CHAPTER IV.—AGRICULTURAL TRIBES.

§ 1. Numbers of positive and negative cases in the three agricultural groups 292

§ 2. Development of agricultural and development of slavery 293

Slavery considerably more frequent among agriculturists of the higher stages than among hunting agriculturists 294.—Hunting agriculturists bear a strong resemblance to hunters 294.—Yet many hunting agriculturists keep slaves; this will have to be accounted for by secondary causes 296.—Slavery does not appear to be more frequent among fishing than among hunting agriculturists 296.

§ 3. Capital and labour among agricultural tribes 297

Where agriculture is carried on without the aid of domestic animals, subsistence does not depend on capital 297.—One apparent exception 297.—Agriculture does not require any peculiar skill 298.—Compulsion the only means, in primitive agricultural societies, of getting labourers 298.—Adam Smith’s view 299.—Cairnes on cultivation by slaves and by peasant proprietors 299.—Cairnes’ argument does not hold with regard to primitive slavery 301.—“Retail” and “wholesale slavery” 301.

§ 4. Land and population 302

The general rule of the last paragraph does not obtain where all land has been appropriated 303.—Cairnes’ view 303.—Here again Cairnes’ argument does not apply to primitive slavery 304.—Loria’s argument 304.—Loria’s reasoning is not correct in all details, but in the main he is right 306.—Wakefield’s argument derived from the conditions of life in the colonies 306.—Merivale on colonization 308.—We shall only speak of self-dependent agricultural countries 310.—Meaning of “appropriation” 310.—Criteria from which we may infer whether all land has been appropriated 311.—Meaning of “land fit for cultivation” 312.—We shall confine ourselves to a survey of land tenure in Oceania 313.—Slavery in Oceania has never prevailed to any great extent. We shall try to account for this by all land having been appropriated 314.

§ 5. Land tenure in Polynesia 314

On most Polynesian islands all land has, or had been appropriated. In Samoa, New Zealand and Savage Island there was still free land. Manahiki is a doubtful case.

§ 6. Land tenure in Micronesia 321

Almost everywhere in Micronesia all land is held as property. Mortlock is perhaps an exception.

§ 7. Land tenure in Melanesia 324

On most of the Melanesian islands clearing is a modus acquirendi, which proves that there is still free land. In Fiji all land has been appropriated.

§ 8. Landlords, tenants and labourers in Oceania 328

Wherever in Oceania all land is held as property, there are nearly always people destitute of land 328.—The principal cause of this fact is probably the arbitrary conduct of chiefs and nobles, who appropriate the land of their enemies 329,—and even that belonging to their own subjects 331.—Condition of the lowest classes destitute of land. They perform the drudgery for the landlords, and are sometimes heavily oppressed 333.—In Melanesia there are no subjected lower classes, except in Fiji 338.—Subjected lower classes exist nearly always where all land is held as property, and are not found where there is still free land 341.—In some parts of Oceania the great depopulation has enabled many of the lower orders to obtain land 341.—The labouring classes of Oceania are not attached to the soil, but, being destitute of land, are obliged to apply to the landlords for employment 342.—Position of foreigners 342.—Over-population 343.—Skilled labourers are in a much better position and sometimes held in high esteem 343.—Oceanic labourers as compared with debtor-slaves: the former are compelled to work for others by circumstances, the latter by social regulations 344.—The state of labourers in Oceania would even be worse, but that they are employed in warfare 345.

§ 9. Transition from serfdom to freedom in Western Europa 346

Our theory must also hold with regard to civilized countries: as soon as all land is held as property slavery must disappear 347.—Wakefield’s opinion 347.—We shall not enter into a thorough investigation of this subject 347.—We limit our remarks to England and Germany 348.—Slavery in Western Europe 348.—Our argument applies to serfdom as well as slavery, for serfdom too is a system of compulsory labour 348.—Serfs and free tenants; Freizügigkeit 349.—Inaccurate use of the term “free tenants” 350.—Commutation of services for money not identical with transition from serfdom to freedom 351.—Hildebrand’s theory: natural economy leads to serfdom, money economy leads to freedom 352.—Why this theory is erroneous 354.—Hildebrand’s theory has been accepted by several writers 362.

§ 10. The rural classes of medieval England 362

In the 11th century land was still abundant and servile labour prevailed; rent in the modern sense and free labourers dependent on wages were wanting 363.—During the 12th and 13th centuries the population increased and land became more scarce. Disafforesting controversy. Free tenants. Commutation. The landlords become mere receivers of rent instead of agricultural entrepreneurs. Free labourers 364.—The Black Death of 1349. Labour becomes scarce, much land goes out of tillage. Oppression of villeins by landlords. Assessment of wages. The stock and land lease 366.—1450–1550. Rise of sheep farming. Disastrous consequences: labourers thrown out of employment, commons and holdings of villeins inclosed and appropriated by the lords, depopulation, rise of pauperism 369.—Disappearance of serfdom. Copyhold 372.—Conclusion 372.

§ 11. The rural classes of medieval Germany 373

Merovingian period. Most of the land is covered with forests. A few slaves and lites; most cultivators are peasant proprietors 373.—Carolingian period. Much land is taken into cultivation, yet land remains abundant. Absorption of the free peasants by the great proprietors; rise of serfdom and manorial economy. “Freemen destitute of land” 374.—10th–12th centuries. Rise in the value of land. The whole of the population can still secure land to live upon. The class of peasant proprietors disappears. The use of labour becomes less. Free tenants arise, but free labourers are still wanting 375.—13th and 14th centuries. Extension of the arable area. More value than before is attached to uncultivated land. Rights of common restricted. Scarcity of meat. The use of labour continues diminishing. Lords set serfs free in their own interest. Bauernlegen. Free tenants. Obligations become territorial. Free servants and agricultural labourers 378.—15th century. Over-population. Reappearance of slavery (?) 380.—16th century. Evictions 382.—Serfdom in Eastern Germany. Conclusion 382.

§ 12. Open and closed resources 383

Slavery, as an industrial system, is not likely to exist where subsistence depends on material resources which are present in limited quantity 384.—All the peoples of the earth can be divided into peoples with open, and with closed resources. Definition of these terms. Generally speaking, among the former only can a system of compulsory labour (slavery or serfdom) exist 385.—Savages with open and with closed resources 386.—Closed resources in present Western Europe 386.—Lange on open and closed countries 386.—Regarding secondary causes we shall not enter into many details 387.

§ 13. Condition of women 388

Slaves often perform domestic, i.e. female labour. Compare Rome and Mohammedan countries 388.—Domestic labour is not probably among any agricultural tribe the chief business of all slaves 389.—Slaves help the women in agricultural labour 389.—“Slavery of women” 389.—Melanesian women held in a slave-like state 389.—Though the absence of slavery is perhaps one of the causes of this subjection of women, the latter again prevents the rise of slavery 393.

§ 14. Commerce 393

Numbers of positive and negative cases among commercial agricultural tribes 394.—The term “commercial tribes” used in a wide sense 394.—Commerce furthers the slave-trade, requires more work than would otherwise be wanted, and renders development of wealth possible 394.—The last point is very important. Luxury arises: the wants of the slave-owners, and accordingly the use of slave labour, become practically unlimited 394.—“Wholesale slavery” in the United States, and among some tribes of Africa and India 395.—We know little as yet of the general effects of trade 397.—Manufactured goods and raw products 397.—Three categories of commercial tribes 397.—Significance of trade 397.

§ 15. Slaves employed in warfare 398

Instances 398.—Slaves are generally excluded from military pursuits 399.—Causes 399.—Only among some agriculturists of the higher stages are slaves employed in warfare 400.—The coercive power of hunting agriculturists is not great enough to admit of the employment of slaves in warfare 400.—Where political institutions are more highly developed, employment of slaves in the army becomes practicable 401.—Military function of slaves in ancient Rome 401.—Slaves holding high offices of state 402.

§ 16. Slaves kept as a luxury 403

The possession of many slaves is indicative of wealth and therefore considered an honour 403.—Slaves and cattle almost the only luxury of primitive times 404.—But this does not prove that slaves are a mere luxury 404.—In many countries part of the slaves are not productively employed 405,—but we have not found any instance of none of the slaves being employed for productive labour 405.

§ 17. Other secondary internal causes 406

Preserving of food as a circumstance furthering the growth of slavery calls for no special remark here 406.—Subjection of tribes does not seem to occur outside Oceania, except among cattle-breeding agriculturists 406.—The reason is the insufficiency of the military power of agricultural savages 407.

§ 18. External causes, especially the slave-trade. Recapitulation. 407

Fixed habitations, living in large groups, and preserving of food call for no remark here 407.—The slave-trade. Geographical survey 408.—Most slave-keeping agricultural savages are found in those parts where the slave-trade has been carried on by civilized and semi-civilized peoples 411.—These savages could not have adopted slavery, if it were inconsistent with their mode of life 411.—Effect of the slave-trade: it makes the keeping of slaves much easier, and breaks the vis inertiae 412.—Vicinity of inferior races does not seem to have any considerable influence here 414.—Recapitulation of the causes of slavery among agricultural tribes 415.