Part 4

Just as in the times of the Greeks and the Romans, the Middle Ages had their galleys, and their merchant vessels of more rounded form. Thus, for example, the city of Genoa sent to Pisa, in 1284, a fleet of eight galleys and caravels. (~Jal~, p. 250.)

The galleys, however, were not used exclusively as vessels of war; they also served generally, in the XIVth century, as merchantmen. (~Jal~, p. 250.)

We have from the Middle Ages no drawings or pictures which give the means of deducing with any certainty the shape of the ships. The oldest picture comes to us from Pietro Laurentini, an artist of the XIVth century; then there exists another by the hand of Raphaël (1483-1520), and dating from the beginning of the XVIth century.

These two reproductions appear in ~Jal~’s work (_Archéologie navale_), but their small scale almost destroys their value. They are remarkable however from this that the first shows the double mast of the Ancients and the cabin on the after deck, while Raphaël’s carries a castle at the bow and stern, as well as the vessel’s rudder.

It follows from a comparative examination of old coins that the rudder had come generally into use in the XIIIth century. It is superfluous, however, to recall that, nevertheless, the steering oar was still used on many vessels as a rudder.

The invention of gunpowder, near the middle of the XIVth century, made no changes in the structure of the galleys, because the propelling force was still limited to the strength of the rowers, which made a slender shape a prime necessity for the boat and prevented the mounting of any large number of guns on board.

The galleys reached their apogee in 1600. Shortly afterward, they began to lose their value as war ships by reason of the increasing power of the big, rounded sea-going vessels.

A striking example of the fighting inferiority of the galleys is found in the naval action between the French ship “Le Bon” and 36 galleys, on July 10, 1684. (~Paris~, Vol. III, no. 126.) This vessel was only 41.41 m. long from bow to stern, with a total width of 11.04 m. and a depth of 5.03 m.; the keel was 37.03 long.

The galleys, on the other hand, were 48.77 m. long over all, 21.20 m. on the keel, with a breadth of 5.90 m. on the deck (8.47 m. between the apostis); the oars were 2.5 metres long.

The higher position of the artillery on “Le Bon”, as well as its more solid frame and thicker planking, allowed this ship to hold the enemy at bay and to escape when the wind rose.

If the strength of the crews be examined, the fighting inferiority of the galleys stands out still more clearly; while the French ship carried only 600 to 800 men, the galleys had on board from 12,000 to 14,000 all told. Consequently, from as far back as the XVIIth century, the galleys were used in France almost exclusively for towing. Thus we read that in 1688, the wind having fallen, Duquesne had his ships brought by galleys under the walls of Algiers in order to bombard that city.

The galleys continued to appear nevertheless in the French navy until 1773.

It was at the battle of Zierikzee, in 1302, where the Flemings fought against the French, the Dutch and the Genoese, that, according to the old Florentine historian Villani, the superiority of the broad-beamed vessels of the North Sea, over the galleys, was first felt. The Count of Flanders had fitted out, for this battle, eighty ships or “coques”, built in accordance with the maritime demands of the place. (Villani says: _ottantia navi, overo cahi, al medo di quello mare_.) According to this historian it was also the first time that vessels of this kind had to be fought.

The battle of Zierikzee was the cause, from this time on, of giving more and more attention, in the Mediterranean, to the building of broad-beamed ships. Besides, necessity forced it. The Crusades brought about more frequent relations with the peoples of the North against whom defense must needs be had.

In the beginning, the people from the North called upon the Genoese and others along the shores of the Mediterranean to transport the Crusaders to Palestine. The route by the Mediterranean became thus known to them; but they very soon undertook to build ships themselves so as to escape from the exorbitant transportation charges of the Italians. Nevertheless, Venice, Genoa, etc. remained the principal warehouses; and many ships were still built there, especially for France. Philip the Handsome, in his struggle against Edward I of England, in 1295, and Philip of Valois, in his war against Edward III, in 1337, both made use of Genoese vessels. (~La Croix~, p. 92.)

Furthermore, as ~Jal~ has written (_Archéologie Navale_, Vol. II, p. 352), it can be granted with certainty that the vessels built in the French ports of the Mediterranean, were identical with those used in Italy. The mutual relations between maritime peoples and their common interests inevitably brought about these imitations. Venice yielded nothing to Genoa; Genoa was close on the heels of Pisa and, in the improvements made in shipbuilding, this last city did not allow herself to be out-done by Barcelona, Marseilles or Constantinople.

Under these circumstances, the writer just quoted was right, then, in saying: “The basin of the Mediterranean had, therefore, but one navy, at least so far as the principal vessels were concerned; it is so to-day and it was certainly so in ancient times.” I add also for my part that the characteristic differences offered by types of vessels among themselves, have undergone no change in the course of ages and this applies not only to the basin of the Mediterranean, but to shipbuilding in general.

These old types, however, are not to be sought among the large vessels, but rather among the small ones and, particularly, among fishing smacks.

Among all nations, even among all seafaring people, fishermen have most preserved their ancient character and modified their manners and customs least. The exercise of their hard calling on the sea has made them hostile to any innovation coming from the shore and has been unable, except in passing over their bodies, to make them give up the old types of ships, the issue of tradition and usage. Hence, fishermen have kept longest the antique forms and it is to them that we must go to find them. Thus there are seen in Norway fishing boats which, aside from the rudder, reproduce almost completely the ancient “Viking ship”. The Dutch “Bom” is, in like manner, a remnant of the “cog”, and Portugal offers barks which call to mind the old mural paintings discovered in Italy.

Naturally many types have disappeared already, and their number is constantly increasing through the use of steel in shipbuilding. Thus it is that there now no longer exist any but a few rare specimens of the galleys and they are used merely for festive occasions (examples: the galley utilized for the naval review of the Hollandsche-Diep, and that used in Portugal on certain holidays).

The oldest work which treats of galleys is called: “Fabbrica di galere”. (~Jal~, _Archéologie Navale_, Vol. II, pp. 6 _et seq._) The first complete information about them dates from the time of Louis XIV and is given by the Chevalier Barras de la Penne (1698). Nor should the work of Fürstenbach, dating from 1623, be passed by in silence. (~Witsen~, p. 186.)

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Although the galleys are sufficiently known, a few more words may still be said about them. These boats were long and narrow and rose but little above the water. Their beam was generally one-seventh or one-eighth of their length and the part out of water rose to only 1 m. to 1.50 m. in height. A galley 40.60 m. long, for example, had a beam of only 5.27 m. The total length of the stem was 3.28 m. and of the sternpost it was 3.62 m. The main frame was placed at three-sevenths of the length of the vessel and was flattened on the under side. The vessel narrowed forward and aft and the deck covered its entire length. Near the middle was built the _corsia_ (guard bridge) into which were let the benches of the rowers. On each side, close by the planking and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the vessel, were the apostis, heavy timbers into which were let the thole pins. The oars, arranged in a single bank, were each worked by four or five men who rose from their bench as they pushed forward on the loom of the oar, to prepare for a stroke, and fell back on it as the stroke was completed. The oarsmen were stark naked at this work. A man of average strength could stand it, as a rule, for an hour, and yet this work had sometimes to go on for twelve consecutive hours in time of war. What a painful situation, when it is considered that these men were exposed to the inclemencies of the air and to the fire of the enemy!

In order to strengthen the rowers at their work, bread steeped in wine was put into their mouths. If they fell exhausted, they were mercilessly flogged by the boatswain who walked up and down the bridge, and if they did not rise, death awaited them: they were thrown overboard.

If it be borne in mind, furthermore, that the rowers were rivetted to the ship by irons which were rarely removed; that they generally lived and died on their benches, it will be understood that the galleys were a terror and a shame for the seafaring peoples.

It was rare to meet with volunteers for this trade which included, for the matter of that, only slaves and prisoners of war. Still, the rowers were not all equal; they were divided into three distinct classes: 1ᵒ those condemned to the galleys, their hair and beard being shaved; 2ᵒ the slaves, among whom were Turks, Moors and Negroes, these last considered to be the best rowers, their distinctive mark was a tuft of hair on the head; 3ᵒ the “benevoglie” or volunteers among whom were men who had served their time and been liberated, but who were not able to find a place and so sought a refuge on the galleys, as well as bandits and others who no longer had anything on which to live.

The clothing of the rowers was very simple: they received every year two shirts, two pairs of breeches, a red cloth jacket a sou’wester for winter, a red cap and two blankets per bench of oarsmen.

Rations were issued to them, but they could buy more if the food supplied were not enough.

The part of the hold not occupied by ammunition was reserved for provisions; it also included a bit of a cabin for the captain and officers.

When the galley stopped, a large sail was stretched above and across the ship, one side being raised so as to let the air enter.

Their slender build did not give the galleys sufficient stability at sea, consequently the rowers were often very much tried by the waves.

The armament was simple: three guns were placed at the bow, the principal one of which was in the middle (set in the longitudinal axis of the ship); on the large galleys, there were found, as a rule 18, 48 and 12 pounders and, on the small ships, there were one 12-, one 24-and one 8-pdr.

The fighting value was measured by the amount of iron which could be thrown at once and per man. Take, for example, a galley throwing 44 kilogrammes of iron at once and carrying a crew of about 400 men. There would be hurled, then, 0.110 m. per man. A galley cost 400,000 francs, or 9090 francs per kilogramme of iron.

Compare this galley with an ordinary war ship, carrying 55 pieces of artillery with a crew of 1100 men and able to throw 1000 kilogrammes at once (or 0.910 m. per man), and assume its cost to be 3000 francs per kg. The lower fighting efficiency, of the galleys and their much greater relative cost can be clearly seen. This ordinary war ship throws at once nine times more iron per man while its cost is less than that of the galley considered.

In conclusion, it will be stated that the speed of the galleys was 2.50 m. per second or 5.6 miles per hour, and that sails were available in addition to the oars. They carried two masts, one at the bow and the other about midship, both provided with lateen sails (~Jal~, _Clos. nautique_, p. 749), which were furled while the vessel was in action.

[Sidenote: II 43]

No further demonstration is necessary to show that the galley was not suited to take the Ocean, which was more and more frequented. The invention of gunpowder soon brought out this vessel’s inferiority for fighting. Hence endeavors were made to improve it.

[Sidenote: II 45]

Thus there is seen to arise in the XVIth century a ship, the “galliass”, of which the bow and stern recall the boats of broad beam, and of which the intermediate part brings the galleys to mind. This ship had more beam than the galleys; its breadth being to its length as 1 to 5½.

With a length of 50.01 m., the galliass had a beam of 9.01 m. and drew 3.35 m.; its greatest depth was 6.52 m. There were 25 oars on each side and the benches of the rowers were 1.30 m. apart. The oars were handled at times by 7 or 8 men and as the sides were higher above the water than those of the galleys, the rowers were better protected against waves.

The galliass carried generally from 700 to 1000 men. Fifty guns were mounted in the towers and between the benches of the rowers.

The galliass was more stable on the water than the galley, protected the rowers better and carried more guns; but, just on account of these advantages, it was less agile as its propelling force was limited by the restricted number of rowers.

The galliass, like the galleys carried three masts furnished with lateen sails. These were very hard to work, so that in violent winds the large sails were replaced by others of smaller size.

It is not astonishing that even the galliass should have been inferior to the broad-beamed ships. Furthermore, they were never numerous; at the end of the XVIth century, in the naval battle of the allied powers against the Turks at Lepanto, only six of them could be assembled. (~Jal~, _Archéologie Navale_, p. 394.) It is therefore very doubtful whether the invincible “Armada”, the famous fleet of 1588, included a division of twenty-two galliass; the greater part of these vessels were undoubtedly galleys.

In the same way, there existed among the Ancients, beside the _naves longæ_, broad beamed ships which were used in the beginning solely for commerce and transportation.

The invention of gunpowder, and still more the closing by the Turks of the old route to the Indies, at the end of the XVth century, made a change in this situation. From this time, trade moves toward the ocean; a new route to the Indies is sought and the New World is discovered.

Then too, the nations of the North greedy for riches and no longer content with the Baltic Sea, take their chances toward the South.

All these circumstances brought in a turning point for the history of the naval architecture of the Mediterranean. In spite of the efforts made to preserve the supremacy of the old types of ships, by building larger vessels with oars, such as the galliass etc., it was necessary to retreat, not only in Italy but also in Spain and Portugal before the more powerful fleets of the peoples of the North.

Hence it can be said, in the order of the ideas already expressed in speaking of the battle of Zierikzee, which occurred in 1302, that the XIVth and XVth centuries saw the naval architecture of the Ocean make its way into the Mediterranean. On the other hand, the art of the Mediterranean was not without its influence on the former.

It is not easy to reconstitute the types of ships inherent to the Mediterranean; indeed, but few data remain concerning these vessels. All that can be done is to refer to the contracts above mentioned of Louis IX. The first reliable information dates from a period subsequent to the middle ages, and notably from the XVIIth century.

All the old drawings known at present leave something to be desired and are always out of proportion. The only conclusion to be drawn from them is that there were several kinds of boats.

It is really to be regretted, as ~Jal~ says, that we have no more exact information. There is no doubt, however, that, even in the middle ages, there were good broad-beamed ships (~Jal~, _Clos. naut._, p. 1057; ~La Croix~, p. 86; idem, p. 96) which allowed at least five hundred fighting men to be carried. (~Jal~, _Archéologie Navale_, p. 380, 2d part, note.) Even horses were loaded on board. (~Jal~, _Archéologie Navale_, p. 386, etc. ~Holmes~, p. 68.)

In order to reconstitute the types inherent to the Mediterranean, it is necessary to find out, first of all, what models were still existing at the end of the XVIIIth century, at the time when wooden vessels exclusively were used.

It will be remarked, before beginning this examination, that boats were constantly beached when not under way; let it also be noted that the waters of the Mediterranean were calm, when compared with those of the Ocean. This latter point especially explains why vessels with oars were there so long in use. (~Paris~, Vol. IV, p. 206.)

In order to ground the boats, the bottom of the hull had to be flat and, as a matter of fact, the centre body of the vessels under consideration is wide and flat, wider even than that of the vessels from the North. The beam of these latter was to the length as 1:4, while in most of the Mediterranean vessels this proportion varies between 1:2½ and 1:3½ (generally, 1:3).

The Mediterranean boats are pointed toward the stem and the sternpost, which is the contrary of what exists for the Northern vessels and this shape gives the former an appearance all their own. Furthermore, the sides of these ships do not come at all together toward the top; at most, they are vertical; in other words: the greatest width is at the top.

Among the old models, some are found which have: 1ᵒ a straight sloping stem; 2ᵒ a straight vertical stem, and 3ᵒ a curved stem which is convex or concave at the top.

Alongside of the broad-beamed vessels, there are a few longer ones, of which the beam is to the length as 1 to 5.

Intentionally, no mention has been made of the sternpost as this has been modified in most cases by the adoption of the rudder.

[Sidenote: II 48]

Besides, many boats have a flat projection at the stern furnished with a balustrade,--a detail which is found also on the Greek and Roman vessels. This position was originally reserved for the helmsmen who operated the steering oars.

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Among the more important types must be counted the _Xebecs_, with three masts furnished at the beginning with lateen sails. These latter were replaced later on by square sails. The ship thus modified was then called a _mystic Xebec_ or a _polacca Xebec_. The _Polacca_ also existed at this time.

[Sidenote: II 53]

The length of these vessels--about 15 metres--was to the beam as 3½ to 1. The stem, sensibly straight at the top, becomes curved at the foot and is provided with a ram similar to that of a “Galleon”. The sternpost is straight but it leans back and the after deck projects. This type of vessel can be compared to a broad-beamed galley, Astern, the _Polacca_ more nearly resembles ocean vessels.

All these vessels are originally from the West of the Mediterranean. (~Paris~, Vol. II, nᵒˢ 78 and 90; _idem_, Vol. I, nᵒ 25.) The Genoese “pink” can be placed in the same category. (~Paris~, Vol. II, no. 119.)

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There is still found in Tunisia the “Carèbe”, from 12 to 15 metres long with a beam of one-third of this length. This boat seems to have a double stem (the plank sheer reenters). Let this type be compared with the reproduction which appears on the tower of Pisa, etc. (~Paris~, Vol. IV, nᵒ 201), which also shows a boat with a double stem.

Alongside of the “Carèbe”, are the Arabian “Sandales”, 12 metres long, 2.85 m. wide and 1.30 m. deep. Jal considers this kind of boat as one of the oldest types.

The Arabian “Sandale” is a very slender vessel, narrower amidships than most of the others.

[Sidenote: II 54]

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The Maltese boats, the “Speronare”, are still more singular; they are 15 metres long, 4.40 m. beam, 1.20 m. draught with a capacity of about 17 tonnes. The stem and the sternpost are vertical. These boats have sometimes at the stern a flat projection and at the bow a truncated ram.

The same type, 5.30 m. long, 1.95 m. beam and 1 metre deep, becomes a “Tarella”. This boat has no ram. There is no doubt that these are very ancient forms. (Compare, for example, the “Speronara” with Layard’s reproduction.)

The “Schifarro” and “Laoutello” of Sicily, with their curved stem and sternpost, are not less remarkable. These vessels also recall reproductions of the middle ages which present the same characteristics.

On the East coast of Italy are found the “Tartana”, 17.90 m. long, 4.90 m. beam, and drawing 0.80 m. of water and the “Braca da Pasca”, 12.20 m. long, 2.30 m. beam and 1.60 m. deep; both of them flat-bottomed and solidly built. (~Paris~, Vol. II, pl. 85, 86 and 87.)

It should be noted that still other types of flat-bottomed boats are met with on the Adriatic, among them are the “Rascona”, a very narrow vessel for its length (1 to 5), and the “Topo”. The former is also steered with the oar.

Greece and Turkey have between them many points of contact. Two types are found there: one with a straight sloping stem, the other with a curved stem: the “Scaphé” and the “Sacobeva”. (~Paris~, 3, nᵒˢ 91, 89 and 88.)

The Arabian Sea, to go no further, gives the “Baggala” and the “Dungiyah”; the latter has probably now disappeared. These are very old types with a strongly sloping stem. Allusion has been made above to Greek figures in which the analogy with these vessels is complete.

Some types have shifted their ground. The best proof of this is the “Balancella” of Spain which came originally in all probability from Naples (~Paris~, Vol. II, nᵒ 61) and which resembles greatly the “Trabocola”.

All these boats, and only the principal ones have been mentioned, allow the reconstitution of a few fundamental types which are still to be found now and which were in existence several centuries ago. The development of trade, expeditions to points further and further away, which had to be undertaken, have caused the old types to be replaced long since by others intended for navigation beyond the seas. This explains why the primitive types no longer exist except in vessels of small importance. For these latter, it was not necessary to seek new forms, because the small builders continued to follow traditions and to work from models. Steel has gained ground very slowly among them, and insensibly and only as the new generations come to replace the old, will the types of the primitive boats disappear.

Although several types exist, it follows from what precedes that the Mediterranean types are broad in comparison to their length, and flat amidships; besides, they are pointed at bow and stern. With these data, Fürstenbach’s work, which dates from 1629, acquires more value in our eyes, because it contains reproductions of a Dutch ship and a few Mediterranean vessels, in which can be discovered many known types, although they are called by separate names.

The difference of form between the types of the North and those of the South, already pointed out before, is shown there clearly; it appears in all its force when the midship frames of the two boats are brought together. (Compare “die Mittlere Stamenale”, fig. II, with “die Stamenale” of fig. 16, as well as the plans of the ships.) The difference in the height of the stem and sternpost is not less noticeable, and indeed, the Mediterranean ships really appear higher than ours. It will be seen further on that, under the influence of the South (_i. e._ of the Mediterranean) the people of our country began to make their vessels higher.