chapter 8

_Significance of the Achievements_

SIGNIFICANCE TO SCIENCE

One of the most critical research areas of the space program is bioscience. Of both practical and philosophical significance in exploring the origins of life and the possibilities of life on other planets, bioscience also promises much in medical aspects. Space offers biologists completely new environmental factors, such as the effects of zero gravity and of removal from Earth’s rotation. These effects have been studied in attempts to advance understanding of basic mechanisms of physiology and biological rhythms. These studies can be of great value in dealing with problems of disease and metabolic disorders.

Biological research is fundamental to the problem of successfully protecting and sustaining man in the peculiar and hostile space environment. Understanding human requirements and variations in their response to various environmental factors offers value in medical research for human survival and comfort. The many technological discoveries and advancements in electronic and engineering equipment greatly enhance medical diagnosis, treatment of disease, and the extension of human life.

The life sciences, biology and medicine, are fundamental to the success of manned exploration of space, which marks a unique and significant development in the long history of man’s conquest of new frontiers. Those who pioneered other frontiers on land and sea and in the air were not forced to await biological and medical research. Even the pioneers of aerial flight began their efforts without first seeking biomedical data. The search for such data followed flight experience and, indeed, was made only after problems arose.

Project Mercury, NASA’s first program for manned space flight, stimulated immediate and extensive studies in the life sciences to sustain man in space. Before a vehicle could be designed to carry an astronaut into space, anticipated biomedical problems associated with space flight were studied. Life-support systems were designed to offer adequate protection from environmental stresses peculiar to space, such as zero gravity, removal from Earth’s rotation, and high-energy cosmic radiation. These life-support systems used knowledge already gained from research for manned space flight by the U.S. Air Force.

Our entry into space has put us at the threshold of fundamental and far-reaching discoveries in the biological realm which have profound implications for other areas of human thought and endeavor. As man goes farther into space, the hazards increase; but past accomplishments indicate that the road ahead holds more promise than peril and that the vistas of knowledge that may be foreseen are as vast as space itself.

Almost everything which now can be said about the effects of extraterrestrial environments and about life on the Moon or the planets lies in the realm of pure speculation. There is one prediction, however, that can be made with considerable certainty by reason of historical precedent—the opportunity to investigate a totally new area, such as is offered by space exploration, is certain to produce a burst of scientific interest as soon as the path is charted by a few pioneers. Over the next few decades a progressively larger proportion of biological interest will turn to space. We may well expect that the discoveries made here will revolutionize some of our concepts of biology.

It should be fully realized that the accumulation and dissemination of biological and other scientific information is not only of great value to science and humanity but is of tremendous import to the prestige of the Nation.

SIGNIFICANCE FOR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

It can be predicted as confidently for space biology as for other space sciences that the economic costs will be amply repaid in the long run by applications of space-oriented biotechnology to other fields of biology and medicine. There are inevitable substantial, though indirect, contributions of NASA’s continuing efforts in space biology.

NASA-supported biological research has many practical applications and "spinoffs" which contribute to the fields of health and medicine, food and agriculture, and industry and manufacturing. Some of these are presented to show the range and value of applications which have resulted from basic and applied biological research. In addition to those listed are many others from the biosatellite program, particularly in the fields of bioengineering and miniaturization.

Health and Medicine

Solar cells, which have powered space systems, are now being used as a power source in studies on brain function. A miniaturized solar cell developed by General Electric provides enough power, under ordinary house lights, to stimulate an animal’s brain and to telemeter respiratory, cardiovascular, and brain-wave data while the animal is allowed to move about freely. Such a system is now used by the National Institute of Mental Health Laboratory at Rethesda, Md.

Scientists at the Ames Research Center have devised a new technique for studying organic compounds, whether synthesized in the laboratory or produced by a living system. This technique is based on a property of matter called optical activity. Previous methods of measuring optical activity have been plagued by low sensitivity. The new method is many tunes more sensitive and represents a real contribution to modern analytical instrumentation.

Studies on calcium metabolism and bed rest simulating weightlessness are adding knowledge on the prevention of demineralization of the skeleton; treatment of Paget’s disease and osteoporosis prevention of muscular atrophy; the cause and treatment of renal calculi (kidney stones); optimal calcium for the human diet; and the factors influencing calcium absorption, metabolism, and excretion. The results will have great importance in bone healing and repair, care and treatment of fracture cases, treatment of paraplegics, and treatment of polio patients and similar cases. These grant studies at Texas Woman’s University have also proven that the X-ray bone densitometry method can accurately detect changes in the skeleton.

A primary objective of the planetary exploration program is the detection of possible extraterrestrial life. The study of the fundamental properties of living things on Earth is restricted to the type of life which has evolved and survived here. Life which has been exposed to totally different environmental conditions may have markedly different physiological characteristics. The impact of the new information obtainable from the study of extraterrestrial life upon the sciences of medicine and biology will unquestionably be of fundamental and far-reaching importance. Advancement in the treatment of disease and the problems of aging are among the many possible consequences.

New developments in such techniques as ultraviolet spectrophotometry, polarimetry, and gas chromatography will find use in the detection of biochemicals and other compounds in hospitals and in toxicology and pathology laboratories. They will also be useful in studies of atmospheric pollutants such as smog.

Studies of the chemistry of living systems, molecular biology, and biophysics of cellular processes will create a better understanding of the basic mechanisms of life, leading to an understanding of both inherited and acquired disease, especially neoplastic conditions and chemical disturbances incident to mental disease.

The University of Pittsburgh is conducting a study to increase the availability of cytological technique in research and as a monitoring procedure by developing an automatic electronic scanning device using computer analysis for recording, counting, and sorting chromosomes. Structural changes in blood cell chromosomes can indicate the degree of radiation damage as well as damage resulting from various environmental stresses. Accordingly, this instrument, when developed, can be used as a radiation dosimeter in civil defense by swiftly detecting the degree and type of chromosomal aberrations in blood cells. Thus, casualties in nuclear attack could be quickly detected and treated. This system would also be useful for nuclear industrial plants and for military maneuvers. In medicine, various disease trends could be monitored. (Chromosomes exhibit anomalies in leukemia and mental retardation as well as in other states.) In space exploration and experimentation, the device can spot monitor radiation dose levels as well as changes resulting from any of the environmental stresses experienced in space. This apparatus can be modified for use as an extraterrestrial-life-detecting instrument by scanning the growth of cells (or cellular inclusions), computing rates, and telemetering changes to the researcher.

Investigations of rhythmic phenomena of various physiological systems can result in knowledge of the utmost importance to medicine. Rhythmic phenomena are found in the cardiovascular system of normal humans. Changes in these rhythms have the potential of foretelling abnormalities (heart disease, arteriosclerosis) before outward signs are manifested, allowing for earlier diagnosis, treatment, and control or cure.

The spacecraft sterilization program requires the use of rooms having the lowest attainable level of bacterial contamination. The rate of dissemination of bacteria from the humans in the room is basic to the problem. Data on this matter are being obtained through support of the Communicable Disease Center of the U.S. Public Health Service. The findings are affecting the measures used in surgical practice to lower infection rates.

Studies on the physiology of hibernation in mammals are important to understand temperature regulation and the mechanism of survival at low body temperatures. The purpose of this type of research is to understand and use reduced metabolic activity in astronauts on future extended space flight. Other applications involve studies of the mechanisms of injury and freezing biological organisms, for improving techniques in hypothermic surgery, pathology, and preservation of tissue for human grafting.

Food and Agriculture

Gathering agricultural information by remote sensing of Earth’s surface from aircraft, balloons, and satellites has a potential application in research and development. Current needs for data gathered in this way include crop and livestock surveys for marketing planning; soil mapping; crop disease, insect, and weed surveys; soil conservation management and research; and crop acreage control programs. As population and world trade increase, the needs will become even more intense for regularly scheduled synoptic surveys of the world’s agricultural lands for crop plantings and harvests; determining the condition of crops as affected by drought, disease, or insect outbreaks; and studies of the lands suitable for agricultural development in underdeveloped countries. The only way that worldwide synoptic surveys can be made is by using orbiting platforms.

The NASA nutrition program for developing diets for prolonged manned and animal space flight lends itself to civil defense purposes; military maneuvers where space and weight are prime considerations; polar and desert exploration; reducing hunger in underdeveloped countries; and detecting metabolic diseases as well as diseases of infancy and old age. For space research such a diet can be used on prolonged manned space flights, animal experiments in space, manned orbiting laboratories, and space and planetary stations. Studies on the packaging and stability of foods under various conditions of humidity, temperature, and radiation will lead to better processing and storage.

Learning how microbial spores are transported by air is important to biology, agriculture, and medicine. Besides spreading crop destruction, microbial spores produce allergic responses in some human beings. To obtain the facts, not only the biology of micro-organisms but also the weather factors that induce the flight of mature spores must be known. Thus, both biological and meteorological problems are involved. Data obtained under a NASA contract with the General Mills Electronic Division (now part of Litton Industries, Inc.) indicate that spores of fungi are present in low numbers in the stratosphere. A reservoir of spores exists which cannot be brought down by the normal scrubbing mechanisms of rainfall and other meteorological disturbances in the troposphere. This finding has important implications for reducing the spread of agricultural crop diseases and for protecting persons suffering from allergies. This project has indicated the necessity for designing novel biological samplers for use in the stratosphere. Such samplers will aid in determining various pollutants of the atmosphere.

The NASA program for developing sterile spacecraft for the biological exploration of Mars will contribute improved methods of sterilization that can be applied to the canning industry. Studies on sterilization at low temperatures for long periods of time are being supported by NASA at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Communicable Disease Center and the Sanitary Engineering Center of the Public Health Service. The developing capability is making possible the heat sterilization of products that never before could be thoroughly sterilized.

In preparing for missions to search for extraterrestrial life, research on the psychrophilic or cold bacteria, on halophytic or salt bacteria, and on specialized bacteria and other organisms growing in extreme environments is defining the extremes under which life can exist. Increased knowledge about organisms that can grow in or on refrigerated, dried, or salted foods and other materials should have practical applications for food storage and preservation. Research on psychrophilic bacteria is being conducted by Whirlpool Corp. and the NASA Ames Research Center.

Theoretical studies of Martian life involve investigations of plant and bacterial spores. Many of these forms are spoilage organisms and some produce lethal toxins. This work has potential importance for food processing and for obtaining more precise knowledge of how wounds become infected. The program for investigating possible forms of life on Mars includes a thorough study of anaerobic micro-organisms. This research has led to the discovery of new types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria other than the familiar types found in the root nodules of leguminous plants. Thus, it may be possible to use these microorganisms, or the principles involved, in the incorporation of vital atmospheric nitrogen into terrestrial soils which are now unproductive.

Industry and Manufacturing

Batteries that have been developed in the space program to endure high sterilization temperatures for extended times will have greatly increased shelf life at normal storage temperatures and will be serviceable after many hours of baking at high temperatures.

Currently, the highest quality tape recorders are subject to imperfect reproduction because the tapes are heat labile; i.e., they soften and stretch when warm. The development of high-quality magnetic tapes for space-data recorders is an outgrowth of the materials developed to meet spacecraft sterilization requirements. These improved tapes will be useful for all types of recording—industry, automation controls, home, and studio.

OUTLOOK FOR BIOSCIENCE—MAJOR PROBLEMS

The problems undertaken are among the most challenging, if not _the_ most challenging, man faces on the space frontier. These include the quest for the origin of life, the explanation of life and life processes, the elucidation of the environment’s role in establishing and maintaining normal organization in living organisms, the possibility of extraterrestrial life on other planets—the concern of exobiology. The greatest promise for their solution lies in advances in biological theory rather than other avenues of research; therefore, it is fortunate that the need to solve them has come at a time when developments in experimental biology are at a high level. In addition, technological developments in electronics and engineering are providing new and wonderful instruments for this great exploration into the sources of life. Many of these have had practical application that has made possible important advances in medical diagnosis and treatment.

The broad national space goals initially charted by NASA have gone beyond space flight in near-Earth orbit to lunar and interplanetary exploration by man and machine. For such missions, more intensive and comprehensive research in the life sciences is needed. Before manned voyages for extended periods into deep space will be possible, solutions must be found for problems such as the development of bioregenerative life-support systems, communication with nonhuman species, and the development of new methods for transferring knowledge to the human brain.

The problems are all of the type that could perhaps be solved by truly great advances in biological theory, and probably not by any other avenue.

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* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1966 - O - 798 520

Transcription note

The following typographic errors have been corrected:

- *p. 2, l. 16:* to be called ‘"exobiology." ——> to be called "exobiology." - *Table III.- Ultraviolet/Maximum:* 10⁸ erg/cm², 2537° Å ——> 10⁸ erg/cm², 2537 Å - *p. 58, l. 14-15:* approximately 300 atm) ——> approximately 300 atm.) - *p. 80, l. -2:* (600-1000 ft=c) ——> (600-1000 ft-c) - *p. 87, l. 1:* 0.2-mM ——> 0.2 mM - *p. 99, l. 1-2:* faintsess ——> faintness - *p. 104, l. 2:* hiberation ——> hibernation - *p. 116, l. 19:* processsing ——> processing - *p. 121, l. 1:* _Hoffman, R. K.,_ ——> _Hoffman, R. K.;_ - *p. 124, l. -10:* _Rosenszweig_ ——> _Rosenzweig_ - *p. 128, l. 29:* AMRL Tech. Doc. Rept. ——> AMRL-Tech. Doc. Rept.

Variant spelling: Both forms _microorganism_ and _micro-organism_ have been retained, as quoted from different sources or bibliographic reference titles.

Tables: Where necessary, the widths of columns have been adjusted, and some tables have been split to accommodate the width restrictions on this text format. Split tables have had blank lines inserted in order to maintain the alignment between the two parts should they be rejoined at a future date. In the original text, Table VI was split over two pages but has been rejoined in this version.

References: For ease of searching, references in the text, as well as those in the list of references, have been enclosed in square brackets, e.g. [ref.3].

UTF-8 characters: This version contains UTF-8 characters to represent Greek letters, subscripts, superscripts and some punctuation. If these characters do not appear correctly, you may need to select a different font. In order for the table columns to line up correctly, this will need to be a monospaced, or fixed-width, font.