow the principle established at the commencement of its work, namely, that of adopting the method which appeared to be the best from all standpoints, taking into consideration accuracy, convenience, simplicity, time, expense, etc., without allowing precedent to have the deciding vote.

IODINE NUMBER, TUNG OIL--The committee has made an extensive study of the application of the Wijs method to the determination of iodine value in the case of tung oil with the result that it recommends the method for this oil but has thought it desirable to limit the conditions under which the determination is conducted rather narrowly, although reasonably good results are obtained by the committee method without making use of the special limitations.

The co-operative work of the committee and the special investigations conducted by individual members bring out the following points:

_Influence of Temperature_--From 16deg. C. to 30deg. C. there is a moderate increase in the absorption, but above 30deg. the increase is rather rapid so that it was thought best to limit the temperature in the case of tung oil to 20deg. to 25deg. C.

_Influence of Time_--The absorption increases with the time but apparently complete absorption, so far as unsaturated bonds are concerned, occurs well within one hour's time. Consequently, one hour was set as the practical limit.

_Influence of Excess_--The excess of iodine solution also tends to increase the iodine number, hence the Committee thought it necessary to limit the excess rather rigidly to 55 +- 3 per cent, although with greater latitude results were reasonably good.

_Influence of Age of Solution_--Old solutions tend to give low results although up to 2 mo. no great differences were observed. Nevertheless, it was thought best to limit the age of the solution to 30 days--long enough for all practical purposes.

_Amount of Sample_--As a practical amount of sample to be weighed out the Committee decided on 0.15 g. with a tolerance of 0.05 g. in either direction according to preference. In other words, the amount of sample to be taken for the determination to be from 0.1 to 0.2 g. in the discretion of the analyst.

The Committee's study of the Huebl method which has been adopted by the Society for Testing Materials in the case of tung oil indicates that this method when applied to tung oil is subject to the same influences as the Wijs method and it has the additional very serious disadvantage of requiring a long period of time for absorption which cannot be considered reasonable for a modern analytical method. When using the Huebl solution, the absorption is not complete in the case of tung oil at 3, 7, 18 or even 24 hrs.

The Hanus method in the case of tung oil gives very high and erratic results, as high as 180 to 240 in ordinary cases for an oil whose true iodine number is about 165.

MELTING POINT.

A melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance assumes the liquid condition. If the solid is a pure substance in the crystalline condition the melting point is sharp and well defined for any given pressure. With increased pressure the melting point is lowered or raised, depending on whether the substance contracts or expands in melting. The lowering or raising of the melting point with pressure is very slight and ordinarily is not taken into consideration. Melting-point determinations are commonly carried out under ordinary atmospheric pressures without correction. The general effect of soluble impurities is to lower the melting point, and this holds true whether the impurity has a higher or lower melting point than the pure substance (solvent). Thus if a small amount of stearic acid be added to liquid palmitic acid and the solution frozen, the melting point of this solid will be lower than that of palmitic acid. Likewise the melting point of stearic acid is lowered by the addition of a small amount of palmitic acid. A eutectic mixture results when two components solidify simultaneously at a definite temperature. Such a mixture has a constant melting point and because of this and also because both solid and liquid phases have the same composition, eutectic mixtures were formerly looked upon as compounds. The phenomenon of double melting points has been observed in the case of a number of glycerides. Such a glyceride when placed in the usual capillary tube and subjected to increasing temperature quickly resolidifies only to melt again and remain melted at a still higher temperature. This phenomenon has not yet been sufficiently investigated to afford a satisfactory explanation.

Non-crystalline substances such as glass, sealing wax and various other waxes and wax mixtures, and most colloidal substances do not exhibit a sharp melting point, but under the application of heat first soften very gradually and at a considerably higher temperature melt sufficiently to flow. This phenomenon of melting through a long range of temperature may be due to the amorphous nature of the substance or to the fact that it consists of a very large number of components of many different melting points.

The fats and oils of natural origin, that is, the animal and vegetable fats and oils, consist of mixtures of glycerides and, generally speaking, of a considerable number of such components. These components are crystalline and when separated in the pure state have definite melting points, although some exhibit the phenomenon of double melting point. For the most part the naturally occurring glycerides are mixed glycerides. In the natural fats and oils there are present also certain higher alcohols, of which cholesterol is characteristic of the animal fats and oils and phytosterol of many of the vegetable fats and oils. In addition to the crystalline glycerides and the higher alcohols present in neutral fats, there are in fats of lower grade, fatty acids, which are crystalline, and also various non-crystalline impurities of an unsaponifiable nature, and the presence of these impurities tends to lower the melting point. They also tend to induce undercooling and when the liquid fat or oil is being chilled for purposes of solidification or in determination of titer.

The presence of water, especially when this is thoroughly mixed or emulsified with a fat or oil, also influences the melting point to a marked extent, causing the mixture to melt through a longer range of temperatures than would be the case if the water were absent. This is particularly true of emulsified fats and oils, such as butter and oleomargarine, both of which contain, besides water, the solids naturally present in milk or cream and including casein, milk sugar, and salts. The melting-point method recommended by the Committee is not applicable to such emulsions or other watery mixtures and the Committee has found it impossible to devise an accurate method for making softening-point or melting-point determinations on products of this nature. Not only the amount of water present but also the fineness of its particles, that is, its state of subdivision and distribution, in a fat or oil influences the softening point or melting point and causes it to vary widely in different samples.

As a consequence of the foregoing facts, natural fats and oils do not exhibit a definite melting point, composed as they are of mixtures of various crystalline glycerides, higher alcohols, fatty acids, and non-crystalline substances. Therefore, the term melting point when applied to them requires further definition. They exhibit first a lower melting point (the melting point of the lowest melting component) or what might be called the softening point and following this the fat softens through a shorter or longer range of temperature to the final melting point at which temperature the fat is entirely liquid. This is the melting point determined by the Committee's melting-point method. The range between the softening point and the final melting point varies greatly with the different fats and oils depending on their chemical components, the water associated with them, emulsification, etc. In the case of coconut oil the range between softening point and final melting point is rather short; in the case of butter, long. Various methods have been devised to determine the so-called melting point of fats and oils. Most of these methods, however, determine, not the melting point, but the softening point or the flow point of the fat and the great difficulty has been in the past to devise a method which would determine even this point with reasonable accuracy and so that results could be easily duplicated. It has been the aim of the Committee to devise a simple method for the determination of the melting point of fats and oils, but it should be understood that the term melting point in the scientific sense is not applicable to natural fats and oils.

FOOTNOTES:

[22] Approved by the Supervisory Committee on Standard Methods of Analysis of the American Chemical Society.

[23] Live steam must not be turned into tank cars or coils before samples are drawn, since there is no certain way of telling when coils are free from leaks.

[24] If there is water present under the solid material this must be noted and estimated separately.

[25] Boiling point of water at reduced pressures.

Pressure Boiling Point Boiling Point Boiling Point Mm. Hg. to 1deg. C. +15deg. C. +20deg. C. 100 52deg. C. 67deg. C. 72deg. C. 90 50 65 70 80 47 62 67 70 45 60 65 60 42 57 62 50 38 53 58 40 34 49 54

[26] Results comparable to those of the Standard Method may be obtained on most fats and oils by drying 5-g. portions of the sample, prepared and weighed as above, to constant weight in a well-constructed and well-ventilated air oven held uniformly at a temperature of 105deg. to 110deg. C. The thermometer bulb should be close to the sample. The definition of constant weight is the same as for the Standard Method.

[27] The following method is suggested by the Committee for routine control work: Weigh out 5- to 25-g. portions of prepared sample into a glass or aluminum (_Caution_: Aluminum soap may be formed) beaker or casserole and heat on a heavy asbestos board over burner or hot plate, taking care that the temperature of the sample does not go above 130deg. C. at any time. During the heating rotate the vessel gently on the board by hand to avoid sputtering or too rapid evolution of moisture. The proper length of time of heating is judged by absence of rising bubbles of steam, by the absence of foam or by other signs known to the operator. Avoid overheating of sample as indicated by smoking or darkening. Cool in desiccator and weigh.

By co-operative work in several laboratories, the Committee has demonstrated that this method can be used and satisfactory results obtained on coconut oil even when a considerable percentage of free fatty acids is present, and the method is recommended for this purpose. Unfortunately on account of the very great personal factor involved, the Committee cannot establish this method as a preferred method. Nevertheless, after an operator has learned the technique of the method, it gives perfectly satisfactory results for ordinary oils and fats, butter, oleomargarine and coconut oil, and deserves more recognition than it has heretofore received.

[28] For routine control work, filter paper is sometimes more convenient than the prepared Gooch crucible, but must be very carefully washed, especially around the rim, to remove the last traces of fat.

[29] For routine work, an ash may be run on the original fat, and the soluble mineral matter obtained by deducting the ash on the insoluble impurities from this. In this case the Gooch crucible should be prepared with an ignited asbestos mat so that the impurities may be ashed directly after being weighed. In all cases ignition should be to constant weight so as to insure complete decomposition of carbonates.

[30] See note on Soluble Mineral Matter following these methods. When the ash contains phosphates the factor 10 cannot be applied, but the bases consisting of calcium oxide, etc., must be determined, and the factor 10 applied to them.

[31] For routine work methyl or denatured ethyl alcohol of approximately 95 per cent strength may be used. With these reagents the end-point is not sharp.

[32] P. C. McIlhiney, _J. Am. Chem. Soc._, 29 (1917), 1222, gives the following details for the preparation of the iodine monochloride solution:

The preparation of the iodine monochloride solution presents no great difficulty, but it must be done with care and accuracy in order to obtain satisfactory results. There must be in the solution no sensible excess either of iodine or more particularly of chlorine, over that required to form the monochloride. This condition is most satisfactorily attained by dissolving in the whole of the acetic acid to be used the requisite quantity of iodine, using a gentle heat to assist the solution, if it is found necessary, setting aside a small portion of this solution, while pure and dry chlorine is passed into the remainder until the halogen content of the whole solution is doubled. Ordinarily it will be found that by passing the chlorine into the main part of the solution until the characteristic color of free iodine has just been discharged there will be a slight excess of chlorine which is corrected by the addition of the requisite amount of the unchlorinated portion until all free chlorine has been destroyed. A slight excess of iodine does little or no harm, but excess of chlorine must be avoided.

[33] The melting point of oils may be determined in general according to the above procedure, taking into consideration the lower temperature required.

PLANT AND MACHINERY

Illustrations of machinery and layouts of the plant of a modern soap-making establishment.

Appendix

Tables marked * are taken from the German Year Book for Soap Industry.

(U. S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS)

THE METRIC SYSTEM.

The fundamental unit of the metric system is the meter (the unit of length). From this the units of mass (gram) and capacity (liter) are derived. All other units are the decimal sub-divisions or multiples of these. These three units are simply related, so that for all practical purposes the volume of one kilogram of water (one liter) is equal to one cubic decimeter.

============================================================ | Prefixes. Meaning. | Units. ________________________________________|___________________ | Milli- = one thousandth 1-1000 .001 | Centi- = one hundredth 1-100 .01 | Meter for length. Deci- = one tenth 1-10 .1 | Unit = one 1. | Gram for mass. Deka- = ten 10-1 10. | Hecto- = one hundred 100-1 100. | Liter for capacity. Kilo- = one thousand 1000-1 1000. | ============================================================

The metric terms are formed by combining the words "Meter," "Gram" and "Liter" with the six numerical prefixes.

LENGTH

10 milli-meters mm = 1 centi-meter c m

10 centi-meters = 1 deci-meter d m

10 deci-meters = 1 meter (about 40 inches) m

10 meters = 1 deka-meter d k m

10 deka-meters = 1 hecto-meter h m

10 hecto-meters = 1 kilo-meter (about 5/8 mile) k m

MASS.

10 milli-grams. m g = 1 centi-gram c g 10 centi-grams = 1 deci-gram d g 10 deci-grams = 1 gram (about 15 grains) g 10 grams = 1 deka-gram d k g 10 Deka-grams = 1 hecto-gram h g 10 hecto-grams = 1 kilo-gram (about 2 pounds) k g

CAPACITY.

10 milli-liters. m l = 1 centi-liter c l 10 centi-liters = 1 deci-liter d l 10 deci-liters = 1 liter (about 1 quart) l 10 liters = 1 deka-liter d k l 10 deka-liters = 1 hecto-liter (about a barrel) h l 10 hecto-liters = 1 kilo-liter k l

The square and cubic units are the squares and cubes of the linear units.

The ordinary unit of land area is the Hectare (about 2-1/2 acres).

U.S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLE OF METRIC EQUIVALENTS

Meter = 39.37 inches.

Legal Equivalent Adopted by Act of Congress July 28, 1866.

LENGTH.

Centimeter = 0.3937 inch Meter = 3.28 feet Meter = 1.094 yards Kilometer = 0.621 statute mile Kilometer = 0.5396 nautical mile Inch = 2.540 centimeters Foot = 0.305 meter Yard = 0.914 meter Statute mile = 1.61 kilometers Nautical mile = 1.853 kilometers

AREA.

Sq. centimeter = 0.155 sq. inch Sq. meter = 10.76 sq. feet Sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yards Hectare = 2.47 acres Sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. mile Sq. inch = 6.45 sq. centimeters Sq. foot = 0.0929 sq. meter Sq. yard = 0.836 sq. meter Acre = 0.405 hectare Sq. mile = 2.59 sq. kilometers

WEIGHT.

Gram = 15.43 grains Gram = 0.772 U. S. apoth. scruple Gram = 0.2572 U. S. apoth. dram Gram = 0.0353 avoir. ounce Gram = 0.03215 troy ounce Kilogram = 2.205 avoir. pounds Kilogram = 2.679 troy pounds Metric ton = 0.984 gross or long ton Metric ton = 1.102 short or net tons Grain = 0.064 gram U. S. apoth. scruple = 1.296 grams U. S. apoth. dram = 3.89 grams Avoir. ounce = 28.35 grams Troy ounce = 31.10 grams Avoir. pound = 0.4536 kilogram Troy pound = 0.373 kilogram Gross or long ton = 1.016 metric tons Short or net ton = 0.907 metric ton

VOLUME.

Cu. centimeter = 0.0610 cu. inch Cu. meter = 35.3 cu. feet Cu. meter = 1.308 cu. yards Cu. inch = 16.39 cu. centimeters Cu. foot = 0.283 cu. meter Cu. yard = 0.765 cu. meter

CAPACITY.

Millimeter = 0.0338 U. S. liq. ounce Millimeter = 0.2705 U. S. apoth. dram Liter = 1.057 U. S. liq. quarts Liter = 0.2642 U. S. liq. gallon Liter = 0.908 U. S. dry quart Dekaliter = 1.135 U. S. pecks Hectoliter = 2.838 U. S. bushels U. S. liq. ounce = 29.57 millimeters U. S. apoth. dram = 3.70 millimeters U. S. liq. quarts = 0.946 liter U. S. dry quarts = 1.101 liters U. S. liq. gallon = 3.785 liters U. S. peck = 0.881 dekaliter U. S. bushel = 0.3524 hectoliter

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

1 pound = 16 ounces = 256 drams 1 ounce = 16 "

TROY (APOTHECARIES') WEIGHT (U. S.)

1 pound = 12 ounces = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5,760 grains 1 ounce = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains 1 dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains 1 scruple = 20 grains

WINE (APOTHECARIES) LIQUID MEASURE (U. S.)

1 gallon = 8 pints = 128 fl. ozs. = 1,024 fl. drams = 61,440 minims 1 pint = 16 fl. ozs. = 128 fl. drams = 7,689 minims 1 fl. oz. = 8 fl. drams = 480 minims 1 fl. dram = 60 minims

_To find diameter of a circle_ multiply circumference by .31831.

_To find circumference of a circle_, multiply diameter by 3.1416.

_To find area of a circle_, multiply square of diameter by .7854.

_To find surface of a ball_, multiply square of diameter by 3.1416.

_To find side of an equal square_, multiply diameter by .8862.

_To find cubic inches in a ball_, multiply cube of diameter by .5236.

_Doubling the diameter of a pipe_, increases its capacity four times.

_One cubic foot of anthracite coal_ weighs about 53 lbs.

_One cubic foot of bituminous coal_ weighs from 47 to 50 pounds.

_A gallon of water_ (U. S. standard) weighs 8-1/3 pounds and contains 231 cubic inches.

_A cubic foot of water_ contains 7-1/2 gallons, 1728 cubic inches and weighs 62-1/2 pounds.

_To find the number of pounds of water a cylindrical_ tank contains, square the diameter, multiply by .785 and then by the height in feet. This gives the number of cubic feet which multiplied by 62-1/2 gives the capacity in pounds of water. Divide by 7-1/2 and this gives the capacity in gallons.

_A horse-power_ is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds 1 foot per minute, or 550 pounds 1 foot per second.

_The friction of water in pipes_ is as the square of velocity. The capacity of pipes is as the square of their diameters; thus, doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times.

_To find the diameter of a pump cylinder_ to move a given quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the standard of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder.

_To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water_ to a given height, multiply the weight of the water elevated per minute in pounds by the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance should be added for water friction, and a further allowance for loss in steam cylinder, say from 20 to 30 per cent).

_To compute the capacity of pumping engines_, multiply the area of water piston, in inches, by the distance it travels, in inches, in a given time. Deduct 3 per cent for slip and rod displacement. The product divided by 231 gives the number of gallons in time named.

_To find the velocity in feet per minute_ necessary to discharge a given volume of water in a given time, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide the product by the area of the pipe in inches.

_To find the area of a required pipe_, the volume and velocity of water being given, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide the product by the velocity in feet per minute. The area being found, the diameter can be learned by using any table giving the "area of circles" and finding the nearest area, opposite to which will be found the diameter to correspond.

Physical and Chemical Constants of Fixed Oils and Fats.

(FROM LEWKOWITSCH AND OTHER AUTHORITIES.)

______________________________________________________________________________ | |Specific | | | | Specific |gravity | Melting- |Solidifying- | | gravity | at | point. | point. | | at 15deg.C.|100deg.C. | deg. C. | deg. C. | _______________________|____________|__________|_____________|_______________| | | | | | Linseed oil | 0.931-0.938| 0.880 | -16 to -26 | -16 | Hemp-seed oil | 0.925-0.931| | | -27 | Walnut oil | 0.925-0.926| 0.871 | | -27 | Poppy-seed oil | 0.924-0.927| 0.873 | | -18 | Sunflower oil | 0.924-0.926| 0.919 | | -17 | Fir-seed oil | 0.925-0.928| | | -27 to -30 | Maize oil | 0.921-0.926| | | -10 to -15 | Cotton-seed oil | 0.922-0.930| 0.867 | | 12 | Sesame oil | 0.923-0.924| 0.871 | | -5 | Rape-seed oil | 0.914-0.917| 0.863 | | -2 to -10 | Black mustard oil | 0.916-0.920| | | -17.5 | Croton oil | 0.942-0.955| | | -16 | Castor oil | 0.960-0.966| 0.910 | | -12 to -18 | Apricot-kernel oil | 0.915-0.919| | | -14 | Almond oil | | 0.915-0.920| | | -10 to -20 | Peanut (arachis) oil | 0.916-0.920| 0.867 | | -3 to -7 | Olive oil | 0.914-0.917| 0.862 | | 2 | Menhaden oil | 0.927-0.933| | | -4 | Cod-liver oil | 0.922-0.927| 0.874 | | 0 to -10 | Seal oil | 0.924-0.929| 0.873 | | 3 | Whale oil | 0.920-0.930| 0.872 | | -2 | Dolphin oil | 0.917-0.918| | | 5 to -3 | Porpoise oil | 0.926 | 0.871 | | -16 | Neat's-foot oil | 0.914-0.916| 0.861 | | 0 to 1.5 | Cotton-seed stearine | 0.919-0.923| 0.867 | 40 | 31 to 32.5 | Palm oil | 0.921-0.925| 0.856 | 27 to 42 | | Cacao butter | 0.950-0.952| 0.858 | 30 to 33 | 25 to 26 | Cocoa-nut oil | 0.925-0.926| 0.873 | 20 to 26 | 16 to 20 | Myrtle wax | 0.995 | 0.875 | 40 to 44 | 39 to 43 | Japan wax | 0.970-0.980| 0.875 | 51 to 54.5 | 46 | Lard | 0.931-0.938| 0.861 | 41 to 46 | 29 | Bone fat | 0.914-0.916| | 21 to 22 | 15 to 17 | Tallow | 0.943-0.952| 0.860 | 42 to 46 | 35 to 37 | Butter fat | 0.927-0.936| 0.866 | 29.5 to 33 | 19 to 20 | Oleomargarine | 0.924-0.930| 0.859 | | | Sperm oil | 0.875-0.884| 0.833 | | -25 | Bottle-nose oil | 0.879-0.880| 0.827 | | | Carnauba wax | 0.990-0.999| 0.842 | 84 to 85 | 80 to 81 | Wool-fat | 0.973 | 0.901 | 39 to 42 | 30 to 30.2 | Beeswax | 0.958-0.969| 0.822 | 62 to 64 | 60.5 to 62 | Spermaceti | 0.960 | 0.812 | 43.5 to 49 | 43.4 to 44.2 | Chinese wax | 0.970 | 0.810 | 80.5 to 81 | 80.5 to 81 | Tung (Chinese wood oil)| 0.936-0.942| | | below -17 | Soya-bean oil | 0.924-0.927| | | 8 to 15 | _______________________|____________|__________|_____________|_______________|

Physical and Chemical Constants of Fixed Oils and Fats.

(FROM LEWKOWITSCH AND OTHER AUTHORITIES.)

Column Headings: A: Saponification value. B: Maumene test. (deg.) C: Iodine value. D: Hehner value. E: Reichert value.

____________________________________________________________________________ | | | | | | | [A] | [B] | [C] | [D] | [E] | ___________________|_____________|___________|____________|_________|______| | | | | | | Linseed oil | 190-195 | 104-111 | 175-190 | | | Hemp-seed oil | 190-193 | 95-96 | 148 | | | Walnut oil | 195 | 96-101 | 144-147 | | | Poppy-seed oil | 195 | 86-88 | 134-141 | 95.38 | | Sunflower oil | 193-194 | 72-75 | 120-129 | 95 | | Fir-seed oil | 191.3 | 98-99 | 118.9-120 | | | Maize oil | 188-193 | 56-60.5 | 117-125 | 89-95.7 | 2.5 | Cotton-seed oil | 191-195 | 68-77 | 104-110 | 96-17 | | Sesame oil | 189-193 | 64-68 | 105-109 | 95.8 | 0.35 | Rape-seed oil | 170-178 | 51-60 | 95-105 | 95 | | Black mustard oil | 174-174.6 | 43-44 | 96-110 | 95.05 | | Croton oil | 210.3-215 | | 101.7-104 | 89 | 13.5 | Castor oil | 178-186 | 46-47 | 83.4-85.9 | | 1.4 | Apricot-kernel oil | 192.2-193.1 | 42.5-46 | 100-107 | | | Almond oil | 190.5-195.4 | 51-54 | 93-97 | 96.2 | | Peanut (arachis) | | | | | | oil | 190-197 | 45-49 | 85-98 | 95.86 | | Olive oil | 191-196 | 41.5-45.5 | 80.6-84.5 | 95.43 | 0.3 | Menhaden oil | 189.3-192 | 123-128 | 140-170 | | 1.2 | Cod-liver oil | 182-187 | 102-103 | 154-180 | 95.3 | | Seal oil | 190-196 | 92 | 127-140 | 94.2 | 0.22 | Whale-oil | 188-193 | 91-92 | 110-136 | 93.5 | 2.04 | Dolphin {Body oil | 197.3 | | 99.5 | 93.07 | 5.6 | oil {Jaw oil | 200 | | 32.8 | 66.28 |65.92 | Porpoise {Body oil | 216-218.8 | 50 | 119.4 | |23.45 | oil {Jaw oil | 253.7 | | 49.6 | 68.41 |65.8 | Neat's-foot oil | 194.3 | 47-48.5 | 69.3-70.4 | | | Cotton-seed | | | | | | stearine. | 194.6-195.1 | 48 | 88.7-92.8 | 96.3 | | Palm oil | 196.3-202 | | 53-57 | 95.6 | 0.5 | Cacao butter | 192.2-193.5 | | 32-41 | 94.59 | 1.6 | Cocoa-nut oil | 250-253 | | 8.5-9.3 | 88.6 | 3.7 | Myrtle wax | 205.7-211.7 | | 2.9 | | | Japan wax | 220-222.4 | | 4.2-8.5 | 90.6 | | Lard | 195.3-196.6 | 27-32 | 57-70 | 96 | | Bone fat | 190.9 | | 46.3-49.6 | | | Tallow | 195-198 | | 36-47 | 95.6 | 0.25 | Butter fat | 221.5-227 | | 26-35 | 87.5 |28.78 | Oleomargarine | 194-203.7 | | 55.3-60 | 95-96 | 2.6 | Sperm oil | 132.5-147 | 47-51 | 84 | | 1.3 | Bottle-nose oil | 126-134 | 41-47 | 77.4-82 | | 1.4 | Carnauba wax | 80-84 | | 13.5 | | | Wool-fat | 98.2-102.4 | | 25-28 | | | Beeswax | 91-96 | | 8.3-11 | | | Spermaceti | 128 | | | | | Chinese wax | 63 | | | | | Tung (Chinese | | | | | | wood oil) | 193 | | 150-165 | | | Soya-bean oil | 190.6-192.9 | 59-61 | 121.3-124 | 95.5 | | ___________________|_____________|___________|____________|_________|______|

*Temperature Correction Table for Hehner's Concentrated Bichromate Solution for Glycerine Analysis

_____________________________________________ | | A | f | Temperature | Corrected Volume | Logarithm | 1 c.c. | _______________|__________________|__________ | | 11deg. C | 0.9980 ccm | 99913 12deg. " | 0.9985 " | 99935 13deg. " | 0.9990 " | 99956 14deg. " | 0.9995 " | 99978 15deg. " | 1.0000 " | 00000 16deg. " | 1.0005 " | 00022 17deg. " | 1.0010 " | 00043 18deg. " | 1.0015 " | 00065 19deg. " | 1.0020 " | 00087 20deg. " | 1.0025 " | 00108 21deg. " | 1.0030 " | 00130 22deg. " | 1.0035 " | 00152 23deg. " | 1.0040 " | 00173 _______________|__________________|__________

*Table of Important Fatty Acids

______________________________________________________________________________ | | | | | | | | Boiling Point | | | | |______________________| |Neutral- | | Mol. | | | Melt- |ization Name | Formula | Wt. | Ordinary | 100 mm | ing |value | | | Pressure | Pressure | Pt. | Mg. KOH ___________|___________________|______|__________|___________|_______|________ | | | | | | Butyric | C_{4}H_{8}O_{2} | 88 | 162.3 | | |637.5 Caproic | C_{6}H_{12}O_{2} | 116 | 199.7 | | |483.6 Caprylic | C_{8}H_{16}O_{2} | 144 | 236-237 | | 16.5 |389.6 Capric | C_{10}H_{20}O_{2} | 172 | 268-270 | 199.5-200 | 31.3 |326.2 Lauric | C_{12}H_{24}O_{2} | 200 | | 225 | 43.6 |280.5 Myristic | C_{14}H_{28}O_{2} | 228 | | 250.5 | 53.8 |246.1 Palmitic | C_{16}H_{32}O_{2} | 256 | | 268.5 | 62 |219.1 Stearic | C_{18}H_{36}O_{2} | 284 | | 291 | 69.2 |197.5 Arachidic | C_{20}H_{40}O_{2} | 302 | | | 75 |185.8 Behenic | C_{22}H_{44}O_{2} | 330 | | | 77-78 |170.0 Cerotic | C_{27}H_{54}O_{2} | 400 | | | 78 |140.25 Melissic | C_{30}H_{60}O_{2} | 442 | | | 90 |126.5 Oleic | C_{18}H_{34}O_{2} | 282 | | 185.5-286 | 14 |198.9 Erucic | C_{22}H_{42}O_{2} | 338 | | | 33-34 |165.9 Linolic | C_{18}H_{32}O_{2} | 280 | | | |200.4 Linolenic | C_{18}H_{30}O_{2} | 278 | | | |201.5 Ricinoleic | C_{18}H_{34}O_{3} | 298 | | | |181.6 ___________|___________________|______|__________|___________|_______|________

*Comparison of Thermometer Scales

n Degree Celsius = 4/5n Degree Reaumur = 32 + 9/5n Degree Fahrenheit

n Degree Reaumur = 5/4n Degree Celsius = 32 + 9/4n Degree Fahrenheit

n Degree Fahrenheit = 5/9 (n - 32) Degree Celsius = 4/9 (n - 32) Deg. R

============================================================================ C. R. F. | C. R. F. | C. R. F. | C. R. F. --------------------|------------------|------------------|----------------- -20 -16 -4 | 20 16 68 | 60 48 140 | 100 80 212 -19 -15.2 -2.2 | 21 16.8 69.8 | 61 48.8 141.8 | 101 80.8 213.8 -18 -14.4 -0.4 | 22 17.6 71.6 | 62 49.6 143.6 | 102 81.6 215.6 -17 -13.6 1.4 | 23 18.4 73.4 | 63 50.4 145.4 | 103 82.4 217.4 -16 -12.8 3.2 | 24 19.2 75.2 | 64 51.2 147.2 | 104 83.2 219.2 | | | -15 -12 5 | 25 20 77 | 65 52 149 | 105 84 221 -14 -11.2 6.8 | 26 20.8 78.8 | 66 52.8 150.8 | 106 84.8 222.8 -13 -10.4 8.6 | 27 21.6 80.6 | 67 53.6 152.6 | 107 85.6 224.6 -12 -9.6 10.4 | 28 22.4 82.4 | 68 54.4 154.4 | 108 86.4 226.4 -11 -8.8 12.2 | 29 23.2 84.2 | 69 55.2 156.2 | 109 87.2 228.2 | | | -10 -8 14 | 30 24 86 | 70 56 158 | 110 88 230 -9 -7.2 15.8 | 31 24.8 87.8 | 71 56.8 159.8 | 111 88.8 231.8 -8 -6.4 17.6 | 32 25.6 89.6 | 72 57.6 161.6 | 112 89.6 233.6 -7 -5.6 19.4 | 33 26.4 91.4 | 73 58.4 163.4 | 113 90.4 235.4 -6 -4.8 21.2 | 34 27.2 93.2 | 74 59.2 165.2 | 114 91.2 237.2 | | | -5 -4 23 | 35 28 95 | 75 60 167 | 115 92 239 -4 -3.2 24.8 | 36 28.8 96.8 | 76 60.8 168.8 | 116 92.8 240.8 -3 -2.4 26.6 | 37 29.6 98.6 | 77 61.6 170.6 | 117 93.6 242.6 -2 -1.6 28.4 | 38 30.4 100.4 | 78 62.4 172.4 | 118 94.4 244.4 -1 -0.8 30.2 | 39 31.2 102.2 | 79 63.2 174.2 | 119 95.2 246.2 | | | 0 0 32 | 40 32 104 | 80 64 176 | 120 96 248 1 0.8 33.8 | 41 32.8 105.8 | 81 64.8 177.8 | 121 96.8 249.8 2 1.6 35.6 | 42 33.6 107.6 | 82 65.6 179.6 | 122 97.6 252.6 3 2.4 37.4 | 43 34.4 109.4 | 83 66.4 181.4 | 123 98.4 253.4 4 3.2 39.2 | 44 35.2 111.2 | 84 67.2 183.2 | 124 99.2 255.2 | | | 5 4 41 | 45 36 113 | 85 68 185 | 125 100 257 6 4.8 42.8 | 46 36.8 114.8 | 86 68.8 186.8 | 126 100.8 258.8 7 5.6 44.6 | 47 37.6 116.6 | 87 69.6 188.6 | 127 101.6 260.6 8 6.4 46.4 | 48 38.4 118.4 | 88 70.4 190.4 | 128 102.4 262.4 9 7.2 48.2 | 49 39.2 120.2 | 89 71.2 192.2 | 129 103.2 264.2 | | | 10 8 50 | 50 40 122 | 90 72 194 | 130 104 266 11 8.8 51.8 | 51 40.8 123.8 | 91 72.8 195.8 | 131 104.8 267.8 12 9.6 53.6 | 52 41.6 125.6 | 92 73.6 197.6 | 132 105.6 269.6 13 10.4 55.4 | 53 42.4 127.4 | 93 74.4 199.4 | 133 106.4 271.4 14 11.2 57.2 | 54 43.2 129.2 | 94 75.2 201.2 | 134 107.2 273.2 | | | 15 12 59 | 55 44 131 | 95 76 203 | 135 108 275 16 12.8 60.8 | 56 44.8 132.8 | 96 76.8 204.8 | 136 108.8 276.8 17 13.6 62.6 | 57 45.6 134.6 | 97 77.6 206.6 | 137 109.6 278.6 18 14.4 64.4 | 58 46.4 136.4 | 98 78.4 208.4 | 138 110.4 280.4 19 15.2 66.2 | 59 47.2 138.2 | 99 79.2 210.2 | 139 111.2 282.2 ============================================================================

*Quantities of Alkali Required for Saponification of Fats of Average Molecular Weight 670

(Cocoanut Oil, Palmkernel Oil)

_________________________________________________ | | | | Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali | | Solution | Solution | Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.1 | Sp. Gr. 1.2 | ______|_____________________|___________________| | | | | | | NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH | ______|__________|__________|_________|_________| | | | | | 1000 | 1875.83 | 1902.99 | 844.67 | 930.35 | 2000 | 3751.66 | 3805.97 | 1689.35 | 1860.70 | 3000 | 5627.50 | 5708.96 | 2534.02 | 2791.04 | 4000 | 7508.33 | 7611.94 | 3378.69 | 3721.39 | 5000 | 9379.16 | 9514.93 | 4223.37 | 4651.74 | 6000 | 11254.99 | 11417.91 | 5068.04 | 5582.09 | 7000 | 13130.82 | 13320.90 | 5912.71 | 6512.44 | 8000 | 15006.66 | 15223.88 | 6757.38 | 7442.78 | 9000 | 16882.49 | 17126.87 | 7602.06 | 8373.13 | 10000 | 18758.32 | 19029.85 | 8446.73 | 9303.48 | ______|__________|__________|_________|_________|

______________________________________________ | | | Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali | Solution | Solution Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.3 | Sp. Gr. 1.355 ______|___________________|___________________ | | | | | NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH ______|_________|_________|_________|_________ | | | | 1000 | 510.27 | 622.71 | 409.61 | 517.97 2000 | 1020.54 | 1245.41 | 819.21 | 1035.95 3000 | 1530.81 | 1868.12 | 1228.82 | 1553.92 4000 | 2041.01 | 2490.83 | 1638.43 | 2071.90 5000 | 2551.35 | 3113.54 | 2048.04 | 2589.87 6000 | 3061.61 | 3736.24 | 2457.65 | 3107.84 7000 | 3571.88 | 4358.95 | 2867.26 | 3625.82 8000 | 4082.15 | 4981.66 | 3276.86 | 4143.79 9000 | 4592.42 | 5604.36 | 3886.47 | 4661.77 10000 | 5102.69 | 6227.02 | 4096.08 | 5179.74 ______|_________|_________|_________|_________

*Quantities of Alkali Required for Saponification of Fats of Average Molecular Weight 860

(Tallow, Cottonseed Oil, Olive Oil, Etc.)

_________________________________________________ | | | | Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali | | Solution | Solution | Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.1 | Sp. Gr. 1.2 | ______|_____________________|___________________| | | | | | | NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH | ______|__________|__________|_________|_________| | | | | | 1000 | 1461.40 | 1482.56 | 658.05 | 724.81 | 2000 | 2922.81 | 2965.12 | 1316.12 | 1449.61 | 3000 | 4384.21 | 4447.67 | 1974.18 | 2174.42 | 4000 | 5845.62 | 5930.23 | 2632.24 | 2899.22 | 5000 | 7307.02 | 7412.79 | 3290.80 | 3624.03 | 6000 | 8768.42 | 8895.85 | 3948.35 | 4348.84 | 7000 | 10229.83 | 10377.91 | 4606.41 | 5073.64 | 8000 | 11691.23 | 11860.45 | 5264.47 | 5798.45 | 9000 | 13152.64 | 13343.02 | 5922.53 | 6523.25 | 10000 | 14614.04 | 14825.58 | 6580.59 | 7248.06 | ______|__________|__________|_________|_________| ______________________________________________ | | | Liters Alkali | Liters Alkali | Solution | Solution Kilos | Sp. Gr. 1.3 | Sp. Gr. 1.355 ______|___________________|___________________ | | | | | NaOH | KOH | NaOH | KOH ______|_________|_________|_________|_________ | | | | 1000 | 397.54 | 485.13 | 319.11 | 403.54 2000 | 795.07 | 970.27 | 638.23 | 807.08 3000 | 1192.61 | 1455.40 | 957.34 | 1210.61 4000 | 1590.14 | 1940.53 | 1276.45 | 1614.15 5000 | 1987.68 | 2425.67 | 1595.57 | 2017.69 6000 | 2385.21 | 2910.80 | 1914.68 | 2421.23 7000 | 2782.75 | 3395.93 | 2233.79 | 2824.77 8000 | 3180.28 | 3881.06 | 2552.90 | 3228.30 9000 | 3577.82 | 4366.20 | 2872.02 | 3631.84 10000 | 3975.35 | 4851.33 | 3191.13 | 4035.38 ______|_________|_________|_________|_________

DENSITY AND STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC ACID (SIDERSKY).

Column Headings: A: Degrees Twaddell B: Sp. Gr. at 15deg. C. C: % of pure acid (H_{2}SO_{4}). D: Equivalent (in cc.) of a kilo of pure acid. E: Equivalent (in cc.) of a liter of pure acid.

=========================================

[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] _________________________________________

1 1.007 1.9 52.620 96.930 3 1.014 2.8 35.710 66.450 4 1.022 3.8 25.650 47.230 6 1.029 4.8 20.410 37.582 8 1.037 5.8 16.670 30.690 9 1.045 6.8 14.085 25.938 10 1.052 7.8 12.198 22.460 12 1.062 8.8 10.755 19.803 13 1.067 9.8 9.524 17.540 15 1.075 10.9 8.547 15.740 17 1.083 11.9 7.752 14.278 18 1.091 13.0 7.042 12.969 20 1.100 14.1 6.452 11.882 22 1.108 15.2 5.953 10.962 23 1.116 16.2 5.526 10.177 25 1.125 17.3 5.405 9.954 27 1.134 18.5 4.76 8.770 29 1.142 19.6 4.465 8.223 30 1.152 20.8 4.184 7.723 32 1.162 22.2 3.876 7.138 34 1.171 23.3 3.663 6.745 36 1.180 24.5 3.541 6.521 38 1.190 25.8 3.258 5.999 40 1.200 27.1 3.077 5.666 42 1.210 28.4 2.907 5.353 44 1.220 29.6 2.770 5.102 46 1.231 31.0 2.618 4.865 48 1.241 32.2 2.500 4.604 50 1.252 33.4 2.392 4.406 53 1.263 34.7 2.283 4.205 55 1.274 36.0 2.179 4.012 57 1.285 37.4 2.079 3.829 60 1.297 38.8 1.988 3.661 62 1.308 40.2 1.905 3.508 64 1.320 41.6 1.821 3.354 66 1.332 43.0 1.745 3.214 69 1.345 44.4 1.665 3.085 71 1.357 45.5 1.621 2.985 74 1.370 46.9 1.558 2.869 77 1.383 48.3 1.497 2.757 80 1.397 49.8 1.436 2.646 82 1.410 51.2 1.386 2.551 85 1.424 52.6 1.335 2.459 88 1.438 54.0 1.287 2.370 91 1.453 55.4 1.237 2.270 94 1.468 56.9 1.195 2.200 97 1.483 58.3 1.156 2.130 100 1.498 59.6 1.116 2.050 103 1.514 61.0 1.080 1.980 106 1.530 62.5 1.045 1.930 108 1.540 64.0 1.010 1.860 113 1.563 65.5 0.975 1.800 116 1.580 67.0 0.950 1.740 120 1.597 68.6 0.917 1.690 123 1.615 70.0 0.888 1.630 127 1.634 71.6 0.855 1.570 130 1.652 73.2 0.845 1.520 134 1.671 74.7 0.800 1.470 138 1.691 76.4 0.774 1.430 142 1.711 78.1 0.749 1.390 146 1.732 79.9 0.722 1.320 151 1.753 81.7 0.705 1.280 155 1.774 84.1 0.672 1.235 160 1.798 86.5 0.639 1.190 164 1.819 89.7 0.609 1.120 168 1.842 100.0 0.544 1.000

*Densities of Potassium Carbonate Solutions at 15 C (Gerlach)

======================= | | | Per cent | Sp. Gr. | of pure | | K_{2}CO_{3} | ________|_____________| | | 1.00914 | 1 | 1.01829 | 2 | 1.02743 | 3 | 1.03658 | 4 | 1.04572 | 5 | 1.05513 | 6 | 1.06454 | 7 | 1.07396 | 8 | 1.08337 | 9 | 1.09278 | 10 | 1.10258 | 11 | 1.11238 | 12 | 1.12219 | 13 | 1.13199 | 14 | 1.14179 | 15 | 1.15200 | 16 | 1.16222 | 17 | 1.17243 | 18 | 1.18265 | 19 | 1.19286 | 20 | 1.20344 | 21 | 1.21402 | 22 | 1.22459 | 23 | 1.23517 | 24 | 1.24575 | 25 | 1.25681 | 26 | 1.26787 | 27 | 1.27893 | 28 | 1.28999 | 29 | 1.30105 | 30 | 1.31261 | 31 | 1.32417 | 32 | 1.33573 | 33 | 1.34729 | 34 | 1.35885 | 35 | 1.37082 | 36 | 1.38279 | 37 | 1.39476 | 38 | 1.40673 | 39 | 1.41870 | 40 | 1.43104 | 41 | 1.44338 | 42 | 1.45573 | 43 | 1.46807 | 44 | 1.48041 | 45 | 1.49314 | 46 | 1.50588 | 47 | 1.51861 | 48 | 1.53135 | 49 | 1.54408 | 50 | 1.55728 | 51 | 1.57048 | 52 | 1.57079 | 53.024 | ________|_____________|

*Constants of Certain Fatty Acids and Triglycerides

========================================================= | | | | | | Per cent Yield Triglycerides | Mol. Wt. | Mol. Wt. |__________________ of | of Fatty | of Tri- | | | of Fatty | glycerides | Fatty | Glycerine | | | Acid | ______________|__________|____________|_______|___________ | | | | Stearic Acid | 284 | 890 | 95.73 | 10.34 Oleic Acid | 282 | 884 | 95.70 | 10.41 Margaric Acid | 270 | 848 | 95.52 | 10.85 Palmitic Acid | 256 | 806 | 95.28 | 11.42 Myristic Acid | 228 | 722 | 94.47 | 12.74 Lauric Acid | 200 | 638 | 94.04 | 14.42 Capric Acid | 172 | 594 | 93.14 | 15.48 Caproic Acid | 116 | 386 | 90.16 | 23.83 Butyric Acid | 88 | 302 | 87.41 | 30.46 ______________|__________|____________|_______|___________

PERCENTAGES OF SOLID CAUSTIC SODA AND CAUSTIC POTASH IN CAUSTIC LYES ACCORDING TO BAUME SCALE.

Degrees % % Baume. NaOH KOH

1 0.61 0.90 2 0.93 1.70 3 2.00 2.60 4 2.71 3.50 5 3.35 4.50 6 4.00 5.60 7 4.556 6.286 8 5.29 7.40 9 5.87 8.20 10 6.55 9.20 11 7.31 10.10 12 8.00 10.90 13 8.68 12.00 14 9.42 12.90 15 10.06 13.80 16 10.97 14.80 17 11.84 15.70 18 12.64 16.50 19 13.55 17.60 20 14.37 18.60 21 15.13 19.50 22 15.91 20.50 23 16.77 21.40 24 17.67 22.50 25 18.58 23.30 26 19.58 24.20 27 20.59 25.10 28 21.42 26.10 29 22.64 27.00 30 23.67 28.00 31 24.81 28.90 32 25.80 29.80 33 26.83 30.70 34 27.80 31.80 35 28.83 32.70 36 29.93 33.70 37 31.22 34.90 38 32.47 35.90 39 33.69 36.90 40 34.96 37.80 41 36.25 38.90 42 37.53 39.90 43 38.80 40.90 44 39.99 42.10 45 41.41 43.40 46 42.83 44.60 47 44.38 45.80 48 46.15 47.10 49 47.58 48.25 50 49.02 49.40

GLYCERINE CONTENT OF MORE COMMON OILS AND FATS USED IN SOAP MAKING.

Kind. Theoretical Average Free % Pure Yield Yield of Pure Fatty Acid in Glycerine Soap Lye Glycerine of Commercial in Commercial 80% Crude Neutral Oil Oil. Oil. Glycerine. or Fat.

Beef Tallow 10.7 5 10.2 12.75 Bone Grease 10.5 20-50 5.2- 8.4 6.5-10.5 Castor Oil 9.8 0.5-10 8.8- 9.8 11.0-12.45 Cocoanut Oil 13.9 3-5 13.2-13.5 16.5-16.9 Cocoanut Oil Off 15-40 8.3-11.8 10.37-14.75 Corn Oil 10.4 1-10 9.3-10.3 11.62-12.9 Cottonseed Oil 10.6 Trace 10.6 13.25 Hog Grease 10.6 0.5-1 10.5-10.6 13.12-13.25 Horse Grease 10.6 1-3 10.5-10.6 13.12-13.25 Olive Oil 10.3 2-25 7.7-10.2 9.62-12.75 Olive Foots 30-60 4-7 5-8.75 Palm Oil 11.0 10-50 5.5-10 6.87-12.5 Palmkernel Oil 13.3 4-8 12.2-12.8 15.25-16 Peanut Oil 10.4 5-20 8.3-9.9 10.37-12.37 Soya Bean Oil 10.4 2 10.2 12.75 Train Oil 10.0 2-20 8-9.8 10.0-12.25 Vegetable Tallow 10.9 1-3 10.5-10.8 13.12-13.5

*Table of Specific Gravities of Pure Commercial Glycerine with Corresponding Percentage of Water. Temperature 15 C.

+------------------ Sp. Gr. % Water | Sp. Gr. % Water 1.262 0 | 1.160 38 1.261 1 | 1.157 39 1.258 2 | 1.155 40 1.255 3 | 1.152 41 1.2515 4 | 1.149 42 1.250 5 | 1.1464 43 1.2467 6 | 1.1437 44 1.2450 7 | 1.141 45 1.243 8 | 1.1377 46 1.241 9 | 1.1353 47 1.237 10 | 1.1326 48 1.235 11 | 1.1304 49 1.2324 12 | 1.127 50 1.229 13 | 1.125 51 1.2265 14 | 1.1224 52 1.2245 15 | 1.1204 53 1.2225 16 | 1.117 54 1.2185 17 | 1.114 55 1.2174 18 | 1.112 56 1.2142 19 | 1.109 57 1.211 20 | 1.106 58 1.207 21 | 1.103 59 1.203 22 | 1.1006 60 1.2004 23 | 1.088 65 1.198 24 | 1.075 70 1.195 25 | 1.0623 75 1.1923 26 | 1.049 80 1.189 27 | 1.0365 85 1.188 28 | 1.0243 90 1.1846 29 | 1.0218 91 1.182 30 | 1.0192 92 1.179 31 | 1.0168 93 1.176 32 | 1.0147 94 1.1734 33 | 1.0125 95 1.171 34 | 1.01 96 1.168 35 | 1.0074 97 1.165 36 | 1.0053 98 1.163 37 | 1.0026 99 ------------------+------------------

Table of Percentage, Specific Gravity and Beaume Degree of Pure Glycerine Solutions

=========+===========+===========++=========+===========+=========== Per cent |Sp. Gr. |Degree ||Per cent |Sp. Gr. |Degree Water |Champion |Beaume ||Water |Champion |Beaume |and Pellet |(Berthelot)|| |and Pellet |(Berthelot) =========+===========+===========++=========+===========+=========== 0 | 1.2640 | 31.2 || 11.0 | 1.2350 | 28.6 0.5 | 1.2625 | 31.0 || 11.5 | 1.2335 | 28.4 1.0 | 1.2612 | 30.9 || 12.0 | 1.2322 | 28.3 1.5 | 1.2600 | 30.8 || 12.5 | 1.2307 | 28.2 2.0 | 1.2585 | 30.7 || 13.0 | 1.2295 | 28.0 2.5 | 1.2575 | 30.6 || 13.5 | 1.2280 | 27.8 3.0 | 1.2560 | 30.4 || 14.0 | 1.2270 | 27.7 3.5 | 1.2545 | 30.3 || 14.5 | 1.2255 | 27.6 4.0 | 1.2532 | 30.2 || 15.0 | 1.2242 | 27.4 4.5 | 1.2520 | 30.1 || 15.5 | 1.2230 | 27.3 5.0 | 1.2505 | 30.0 || 16.0 | 1.2217 | 27.2 5.5 | 1.2490 | 29.9 || 16.5 | 1.2202 | 27.0 6.0 | 1.2480 | 29.8 || 17.0 | 1.2190 | 26.9 6.5 | 1.2465 | 29.7 || 17.5 | 1.2177 | 26.8 7.0 | 1.2455 | 29.6 || 18.0 | 1.2165 | 26.7 7.5 | 1.2440 | 29.5 || 18.5 | 1.2150 | 26.5 8.0 | 1.2427 | 29.3 || 19.0 | 1.2137 | 26.4 8.5 | 1.2412 | 29.2 || 19.5 | 1.2125 | 26.3 9.0 | 1.2400 | 29.0 || 20.0 | 1.2112 | 26.2 9.5 | 1.2390 | 28.9 || 20.5 | 1.2100 | 26.0 10.0 | 1.2375 | 28.8 || 21.0 | 1.2085 | 25.0 10.5 | 1.2362 | 28.7 || | | =========+===========+===========++=========+===========+===========

*Table of Specific Gravities of Pure Glycerine Solutions with Corresponding Beaume Degree and Percent Water

+--------+-------+---------+--------+-------- Per cent| Sp. Gr.| Degree| Percent | Sp. Gr.| Degree Water | | Beaume| Water | | Beaume --------+--------+-------+---------+--------+-------- | | | | | 0.0 | 1.2640 | 31.2 | 1.0 | 1.2612 | 30.9 0.5 | 1.2625 | 31.0 | 1.5 | 1.2600 | 30.8 2.0 | 1.2585 | 30.7 | 12.0 | 1.2322 | 28.3 2.5 | 1.2575 | 30.6 | 12.5 | 1.2307 | 28.2 3.0 | 1.2560 | 30.4 | 13.0 | 1.2295 | 28.0 3.5 | 1.2545 | 30.3 | 13.5 | 1.2280 | 27.8 4.0 | 1.2532 | 30.2 | 14.0 | 1.2270 | 27.7 4.5 | 1.2520 | 30.1 | 14.5 | 1.2255 | 27.6 5.0 | 1.2505 | 30.0 | 15.0 | 1.2242 | 27.4 5.5 | 1.2490 | 29.9 | 15.5 | 1.2230 | 27.3 6.0 | 1.2480 | 29.8 | 16.0 | 1.2217 | 27.2 6.5 | 1.2465 | 29.7 | 16.5 | 1.2202 | 27.0 7.0 | 1.2455 | 29.6 | 17.0 | 1.2190 | 26.9 7.5 | 1.2440 | 29.5 | 17.5 | 1.2177 | 26.8 8.0 | 1.2427 | 29.3 | 18.0 | 1.2165 | 26.7 8.5 | 1.2412 | 29.2 | 18.5 | 1.2150 | 26.5 9.0 | 1.2400 | 29.0 | 19.0 | 1.2137 | 26.4 9.5 | 1.2390 | 28.9 | 19.5 | 1.2125 | 26.3 10.0 | 1.2375 | 28.8 | 20.0 | 1.2112 | 26.2 10.5 | 1.2362 | 28.7 | 20.5 | 1.2100 | 26.0 11.0 | 1.2350 | 28.6 | 21.0 | 1.2085 | 25.9 11.5 | 1.2335 | 28.4 | | | --------+--------+-------+---------+--------+--------

INDEX

A

Acetin process for the determination of glycerol, 155.

Acid, Clupanodonic, 20.

Acid, Hydrochloric, 111.

Acid, Lauric, 2.

Acid, Myristic, 2.

Acid, Napthenic, 24.

Acid, Oleic, 15, 19.

Acid, Palmitic, 2.

Acid, Pinic, 22.

Acid, Resin, 144.

Acid, Stearic, 15, 19.

Acid, Sulfuric, 112.

Acid, Sylvic, 22.

Acid saponification, 120.

Air bleaching of palm oil, 12.

Albuminous matter, Removal from tallow, 6.

Alcohol, Denatured, 82.

Alcoholic method for free alkali in soap, 139.

Alkali Blue 6 B, indicator, 129.

Alkali, Total, determination of in soap, 147.

Alkalis, 25.

Alkalis used in soap making, Testing of, 134.

Amalgamator, 33.

Analysis, Glycerine, International, 150.

Analysis, Soap, 137.

Analysis, Standard methods for fats and oils, 165-196.

Aqueous saponification, 121.

Arachis oil, 79.

Autoclave saponification, 118.

Automobile soaps, 41.

B

Barrels, sampling, 168.

Baume scale, 25.

Bayberry wax, Use in shaving soap, 89.

Bichromate Process for glycerol determination, 160.

Bleaching, Fullers' earth process for tallow, 4.

Bleaching palm oil by bichromate method, 9.

Bleaching palm oil by air, 12.

Bosshard & Huggenberg method for determination of free alkali, 140.

Bunching of soap, 52.

C

Candelite, 96.

Candle tar, 125.

Carbolic soap, 77.

Carbon Dioxide, Formation of in carbonate saponification, 45.

Carbonate, potassium, 29.

Carbonate, saponification, 35, 45.

Carbonate, sodium, 28.

Castile soap, 79.

Castor oil ferment, 121.

Castor oil, Use of in transparent soaps, 83.

Caustic potash, 26.

Caustic potash, Electrolytic, 27.

Caustic soda, 26.

Changes in soap-making, 36.

Chemist, Importance of, 127.

Chipper, Soap, 32.

Chip soap, 54.

Chip soap, Cold made, 55.

Chip soap, Unfilled, 56.

Chrome bleaching of palm oil, 9.

Cloud test for oil, Standard method, 182-183.

Clupanodonic acid, 20.

Cocoanut oil, 6.

Cold cream soap, 78.

Cold made chip soaps, 55.

Cold made toilet soaps, 72.

Cold made transparent soaps, 84.

Cold process, 35, 43.

Colophony, 22.

Coloring soap, 75.

Copra, 7.

Corn oil, 14.

Corrosive sublimate, 78.

Cotton goods. Soaps used for, 103.

Cottonseed oil, 14.

Cream, Shaving, 90.

Crude glycerine, 113.

Crutcher, 32.

Curd soap, 71.

Cutting table, 32.

D

Determination of free fatty acid, 128.

Determination of unsaponifiable matter, 132.

Distillation of fatty acids, 125.

Drying machine, 32.

E

Enzymes, 17.

Eschweger soap, 81.

Examination of fats and oils, 128.

F

Fahrion's method for moisture, 138.

Fats and oils, Examination of, 128.

Fats and oils used in soap manufacture, 3.

Fatty acids, 14.

Fatty acids, Distillation of, 125.

Ferments, Splitting fats with, 121.

Fillers for laundry soaps, 53.

Fillers for soap powders, 58.

Finishing change, 36.

Fish oils, 20.

Floating soap, 62.

Formaldehyde soap, 78.

Frames, 31.

Free alkali in soap, Determination of, 139.

Free fatty acid, Determination of, 128.

Free fatty acids, Extraction from tallow, 6.

Free fatty acid, Standard method of dilu., 174. Note on method, 188-189.

Full boiled soaps, 35.

Fullers' earth bleaching of tallow, 4.

G

Glycerides, 2.

Glycerine, 2.

Glycerine analysis, 150.

Glycerine change, 36.

Glycerine, Crude, 113.

Glycerine in spent lyes, Recovery of, 106.

Glycerine in soap, Determination of, 149.

Glycerine, Sampling crude, 162.

Glycerine soaps, 83.

Glycerol content, Ways of calculating actual, 159.

Glycerol determination, Acetin process, 155.

Glycerol determination, Bichromate process for, 160.

Graining soap, 30.

Grease, 21.

Grease, Bleaching, 21.

Grinding soap, 34.

H

Hand Paste, 93.

Hard water, 29.

Hardened oils in toilet soap, Use of, 96.

Hydrocarbon oils, 2.

Hydrogenating oils, 19.

Hydrolysis of fats and oils, 17.

Hydrolytic dissociation of soap, 1.

Hydrometers, 25.

I

Indicators, Action, 135-6.

Insoluble impurities in fatty oils, Determination of (standard method), 172. Note on method, 187.

Insoluble matter in soap, determination of, 143.

International committee on glycerine analysis, 150.

Iodine manufacturing oil, 191.

Iodine member Wijs method, Standard, 177-181. Note on method, 191.

Iodine soap, 78.

J

Joslin, ref., 113.

K

"Killing" change, 36.

Koettstorfer number (Standard method), 181-182.

Kontakt reagent, 117.

Krebitz Process, 123.

Krutolin, 96.

L

Leiste & Stiepel method for rosin in soap, 146.

Liebermann, Storch reaction, 144.

Light powders, 60.

Laundry soap, 48.

LeBlanc Process, 28.

Lewkowitsch, ref., 17, 146.

Lime saponification, 118.

Lime, Use in Krebitz Process, 123.

Lime, Use in treatment of glycerine water, 116.

Liquid medicinal soaps, 79.

Liquid soaps, 94.

Lyes, Spent, 37.

M

Magnesia, Use in autoclave saponification, 120.

Manganese sulfate, Use of as catalyzer in fermentative cleavage of fats, 122.

Marine soaps, 39.

Medicinal soaps, 76.

Medicinal soaps, Less important, 78.

Medicinal soaps, Therapeutic value of, 76.

Melting point of fat or oil, Standard method, 193.

Mercury soaps, 78.

Metallic soaps, 1.

Methyl orange, indicator, 136.

Meyerheim, ref., 21.

Mill soap, 32.

Moisture in soap, Determination of, 138, 130.

Moisture and volatile matter in fats and oils, Standard method for detm. of, 170. Note on method, 184-185.

Mottle in soap, 81.

Mug shaving soap, 90.

N

Naphtha, Incorporation in soap, 49.

Naphthenic acids, 24.

Nigre, 36.

Normal acids, Equivalent in alkalis, 136.

O

Oils and fats, 1.

Oils and fats, Chemical constants, 18.

Oils and fats, Distinction, 1.

Oils and fats, Preserving, 18.

Oils and fat, Nature of used in soap manufacture, 2.

Oils and fats, Rancidity of, 16.

Oil hardening, 19.

Oleic acid, 15, 19.

Olein, 2, 19.

Olive oil, 14.

Olive oil foots, 14.

Organoleptic methods, 127.

P

Palmatin, 2.

Palm kernel oil, 8.

Palmitic acid, 2.

Palm oil, 8.

Palm oil, air bleaching, 12.

Palm oil, Chrome bleaching of, 9.

Palm oil soap, 66.

Pearl ash, 29.

Perfuming and coloring toilet soaps, 73.

Peroxide soap, 78.

Petroff reagent, 117.

Pfeilring reagent, 117.

Phenol, 77.

Phenolphthalein, indicator, 38.

Phenolphthalein, Using as indicator, 51.

Phenols, Soaps containing, 77.

Pinic acid, 22.

Plodder, 33.

Potash from wood ash, 27.

Potassium carbonate, 29.

Powders, Light, 60.

Powders, Scouring, 61.

Powders, Shaving, 90.

Powders, Soap, 56.

Precipitation test for treated spent lyes, 110.

Prevention of rancidity, 18.

Pumice or sand soaps, 93.

Purple shade in soap, 75.

R

Rancidity of oils and fats, 16.

Rancidity, Prevention, 18.

Recovery of glycerine from spent lye, 106.

Red oil, 15.

Red oil, Saponified, 15.

Resin acids, Total fatty and, Determination of in soap, 144.

Ribot, ref., 20.

Rosin, 22.

Rosin, Determination of in soap, 144.

Rosin saponification, 23.

Run and glued up soaps, 69.

Run soaps, 39.

S

Sal soda, 29.

Salt, 30.

Salting out, 30.

Salt "pickle," 37.

Sampling crude glycerine, 162.

Sampling for standard method, 166. Note on, 184.

Sampling oils and fats, 128.

Sampling soap, 137.

Saponification by ferments, 121.

Saponification, Acid, 120.

Saponification, Aqueous, 121.

Saponification, Autoclave, 118.

Saponification, Carbonate, 45.

Saponification defined, 2, 105.

Saponification, Lime, 118.

Saponification number, 181-182.

Saponification, Rosin, 23.

Saponification, Various methods, 105.

Scouring and fulling soaps for wool, 98.

Scouring powders, 61.

Scouring soap, 61.

Semi-boiled laundry soaps, 49.

Semi-boiled process, 44.

Shaving cream, 90.

Shaving powder, 90.

Shaving soaps, 87.

Silica and silicates, Determination of in soap, 148.

Silk dyeing, 102.

Silk industry, Soaps used in, 101.

Slabber, 32.

Smith method for moisture in soap, 138.

Soap analysis, 137.

Soap, Automobile, 41.

Soap, Carbolic, 71.

Soap, Castile, 79.

Soap, Chip, 54.

Soap Chip, cold made, 55.

Soap, Chip, unfilled, 56.

Soap, Cold cream, 78.

Soap, Coloring, 75.

Soap containing phenols, 77.

Soap, Curd, 71.

Soap, Defined, 1.

Soap, Determination insoluble matter, 143.

Soap, Determining glycerine in, 149.

Soap, Eschweger, 81.

Soap, Floating, 62.

Soap, Formaldehyde, 78.

Soap for wool, Scouring and fulling, 98.

Soap, Full boiled, 35.

Soap, Iodine, 78.

Soap kettle, 31.

Soap, Laundry, 48.

Soap, Liquid, 94.

Soap lye crude glycerine, 113.

Soap, Marine, 39.

Soap, Medicinal, 76.

Soap, Medicinal, less important, 78.

Soap, Mercury, 78.

Soap, Metallic, 1.

Soap, Peroxide, 78.

Soap powders, 56.

Soap, Pumice or sand, 93.

Soap, Rosin settled, 50.

Soap, Run and glued up, 69.

Soap, Scouring, 61.

Soap, Semi-boiled laundry, 49.

Soap, Shaving, 87.

Soap, Sulphur, 77.

Soap, Tannin, 78.

Soap, Tar, 77.

Soap, Test for color of, 133.

Soap, Textile, 98.

Soap, Toilet, 65.

Soap, Toilet cheaper, 68.

Soap, Toilet, cold made, 72.

Soap, Toilet perfuming and coloring, 73.

Soap, Transparent, 82.

Soap, Transparent, cold made, 84.

Soap used for cotton goods, 103.

Soap used in the silk industry, 101.

Soap, Witch hazel, 78.

Soap, Wool thrower's, 100.

Soap, Worsted finishing, 101.

Soda ash, 28.

Sodium carbonate, 28.

Sodium perborate, Use of in soap powders, 57.

Soft soaps, 40.

Soluble mineral matter detm. of in fats and oils, 173. Note on method, 187-188.

Solvay process, 28.

Soya bean oil, 14.

Spent lye, Recovery of glycerine from, 106.

Spent lyes, 37.

Spent lyes, Treatment of for glycerine recovery, 107.

Splitting fats with ferments, 121.

Standard methods of analysis for fats and oils, 165-196.

Starch and gelatine, Determination in soap, 143.

Stearic acid, 15, 19.

Stearin, 2, 19.

Strengthening change, 36.

Strengthening lyes, 38.

Strunz crutcher, 63.

Sugar in soap, Determination of, 150.

Sugar, Use in transparent soap, 83.

Sulfate of alumina, Use of in spent lyes, 108.

Sulphonated oils, 104.

Sulphur soaps, 77.

Sweating of soap, 62.

Sweet water, 119.

Sylvic acid, 22.

T

Talgol, 96.

Tallow, 4.

Tallow, Fullers' earth bleaching of, 4.

Tallow, Improving color by extraction of free fatty acid, 6.

Tannin soap, 78.

Tar soap, 77.

Test for color of soap, 133.

Testing of alkalis used in soap making, 134.

Textile soaps, 98.

Titer, 130.

Tank cars, Sampling, 166.

Tierces, Sampling, 168.

Titer, Standard method, 175.

Titer, Note on, 189.

Tung oil, Note one iodine, number of, 180.

Toilet soap, 65.

Toilet soaps, Cheaper, 68.

Toilet soap, Use of hardened oils in, 96.

Total alkali, Determination of in soap, 147.

Total fatty and resin acids, Determination of in soap, 144.

Train oils, 20.

Transparent soap, 82.

Transparent soap, Cold made, 84.

Troweling soap, 52.

Tsujimoto, ref., 20.

Tubes for transparent soap, 85.

Turkey red oil, 104.

Twaddle scale, 25.

Twitchell method for rosin, 145.

Twitchell process, 113.

Twitchell process, Advantages, 113.

U

Unsaponifiable matter, Determination of in oils and fats, 132.

Unsaponifiable matter, Determination of in soap, 148.

Unsaponifiable matter, determination of by standard method, 176.

V

Vacuum Oven, Standard, 176.

Vegetable oils, 6.

W

Water, 29.

Water, Hard, 29.

Witch hazel soap, 78.

Wool thrower's soap, 100.

Worsted finishing soaps, 101.

Z

Zinc oxide, Use of in autoclave saponification, 120.

Zinc oxide, Use of in soap, 33.

LITERATURE OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

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The Soap-Maker's Book Shelf

A list of standard books relating to soapmaking and allied industries.

Published and For Sale by

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

_Publishers and Booksellers_

8 WARREN STREET NEW YORK

~Askinson, George W.~ Perfumes and Cosmetics. Their preparation and manufacture. Fourth Edition, translated from the German, and revised with additions by W. L. Dudley. 32 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 9-1/2. Cloth. 354 pp. New York, 1915. ~$5.00~

~Chalmers, T. W.~ The Production and Treatment of Vegetable Oils. Including chapters on the refining of oils, the hydrogenation of oils, the generation of hydrogen, soap making, the recovery and refining of glycerine, and the splitting of oils. 95 illustrations, 9 folding plates. 8 x 11-1/2. Cloth. 163 pp. London, 1919. ~$7.50~

~Deite, C.~ Manual of Toilet Soap-Making. Comprising toilet soaps, medicated soaps, and other specialties. Second Revised Edition. 85 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 10. Cloth. 356 pp. London, 1920. ~$7.50~

~Ellis, Carleton G.~ The Hydrogenation of Oils, Catalyzers and Catalysis and the Generation of Hydrogen and Oxygen. Second Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. 240 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 9-1/2. Cloth. 767 pp. N. Y., 1919. ~$7.50~

~Fischer, M. H.~ Soaps and Proteins, Their Colloid Chemistry in Theory and Practice. With the collaboration of G. D. McLaughlin and M. O. Hooker. 114 illustrations. 6 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 281 pp. New York, 1921. ~$4.00~

~Holde, D.~ The Examination of Hydrocarbon Oils, and of the Saponifiable Fats and Waxes. Translated from the Fourth German Edition by Edward Mueller. 115 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 499 pp. N. Y., 1915. ~Net, $5.00~

~Hurst, G. H~. Soaps. A practical manual of the manufacture of domestic, toilet and other soaps. Second Edition. 66 illustrations. 6 x 8-3/4. Cloth. 385 pp. London, 1907. ~$6.00~

~Hurst, George H., and Simmons, W. H.~ Textile Soaps and Oils. A handbook on the preparation, properties, and analysis of the soaps and oils and in textile manufacturing, dyeing and printing. Third Edition, revised. 12 illustrations. 5-1/2 x 8-3/4. Cloth. 212 pp. London, 1921. ~$4.00~

~Koller, T. Cosmetics.~ A handbook of the manufacture, employment, and testing of all cosmetic materials and cosmetic specialties, with numerous recipes. Translated from the German. Third Edition. 5 x 7-1/2. Cloth. 264 pp. London, 1920. ~$3.50~

~Koppe, S. W. Glycerine.~ Its introduction, Uses and Examination. For chemists, perfumers, soapmakers, pharmacists, and explosives technologists. 7 illustrations. 5-1/4 x 7-1/2. Cloth. 260 pp. New York, 1915. ~$3.50~

~Lamborn, L. L.~ Modern Soaps, Candles, and Glycerin. A practical manual of modern methods of utilization of fats and oils in the manufacture of soaps and candles, and the recovery of glycerin. 228 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 708 pp. N. Y., 1906. ~$10.00~

~Murray, B. L.~ Standards and Tests for Reagent Chemicals. 6 x 9. Cloth. 400 pp. New York, 1920. ~$3.00~

~Parry, Ernest J.~ The Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes. Vol. I, Monographs on Essential Oils. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. 51 illustrations. 6-1/4 x 10. Cloth. 557 pp. London, 1921. ~$9.00~

Vol. II. Constituents of Essential Oils, Synthetic Perfumes and Isolated Aromatics, and the Analysis of Essential Oils. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 351 pp. London, 1919. ~$7.00~

~Partington, J. R.~ The Alkali Industry. 63 illustrations. 5-1/2 x 8-1/2. Cloth. 318 pp. London, 1918. ~$3.00~

~Rogers, Allen.~ Industrial Chemistry. A manual for the student and manufacturer. Third Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged. 377 illustrations. 6-1/2 x 9-3/4. Flexible fabrikoid. 1255 pp. New York, 1920. ~$7.50~

~Scott, Wilfred W.~ (Editor). Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis. A manual of analytical methods and general reference for the analytical chemist and for the advanced student. Second Edition, revised, with additional tables. 142 illustrations, 3 color plates. 7 x 9-1/4. Cloth. 900 pp. N. Y., 1917. ~$7.50~

~Simmons, W. H.~ Fats, Waxes and Essential Oils. ~In Press.~

~Simmons, William H.~ Soap. Its composition, manufacture and properties. 11 illustrations. 4-3/4 x 7-1/4. Cloth. 133 pp. London, 1916. ~$1.00~

~Simmons, W. H., and Appleton, H. A.~ The Handbook of Soap Manufacture. 27 illustrations. 6 x 9. Cloth. 166 pp. London, 1908. ~$4.00~

~Van Nostrand's Chemical Annual.~ Edited by John C. Olsen. A handbook of useful data for analytical manufacturing and investigating chemists and chemical students. Fourth Issue, enlarged. 5 x 7-1/2. Flexible fabrikoid. 785 pp. New York, 1918. ~$3.00~

~Watt, A.~ Art of Soapmaking. A practical handbook of the manufacture of hard and soft soaps, toilet soaps, etc. Seventh Edition, revised and enlarged. 43 illustrations. 5-1/4 x 7-1/2. Cloth. 323 pp. London, 1918. ~$4.00~

~Wright, C. R. A.~ Animal and Vegetable Fixed Oils, Fats, Butters, and Waxes: Their Preparation and Properties, and the Manufacture Therefrom of Candles, Soaps, and Other Products. Third Edition, revised and greatly enlarged by C. Ainsworth Mitchell. 185 illustrations, 3 plates. 6 x 9. Cloth. 953 pp. London, 1921. ~$16.50~