Part 11

The straightening of the sternpost brought about the shortening of the beakhead which, at the beginning of the XVIIth century, measured one-fifth of the total length of the vessel and only one-eighth of this length at its end. This difference is clearly seen by comparing the Zierikzee model with that of the “Bleijswijk”. The beakhead, which had come down to us from ancient times (~Van Yk~, p. 103), was used only “als Heimelijke gevoeg-plaatsen” (as a W. C.) for the crew, and those who had been guilty of some unimportant misdemeanor were also shut up there, as ~Van Yk~ says (p. 104), “des devotie des overspelenden zeewaters” (at the mercy of the waves).

Fire was the great enemy of our merchant ships. The stoppage of leaks was also more difficult for these vessels than for men-of-war because it was impossible, as a rule, on the former to reach the leak from the inside and through the cargo.

Water tight bulkheads did not exist, but, for all that, the stoppage of the leak was none the less indispensable. ~Witsen~ tells us how it was all handled (p. 276), and, after explaining how a fire was put out, he continues thus:

“Wanneer een geschoten gat onder water van binnen niet gestopt kan worden, hetzij den last in den weg is of anderzins, wordt een man buiten boord met een prop in de hant op een plankje gezet, daar een dreg aan vast is, die hem onder water haalt. En aldus stopt of dekt hij de opening. Men geeft hem een geoliede lap in den mont on het water uit het lichaem te weeren”[17].

Before going on to the classification, properly so called, of the principal categories of vessels which have just been sketched out, a few more remarks, about the ship in general and a few details in particular, should be made.

The old builders of wooden vessels determined the ship’s length by the work for which it was intended. This length was measured from the forward side of the stem to the after side of the sternpost. The beam and the depth were deduced from the length; the beam being taken equal to one-fourth of the length, and for the depth, one foot was taken for each 10 feet of length, at the point where the vessel’s height was least. It was only for esthetic reasons that the sternpost was made higher than the stem.

When the keel was laid down, the sternpost and the stem put up, the wing transom was made fast to the fashion timbers, then the main frame and the frame at the junction of the stem were reared. Another frame was raised between the main frame and the sternpost. “Centen” (thin flexible boards, called ribands in English) were then made fast to these frames so as to determine in this way the shape of the ship and to deduce therefrom the other frames.

According to ~Van Yk~ (p. 77), these boards are not called “centen”, but “certen”, because the form of the vessel is fixed by means of these boards and made “certain”. Other authors pretend that the word comes from “Kanten” or “Kenten” from the word “bekendheid” (knowledge).

The shape of the ship was thus determined by trial after having settled, in the first place, on the main frame and the length. The smaller the vessel, the more sheer it had and the more ribands were required exactly to determine its shape.

On the other hand it was customary to give the ship some sheer (zeegte), that is: to make it higher at the ends than at the middle. This sheer was obtained, after setting the ribands, by means of sheerstrakes of which the fastening was begun at the lowest point of the height of the ship. These sheerstrakes rose forward at the rate of 1 inch for every 6 feet of length, and aft at the rate of 5 inches for every 6 feet. The wales which served to protect the ship were laid according to the sheerstrakes. The sheer in large vessels (spiegelschepen) was gradually reduced and the effort was made insensibly to build ships with a flat deck in imitation of England and later of America. The sheer still exists in boats for inland waters, like the “Tjalken”, “Poonen”, etc. Only one wale or bend is used for small vessels, the larger ones, such as the “Tjalken” and “Smakken” require three bends superposed.

It is noticed, as a rule, that the bends became lighter in the XVIIIth century, just as did the sternpost and the stem. The engravings which show boats prior to 1500, show also several equidistant bends, and it was only at the end of the XVIth century that the single bends of later days are seen to appear. Moreover, it is certain that the improvement of the navigable highways was one of the causes of the lighter construction of ships.

These old engravings show that the planking is in very short pieces so as to avoid marked curves; but, in order to give, all the same, sufficient stiffness to the vessel, many bends became necessary.

[Sidenote: II 138]

In the old shipbuilding, where the pieces of the planking nailed together clinker ways make the construction more solid, the bends were exceptional. The old “Koggeschepen” (Cogs), for example, had none, but the reproduction of a small boat preserved at the church at Diemer shows them.

These wales are then supported by round wooden brackets which are still found in a few old “Poonen”.

In the matter of the wales, the rule was that when the vessel was seen from in front they seemed to be convex, with the convexity on top, whereas, seen from the side, they look concave, that is, with the convexity underneath.

It has been said in what precedes that the method of ribands (“centen”) was abandoned for large ships, about the middle of the XVIIth century, and that, after that time, work was done from sketches in putting up the frames and in building the ship.

The rudder was handled by means of a tiller, and on large vessels this is often held up by a piece of wood (luierwagen) which is still seen on many small inland vessels.

In order readily to work the tiller of large vessels, a hole was cut in the poop deck immediately over the free end of the tiller in its middle position. A lever passed upward through this hole and was hung on a pivot of which the axis lay fore and aft. The lower end of the lever was attached to the free end of the tiller while the upper end was loose. By swinging the top of the lever to one side or the other of the ship, a corresponding motion was given to the tiller and so to the rudder. This manœuvre was, naturally, not easy in heavy weather and required assistance. A pulley, around which ran a rope or steering line having one end made fast to the tiller, was set in the deck so as better to operate the rudder. (~Witsen~, p. 274, 2d column.)

This rope, which was served by two men, formed with the pulley the precursor of the steering wheel which appeared on the continent in the XVIIIth century, after having been already in use in England, as certain authors try to make out.

It is claimed sometimes that the rudder could only swing a little to either side. This, however, is a mistake. ~Witsen~ says, as a matter of fact, p. 58: “The greater the swing of the rudder, the harder is the manœuvre”. It is evident that Witsen would have said nothing about the swing if it had been small. It follows clearly from the quotation from ~Van Yk~ (p. 121) in regard to the “luierwagens” that the helmsman must have put forth a great deal of strength: “Hij (de luierwagen) diend om de Roerpen, aan ’t vooreinde t’ ondersteunen nademaal deze, wegens deszelfs langte, om sig selven te dragen immers _om ’t geweld dat de man_ te Roer daaraan verrichten moet, uit te staan; al te zwak soude wezen”[18].

Finally, M. Bouguer (1746) says in his work, p. 83, “that the rudder should make with the prolongation of the keel an angle of about 55° 44´, etc.”.

Hence it is incorrect to say that the swing of the rudder could only reach a few degrees. (~Paris~, vol. 4, p. 221.)

Furthermore, vessels should be able to come about more quickly in our rivers, with their narrow channels and small depth of water, hence the rudder should be able to swing more than a few degrees.

On small inland boats, the rudder is frequently lengthened on reaching shallow water. This elongation was made by means of an isolated board or a movable part (~Van Yk~, p. 221), a thing which happens still very often at the present time.

If the tiller can be turned entirely above the bulwarks, which is called in Dutch “geen statie voeren” (without statie), the vessel is said to have a _draai over boord_ in contradistinction to vessels with “statie”. The “statie” means the part of the bulwarks which rises above the tiller[19].

The tiller passes in this case through an opening in the “statie”, which prevents the rudder being brought hard over.

The length of the lee-boards is taken at twice the depth of the hold.

As many rivers and lakes are lacking in depth, the length of the lee-boards is reduced for inland vessels, in order to prevent them from touching bottom, consequently their width was increased.

The lee-boards for the ocean and for the rivers of Zealand are long and narrow.

New modifications were made in the rigging of vessels toward the middle of the XVIIIth century. The small bowsprit disappeared in order to make place for the fore-masts which have remained in use since that time.

[Sidenote: III 145 etc.]

The rigging of the large vessels is sufficiently well known. It is desired merely to dwell on the fact that fore-masts have been placed wrongly on various models of the XVIIth century.

A vessel of which the planking is rabbetted into the stem is called a “vaartuig”. The “Aak” (ake) is a boat without a stem and its planking forms a plane up to the bow. The planking ends then at the plane in front. If this occurs for a “Tjalk”, there is obtained what is known as an “Aak Tjalk”.

When the after deck is raised so as to come up to the level of the main rail, the vessel is said to be supplied with a “paviljoen”. Thus, for example, a “Statiepaviljoenpoon”, is a “poon” with a raised deck. If the after deck be not raised, the vessel is simply a “Statiepoon”.

Vessels can be grouped, then, in the following way:

CLASSIFICATION OF SHIPS

I. WAR VESSELS.

II. MERCHANTMEN. ~A~) For over seas trade; ~B~) For coasting trade and tidal streams.

III. FERRIES.

IV. BOATS FOR SUNDRY USES AND NOT BELONGING TO THE PRECEDING GROUPS.

V. BOATS FREQUENTING THE UPPER PARTS OF RIVERS (BOVENLANDERS). ~A~) For the Rhine; ~B~) For the Meuse; ~C~) For the Upper Rhine and the basin included between the Rhine and the Meuse.

VI. FISHING VESSELS. ~A~) For deep sea fishing; ~B~) For the coasting and river fisheries.

I.

WAR VESSELS.

In the matter of the evolution of the war ship, properly so-called, the reader needs merely to be referred to the preceding chapters.

Before about 1675, there were, as a first war ship proper: the _Pinasschip_ (Pinace) and later the _Spiegelschip_ (a square stern ship). The square sterned _Spiegel_ disappeared and then round sterns were again taken up, whence resulted the war ship called _Schip van oorlog_. At the beginning, this class of vessels was made up exclusively of ships with two decks. At the end of the XVIIth century, however, a few types with three decks were built in the Netherlands.

Use was often made of the “Fluitschip” (flute or transport), of ships of the East India Company (“Oost-Indische Compagnie schip”), of “yachts” (“Jachten”) and of various sorts of vessels of less importance, as auxiliary war ships, and of tenders (“Boeier”), galliots (“Galjoot”), galeas (“Galeas”), “Bommen”, kuffs (“Koffs”) and smacks (“Smaks”) as coast defence vessels.

All these vessels belong rather to the category of merchant ships and will be described in the next chapter.

Among the types imitated from abroad there may be mentioned the _Fregat_ (frigate), and later the _Brik_ (brig), the _Schooner_ and the _Bark_.

II.

MERCHANT VESSELS.

~A~) _For over seas navigation._

The oldest merchant ship was the cog “Koggeschip”, from which are descended the “Hulken” and “Krayers”. The planking of these ships is clinker laid. Then vessels were built with more nearly rounded bottoms and the carvel-built side appeared in the second half of the XVth century. The resulting type was the _Barge_ or “Baertze”.

Meanwhile, the construction of castles was begun on these ships, just as on the old cogs. These castles became gradually more important, imitating what had been done on the Spanish, Portuguese and Genoese ships. A type of vessel which, in accordance with the Spanish model, carried large castles was the _Carack_ or _Galleon_ (“Kraak”)·

This vessel disappeared from our country in the course of the XVIth century, at the end of which appeared the flyboats (“Vlie or Vlietbooten”) called later Flutes (“fluiten”).

These vessels departed from the preceding types by having a marked tumble in of the topsides. Hence the hull was full and the deck was narrow. The flutes were the merchantmen “_par excellence_” up to the beginning of the XIXth century.

The “Spiegelschip” also appeared toward the end of the XVIth century; it acted as a merchantman in the same way as the similar vessel of the Mediterranean. This vessel was called, at the beginning of the XVIIth century, Pinnace (“Pinasschip”).

The Pinnace became more rounded in the second half of the XVIIth century; it carried also a more nearly vertical stern and a smaller beakhead. From it came the East India Company’s ship (“Oost-Indisch Compagnie Schip”).

The flutes continued to hold their own alongside of the various types of vessels, but changes were made to adapt them better to the use for which they were intended, and so it was that the Noordvaerder or Walvischvaerder (whaling ship) and Oostvaerder (vessel of the Baltic Sea) made their appearance.

Small “Spiegelschepen”, having a lighter rig than the others, appeared elsewhere in the XVIIIth century under the name of _Rinds_ (“Snauschepen”).

Two other types of large fishing vessels for the open sea were built, viz: the _howker_ or _hoy_ (“Hoeker”) and the _bush_ (“Buys”) which will be found under the chapter of fishing vessels.

Still another ship comes to us from abroad as a merchantman: the _Frigate_, while the Tenders (“Boeiers” or “Kromstevens”) had been imitated already from models of the French navy.

These vessels appeared in the XVIIth century as the result of the traffic with the city of Rouen (~Witsen~, p. 164, 2ⁿᵈ col.).

From combinations of these types of vessels among each other or with smaller types have arisen certain kinds of boats called by the following names: the “Boot”, which was nothing but a small flute having a “draai-over-boord” stern; the “Hekboot”, derived from the pinnace and the Galliot; the “Katschip” (cat-boat), from the tender and flute; and finally the “Stokker”, which had the bow of a “Spiegelship” with the stern of a howker.

Let it be remarked in passing that it is hard to separate clearly navigation over seas from navigation along shore, for even small kuffs (“koffen”) have been chartered for the Indies in many cases.

The distinction made here between navigation over seas and navigation along shore bears especially on the original destination of the vessels.

~B~) _For navigation along shore._

The largest types of vessels for navigation along shore were represented by the _galliot_ (“Galjoot”) and the _galeas_ (“Galeas”); then by the _kuff_ (“Kof”) and the _smack_ (“Smak”).

The “Damloopers”, the “Smalschepen” and the Wijdschepen as well as the “Friesche turfschepen” (the peat boats of Frisia) belonged to the family of the smacks.

These boats all came from a single type and differed only in some detail, of which local needs forced the adoption.

The family of the smacks gave rise to the _hoys_ (“Tjalken”).

The _hoys_ were found especially in Friesland and in Groningen. In the province of Holland, where they underwent a few slight changes, they were called Schuiten.

In Zealand, their deck was narrower and they were called “Poonen”.

In North Holland they were designated as “Jacht” (Yachts). Contrary to what was done for the “Poon”, the bottoms of these boats were not so wide as those of the hoys. On the Belgian Scheldt, they were rather finer and known by the name of “Pleiten”, or of “Otters” for the smallest ones.

Eastern Frisia had similar vessels; they were called “Motten” and bore some resemblance to the “Kuffs”.

There is still to be found a very old type of merchant vessel, descended from the old fishing boats and called “Ever” or “Bremerkahn”.

Independently of the family of the hoys, there has existed from the most distant times, in Overyssel, a distinct type of vessel which in the XVIIth century, and in Witsen’s time, included the “Potten” and “Pujen”. Changes were made later in these vessels and they are still met with at the present time under the name of _Snijboon_ (literally: French or string bean) from which is descended the pram (“Praam”). The same shape, but with reduced dimensions, is also found in the “Somp” and the “Pegge”.

The type of these vessels is distinguished from that of the smacks by the shape of the bow and stern which are tapering while these parts are rounded in the smacks.

Many combinations have also been made in this class of vessels; they have given birth amongst others to the “Koftjalks”, the “Praamaaks” and the “Aaktjalks”. The _Tenders_ (“Boeiers”) should also be mentioned, but these vessels had scarce any resemblance to the old “Kromstevens”.

Finally, let the “Kraken” be again mentioned, from which all characteristics common to the Spanish caracks had disappeared. They were very strong hoys with quite straight lines, which gave them less sheer.

III.

FERRIES.

The ferries properly so-called included the _Pontoons_, among which may be mentioned: the _Gierpont_, the _Kabelveerpont_, the _Jaagpont_ (for ferrying horses), the _Halve Pont_ (pontoon using a sail); the _Pijper_ (small pontoon) and the _Overhaalpontje_ (skiff).

Other kinds of boats were used as ferries, such as the Veerhengsten, which belonged to the family of the “Hoogaarsen” (see fishing boats), the hoys, the “Schuiten” and the “Poonen”, all of them types of vessels already met in what precedes.

IV.

BOATS FOR VARIOUS USES BUT NOT BELONGING TO THE PRECEDING GROUPS.

It is needless to say that the groups of boats I, II, III specified above include also a large number of small craft, intended for local use, which all come down from the same fundamental group; their destination only varies.

Among the more important of these are the “Bokken” found as much in Holland[20] as in Frisia. To this family also belong the _Groningeraardappelpramen_ (prams used in Groningen for carrying potatoes), the Frisian _Snikken_, with a raking stem and similar in this respect to the _Haarlemmermeerplompertjes_ (small boats on Haarlem Lake).

When the sternpost has a good deal of a rake the boat is called a _Westlander_ and when vessels of this class have a strake less, like the dredging boats of the Hague, they form the “Bokken”, which must not be confounded with those which have been already mentioned.

Near Vollenhove, to the north of Overijssel, there is still to be met a well known small boat, the _Punter_, descended probably from the _Haaringschuitje_ (a small boat used for the herring fishery) of the Zuiderzee. The _Groenteschuitje_ from Hoorn (for transporting vegetables) is exactly like it. These vessels are narrow and have a great deal of rake in the stem and the sternpost.

The same origin must be attributed to the Utrecht pram and to the _Kromme Rijnaak_, but the length of these boats is proportionately greater when compared with the beam.

Outside of the preceding types, there are still found the “Snik” or the _Gondel_ of North Holland, which very much resembles the “Oude Kinderdijksche Hoogars”, as well as the “Oude Vischschuit van Aalsmeer” (very old fishing boat from Aalsmeer).

Setting aside a very considerable number of small _Schouwen_ which are nothing but covered and flat ferry boats, which already appear in the old engravings, there are still to be met in Holland the “Schiedamsche schouwen” or the “Melk en Spoelingschuiten” (boats used to carry milk and the residuum of fruits from which the juice has been pressed out). They are long flat-bottomed boats with flat bow and stern.

A special family of boats is made up of the “Barges” and “Trekschuitjen” (literally “boats hauled from the shore”) which exist all through the Netherlands. Almost all these boats are alike; they came originally from Holland and spread all through the rest of the country as fast as the canals were built.

The “Trekschuiten” are still particularly in vogue in the province of Drenthe, but the construction of railways and tram lines is slowly driving them out.

There are still other vessels, the Baggeraken (dredging lighters) which are very common in the Netherlands.

The special conformation of our rivers and arms of the sea required constant dredging to maintain the depth of the ports and navigable passes; but they were far from possessing such perfected machinery as have the modern dredges: the “Hand-” or “Hijschbeugel” (hand dredge) was the only apparatus used for dredging in former times.

The boats used for this purpose went under the general name of “Baggeraken”. The best known type was the _flat_ (“Vlet”), or the “Baggeraak” still called the _Sliedrechtsche Aak_.

Even now, the “Boeieraken” are still often used for dredging. These vessels belong to the type of round bottomed craft. Other boats of a special kind used at Dordrecht for the same purpose were known by the names of: _Vreeswijksche Zandlichter_ and _Dortsche Zandschuit_ (boats used for dredging sand and having a great analogy with each other). They were used almost exclusively for dredging the ballast used by ships starting for sea. They have now almost wholly disappeared.

_Bokken_ are used almost exclusively for dredging and for taking out sand from the downs in the West of the country and in the region of the Rhine. Their shape is almost identical with that of the “Westlanders” but there is no planking above the planksheer. In the province of Utrecht, the _Slijkpramen_ are used for the same purpose. They correspond to the “Kromme Rijnaak”, the general type of the Utrecht boat. In the province of Groningen, mud is carried by the “Groninger Slijkpraam”, or “Vlotpraam”, a narrow boat with a rounded bottom which has nothing in common with the “Overijselsche praam” and which does not resemble it in any way.

The forerunner of our dredges is the old _Moddermolen_ (literally, mud mill) or _Moddermolenschip_ used at Amsterdam since 1575.

The _Zolderschuiten_ and the _Schouwen_, now called “Bakken”, may be mentioned as very old boats. Vessels of this sort were supplied, in 1829, with trap doors in the bottom, whence come _Klepschouwen_ or _Onderlossers_ (literally: boats discharging through the bottom).

Finally, it is proper to mention also, in the class of vessels under consideration, the pleasure boats, or sailing Yachts, for which the _Boeierjacht_ (in South Holland) and the _Tjotter_ (in Friesland) are used as Dutch types.

It is important to note here that pleasure boats are most generally called “Yachts”, even though these vessels have frequently no resemblance to the Yacht properly so called. Hence the name does not always mark the type.

V.

VESSELS FREQUENTING THE UPPER PARTS OF RIVERS (BOVENLANDERS).

All vessels which frequent the upper rivers are called generally “Bovenlanders” be their shape what it may.

These vessels, in spite of the interest which they offer, have rarely aroused attention; ~Witsen~ devotes only a few words to them and calls them simply “Aaken” or “Samoreuzen” (p. 170, col. 2), and ~Van Yk~ also gives them this latter name (p. 318).

~A~) _Boats of the Lower Rhine._