Part 2

Its complete form, including the ovum, as a simple cell, also, is the basis of the present state of the biological sciences.--_Cent. Dic. 1, p. 879, col. 1._

Sec. 6. Protoplasm

Protoplasm is an albuminoid substance, ordinarily resembling the white of an egg, consisting of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in extremely complex and unstable molecular combination, and capable, under proper conditions, of manifesting certain vital phenomena, as spontaneous motion, sensation, assimilation, and reproduction, thus constituting the physical basis of life of all plants and animals; sarcode. It is essential to the nature of protoplasm that the substance consist chemically of the four elements named (with or without a trace of some other elements); but the molecule is so highly compounded that these elements may be present in somewhat different proportions in different cases, so that the chemical formula is not always the same. The name has also been somewhat loosely applied to albuminous substances widely different in some physical properties, as density or fluidity. Thus the hard material of so-called vegetable ivory and the soft body of an amœba are both protoplasmic. The physiological activities of protoplasm are manifested in its irritability, or ready response to external stimuli, as well as its inherent capacity of spontaneous movement and other indications of life; so that the least particle of this substance may be observed to go through the whole cycle of vital functions. Protoplasm builds up every vegetable and animal fabric, it is itself devoid of discernible histological structure. It is ordinarily colorless and transparent, or nearly so, and of glairy or viscid semi-fluid consistency, as is well seen in the bodies of foraminifers, amœbæ, and other of the lowest forms of animal life. Such protoplasm (originally named sarcode) when not confined by an investing membrane, has the power of extension in any direction in the form of temporary processes capable of being withdrawn again; and it has also the characteristic property of streaming in minute masses through closed membranes without the loss of the identity of such masses. An individuated mass of protoplasm, generally of microscopic size with or without a nucleus and a wall, constitutes a cell, which may be the whole body of an organism, or the structural unit of aggregation of a multicellular animal or plant. The ovum of any creature consists of protoplasm, and all the tissues of the most complex living organisms result from the multiplication, differentiation, and specialization of such protoplasmic cell-units. The life of the organism, as a whole, consists in the continuous waste and repair of the protoplasmic material of its cells. No animal, however, can elaborate protoplasm directly from the chemical elements of that substance. The manufacture of protoplasm is a function of the vegetable kingdom. Plants make it directly from mineral compounds and from the atmosphere under the influence of the sun’s light and heat, thus becoming the store-house of food-stuff for the animal kingdom.--(See Cent. Dic. 6, p. 4799.)

Hence this substance, known in Vegetable Physiology as protoplasm, but often referred to by zoölogists as sarcode, has been appropriately designated by Professor Huxley “the physical Basis of Life.”--(W. B. Carpenter, _Micros_, _sec. 219_.)

For the whole living world, then, it results that the morphological unit--the primary and fundamental form of life--is merely an individual mass of protoplasm, in which no further structure is discernible.--(Huxley, _Anat. Invert._, _p. 18_.)

See Spencer, _Principles Biology I_, _p. 63-67_. _Encyc. Brit. 19_, _p. 828-830_; _New Int. Encyc. 16_, _p. 471-472_. Haeckel, _Ev. Man_, pp. 36-50; “_Ovum and Amœba_.”

Sec. 7. Human Body is a Compound Physical Structure Built of Cells

The human body and every organ, part and cell in it, has length, breadth, thickness and weight, like a brick or stone. So, every such body and every organ and part of it is built of material substances as completely as are the foundation, walls, roof and other parts of a brick house. The body, as a whole, and every organ and part of it, has every property and attribute of a physical structure; and all the materials of which the body is built up, except the germ-cell (or fertilized ovum), were dead matter before they were assimilated and incorporated into it. So, all the materials, of which such a body is built up, are selected, assembled, grouped together and put into position in the body in the same manner that bricks, or blocks of stone are gathered up and put into position in a building, but by different forces and other means.

But there is a marked difference between the process of building a house, engine, or other inanimate structure, on the one hand, and the body of the human embryo on the other. The wood, clay, iron and other materials used in the construction of the former are found ready to hand; and they are cut, sawed, burned, molded, or hammered, by man, into the proper size, form and condition for use in the construction of the building or machine; and are carried, by him, to the place, at which the building or machine is to be constructed. He then places these materials in such positions as to build up and complete the building or machine.

On the other hand the materials of which the body of the human embryo is built, are carried by the blood of the mother to their proper places in the body; and different portions of the same raw material, namely: the mother’s blood, are then differentiated and specialized into bones, muscles, nerves, arteries, veins, and other tissues, which go to make up the human body.

These bones, muscles, nerves, etc., are all new creations, independent of those of the mother, father or any other human being that ever lived. Except the tiny germ-cell, which is less than one-trillionth part of the infant, at birth, they are built of atoms that never formed any part of any other human body. The human body is not only a compound physical structure, consisting of hundreds of bones, hundreds of muscles, arteries, veins, etc., and of trillions of cells; and of many organs, as the brain, heart, lungs, etc., but each of its tissues and each of its organs and parts has its own chemical composition and its own mechanical arrangement, peculiar to itself. For example, all the bones are composed of phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime and other elements peculiar to the bony tissue. Again, the atoms (cells) in each bone are mechanically arranged in a manner peculiar to that bone. Thus, the atoms in the bones of the skull are so arranged as to make them flat and curved, with an inner and outer plate; those in the other bones are so arranged as to make them long and cylindrical (arms and legs); others short (hands and feet); others flat and curved (ribs); others with complex forms (vertebræ), and so on. The muscular, vascular and nervous tissues are each composed of chemical elements peculiar to themselves; and their atoms are so arranged, mechanically, as to form the muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, etc.

The human body is not only a compound physical structure, with all these tissues, organs, cells, etc., but life is added to all the other wonderful properties, which it possesses.

Now, the chemical elements, which compose the bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, etc., either assemble, automatically, and group themselves, chemically, and at the same time, automatically, arrange themselves, mechanically, in such a manner as to form the bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, brain, heart, lungs, stomach, etc., without the aid of any extraneous psychic or creative force, or this wonderful work is done by the Creator, Himself. Which hypothesis is most plausible?

But this is not all. Each organ and part of the body is adjusted to, and correlated with, every other organ and part of it. For example, the heart and lungs are so arranged as to work together. What force or agency selected, assembled and grouped the chemical elements, which compose the heart, then arranged these atoms in such a manner as to form the heart with chambers, valves, etc.? How did it happen that the elements, which compose the lungs, were assembled, grouped and arranged so as to form them with their complex machinery. Are these things the work of blind unthinking cells or of the Creator?

It is inconceivable that the germ-cell (fertilized ovum), the mother’s blood or any atom of it has intellect, memory or will-power. It would be absurd nonsense to suppose that the atoms, of which bones, muscles, nerves, etc., are composed automatically, and of their own motion, differentiated themselves into bones, muscles, nerves, etc., and then grouped themselves together, mechanically, in such manner as to form the bones, muscles, nerves, etc., then fitted themselves together as we find them in the body of the infant at birth.

The properties and characteristics of the human body, as a physical structure, are not altered nor affected by the fact that it is composed of live tissues, such as bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, etc., and of live organs as the brain, heart, lungs, liver, stomach, kidneys, etc., for the body and every organ and part of it has the same length, breadth, thickness, and weight, whether living or dead, at least, until disintegration sets in. In brief, the living human body has identically the same physical properties and characteristics that an inanimate body would have, if the latter were composed of the same chemical elements, combined in the same proportions and mechanically arranged in the same manner and kept at the same temperature, as that of the human body; and the body merely has life, intellect, memory and will-power added to its physical properties and characteristics.

Nor do the atoms and cells, nor the organs and parts, of which the body is composed, except the brain, have any more intellect, memory and will-power than so many grains of sand, or so many bricks. For example: Every man knows that neither his bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, eyes, ears, nose, arms, hands, legs, feet, heart, lungs, stomach, liver, nor his kidneys have any intellectual powers whatever.

Every man knows that the infant, at birth, has no conscious intellect, memory, nor will-power. It is, therefore, absurd to suppose that the embryo has any power or control over its own development and growth. It is equally clear that the mother has no direct power nor control over its growth.

So, every man knows that his I, ego, or self has no power, nor any control over any part of his body except his brain and voluntary muscles. For example, no man can determine his complexion; nor the color of his hair; nor of his eyes; nor the length of his nose, nor his feet; nor the size of his head. These facts prove, conclusively, that the Creator generates, guides and controls the forces which build up the embryo body.

Sec. 8. Human Body is a Complex Animal Machine

The human soul knows, feels and wills. It resides in the brain and governs the body by means of the brain and nerves; the stomach digests the food and makes nutriment for the body; the heart pumps the blood to and from the several parts of it, the arteries and veins carry the blood from the heart and back to it; the blood carries fresh building materials to every part of the body, and gathers up, and carries waste matter back to the heart and lungs; the lungs purify and enliven the blood; the liver secretes bile and cleanses the blood; the muscles and bones move the body and every part of it; the nerves carry messages from the brain to every part of the body and from every other part to the brain; the kidneys and other organs perform their functions; the work of all these organs being necessary to keep the body in good working order. The brain, stomach, heart, arteries, veins, lungs, blood, muscles, bones, kidneys, etc., may each be considered as a complex animal machine, designed and constructed to perform its special functions.

The body, as a whole, is an animal machine, which does much work peculiar to itself.

The functions of all organs other than those of the brain and voluntary muscles are performed by them, independently of the will. In other words: all the organs of the body except the brain and the voluntary muscles appear to act automatically as an automatic machine does. For example, the stomach, heart, lungs, liver and kidneys appear to do their work as automatic machines, independently of the will; nor has man any direct control, nor power over the work of any of his organs except that of the brain and voluntary muscles. Thus, he cannot directly compel his stomach to digest his food; nor has he any direct control over the action of his heart, nor over that of his lungs; nor can he directly compel his liver to secrete bile. All he can do is to take medicine or some other substance into his stomach, and thence into his blood to stimulate, reduce, or modify the action of his organs; or change his environment.

No male has any direct control nor any voluntary agency in the formation of spermatozoä in his genital organs; nor has any female any control over, nor any voluntary part in, the formation of eggs in her ovaries. In fact fully ninety-nine per cent of mankind are wholly ignorant of the existence of spermatozoä and ova (eggs), having no knowledge, whatever, of the mechanism by which their own offspring are brought into being.

What are we to infer from these facts? Can we believe that the functions of the heart and other involuntary muscles do their work, automatically, without the aid of any extraneous psychic force? Can we believe that the mysterious spermatozoön, and ovum are produced in the genital organs of the male and female, without their knowledge and without the aid of any psychic or creative force, whatever? Is it possible for the atoms of which each spermatozoön is composed, to assemble and group themselves, automatically into it without the aid of a supernatural psychic and creative force? In another section of this work, I have argued that each spermatozoön is a new, direct and special creation. The same is true of each ovum. I believe that the same psychic and creative force which generates, guides and controls the forces, that build up the body of the embryo, continues to generate, guide and control many of the forces which affect the human body during its whole life. I believe that the same force determines the growth and waste of cells; and by this means fixes the size of each normal body. Why does an elephant grow larger than a mouse; an ox larger than a man; an eagle larger than a humming bird? How does it happen that all men, elephants, mice, eagles, etc., are of substantially the same size?

It is clear that neither man nor an other animal, has any control over the growth of cells in his body, nor over his own size. The cells of which these bodies are built up, have no intellect, memory nor will-power. It would be impossible for them to know when a sufficient number of cells have been made to bring these bodies to their proper sizes. The cells have no power to control their production nor their waste. It follows that the Creator must govern and control the forces, which produce the cells in each animal body; and that he fixes within certain limits, the form and size of each body.

Sec. 9. Human Body is Constructed on a Definite and Specific Plan

Every bone, joint, process, muscle, nerve, artery, vein and part has its own chemical composition, form, size, structure and position in the body. Each normal human body has the same tissues, organs and parts, that every other such body has; the form, structure, organs and parts of all normal bodies being identically the same.

If the so-called factors of evolution were at work in every age and in every part of the earth, as maintained by the evolutionist, we would surely find variations and diversities in the form and structure of the bodies of men in different ages and countries; for we know that the environments of the different varieties of man differ very greatly in time and space. For example, the eskimos live all their lives in the frozen regions at the North, while the inhabitants of the tropics spend their lives under a blazing sun; yet there is no anatomical difference between the body of an Eskimo and that of a Cuban.

What is the inference to be drawn from these facts? The evolutionist and the naturalist say that the facts imply that all men have descended from a common ancestor, that each individual inherits, from his parents, every organ and part of his body, that “like begets like.” They maintain that the law of heredity has produced the uniformity of size, form, features, organs and parts, which we discover among all men, all over the world. No doubt this is the belief of more than ninety-nine (99) per cent of mankind.

But this belief is manifestly erroneous for the following reasons: (1) Whatever passes from the parents to the child is transmitted by and through the fertilized ovum; (2) this ovum is short-lived; it has no brain, eyes, ears, nose, touch nor taste; no intellect, memory nor will-power; nor inherent power to produce the embryo body; nor to endow such a body with life; nor to create a human soul; (3) each embryo body grows, anew, for itself, without regard to the development and growth of its parents or any other ancestor; and it is a new chemical combination and a new mechanical arrangement of the atoms of which it is composed; (4) each chemical combination of atoms in an embryo body is made according to a prescribed chemical formula; and each mechanical arrangement of atoms in such a body is made according to a specific plan; in other words the chemical combinations and mechanical arrangements of atoms, in each embryo body, are identically the same as those in every other such body; (5) conscious intellect, memory, will-power, force and motion are necessary to combine two or more atoms chemically, according to a prescribed formula and to group two or more atoms, mechanically, according to a specific plan; (6) Hence, we are compelled to believe that every human body is a new, direct and special creation by Almighty God.

Sec. 10. Human Body is Unique and Peculiar

Each normal human body resembles every other such body, in form, size, and structure; in chemical elements, organs and parts. But it differs from every other in these particulars: (1) The atoms of which it is composed are exclusively its own; (2) it is a new combination of these atoms; (3) it grew anew, for itself, separately and apart from, and independent of, every other such body; (4) the forces and motions, which produced it, were peculiar to it, in origin, time and space.

See Cent. Dic. Supplement, “A-L,” p. 582. “Heredity;” Encyc. Brit. (9 ed.) 24, p. 818, “Variation.”

Sec. 11. Force and Motion

Sir Isaac Newton’s first law of motion is written in these words:

“Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, except in so far as it is compelled, by force, to change that state.”--(Encyc. Brit. (9 ed.) 15, p. 676, “Mechanics.”)

“Energy may be defined,” says the Britannica, “as the power of doing work, or of overcoming resistance. A bent spring possesses energy, for it is capable of doing work in returning to its natural form; a charge of gun powder possesses energy for it is capable of doing work in exploding; a Leyden jar, charged with electricity possesses energy, for it is capable of doing work in being discharged.”--(Encyc. Brit. (9 ed.) 8, pp. 205-206, “Energy.”)

“Force is that which affects the motion of matter.”--(Encyc. Brit. (9 ed.) 7, p. 581, “Dynamics.”)

“The conclusion, which appears inevitable,” it says on another page, “is that whatever matter may be the other reality in the physical universe, energy, which is never found unassociated with matter, depends, in all its widely varied forms upon motion of matter.” (Encyc. Brit. (9 ed.) 15, p. 748, “Mechanics.”)

The sense of the above quotation is this: There are two realities in the physical universe: (1) matter, whatever it may be; (2) energy, which is always associated with matter. Energy “depends, in all its varied forms, upon motion of matter.” For example, let us suppose that we have three balls, designated as A, B, C, resting on a table in a straight line, one inch apart. Suppose that I strike A and drive it against B, that B strikes and moves C. In this case my arm moves and generates energy or force, which moves A against B, and B against C. The motion of my arm is the force which moves A; the motion of A is the force which moves B, and the motion of B is the force which moves C. Thus, we have demonstrated that energy or force generates motion; and that motions produces force; that is, that each is convertible into the other.

“Motion” is defined as “change of place; transition from one point or position in space to another; continuous variation of position.” (Cent. Dic. 5, p. 3872.)

Every human being begins life as a fertilized ovum, which is about as large as one-sixth of a pin’s head. At birth, an infant weighs from five to nine pounds, the average weight being six and one-half pounds. (New International Encyc. 7, p. 775.) It is then millions of times larger than a fertilized ovum. In other words: millions of atoms have been selected, assembled, chemically combined and mechanically arranged and grouped in such a manner as to form the body of a living infant, which is a complete miniature model of the body of a man or woman.

It is obvious that the materials of which the embryo body is built up, except the fertilized ovum, are derived from the food eaten by the mother; that her heart and arteries generate the forces and produce the motions which carry the materials to the building site of the embryo, just as the builder assembles the bricks, stones, sand, lime, lumber, nails and other materials to build a house.

The embryo body is a compound physical structure built of cells, as a house is built of bricks. The atoms and cells, of which it is composed, are subject to all the laws of force and motion, to the same extent, and in the same manner that bricks are. Nor have they any more intellect, memory nor will-power than a brick has.

Perhaps the first thing that an infant does, after birth, is to breathe. In order to do this, air must be forced into, and out of its lungs. To enable the heart to beat, its auricles must dilate and take the blood into it; and its ventricles must contract and force the blood out of it, and into the arteries. So that every time one breathes, and every time one’s heart beats, force is exerted and motion of air and blood is produced. Every time one takes a drink of water or a bite of bread he must exert sufficient force to raise it, and produce sufficient motion to bring it to his mouth. Every time one takes a step he exerts sufficient force and produces sufficient motion to move his body the distance that he steps. For example, suppose that A, weighing two hundred pounds, gets on an electric street car and rides a mile. It is obvious that the electric motor has exerted sufficient force and produced sufficient motion of A’s body to move two hundred pounds, the distance of a mile. Now, if A had walked along the same railway track the same distance, it is clear that he would have exerted the same force and produced the same motion of his body that the motor did.

We eat, drink, speak, move, act, work, live--do everything by force and motion. When they cease, death comes.