Part 1

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Transcriber’s Notes

This e-text is based on the three-volume book ‘Shipbuilding from Its Beginnings,’ from 1895. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been retained; punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected.

The side notes refer to the corresponding illustrations in volumes II and III. Footnotes have been moved to the end of the respective section.

Two numerical values are obviously missing in the text; they could not be retrieved from other sources. The missing numbers have been highlighted by triple underscores (___).

Specific font styles have been marked by using the following special characters:

italics: _underscores_ spaced: +plus signs+ small caps: ~tildes~

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PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION

OF

Navigation Congresses

38, Rue de Louvain, 38 BRUSSELS

SHIPBUILDING FROM ITS BEGINNINGS

SHIPBUILDING FROM ITS BEGINNINGS

BY

E. VAN KONIJNENBURG, ~C.E.~,

_ENGINEER OF THE RIJKSWATERSTAAT OF THE NETHERLANDS_

1895-1905

PUBLISHED BY THE PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CONGRESSES OF NAVIGATION

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE--OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY GENERAL 38, RUE DE LOUVAIN, 38 BRUSSELS

VOL. I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE 11

Division of Europe according to the shape of vessels: Northern centre--Baltic Sea--Southern centre--Mediterranean Sea.

SOUTHERN CENTRE.

~Chapter I~ 13

The Egyptians 13 The Phœnicians 17 The Greeks and Romans 19 The Mediterranean in the Middle Ages 23 Galleys 23 Types of ships in the XVIIIth century 28

NORTHERN CENTRE.

~Chapter II~ 33

Vikings’ vessel 34 The Cog 36 Influence of the Crusades 38 Use of the rudder 38 The galley in the Netherlands 39 Use of Artillery 40 Baertzen 40 Krayers and Hulken 41 Use of carvel laid planking 41 The ship in the XVIth century 44 Use of the square-stern ship 44 Use of the ports 45 The Flyboat 45 The Pinnace 46 The square-stern ship 47 The Flute--the Kuff--the Smack 47 Transition of the ship of the XVIth century to that of the XVIIth century 49 The war ship (first war navy) 49 France 52 England 53 The Netherlands 54 Merchant marine of the Netherlands 57 Use of the frigate 58 Fireships 58

~Chapter III~ 61

_Classification of vessels_ 65 I.--War ships 65 II.--Merchant { for over seas navigation 66 vessels { for the coasting { trade 66 III.--Ferries 67 IV.--Vessels for sundry uses 67 V.--Boats intended for the upper rivers (Bovenlanders) 68 VI.--Fishing vessels 70

~Chapter IV~ 71

_Description of the types of vessels_ 71 The Pinnace 71 The Flyboat 71 The Katship 72 Ship of the Dutch East India Company 72 The Boeier 72 The Howker 72 The Bush 72 The Hekboot 72 The Straetsvaerder 73 The Stokker 73 The Frigate 73 The Galliot 73 The Galeas 74 The Koff 74 The Smak 75 The Smalschip and the Wijdschip 75 The Damlooper 75 The Tjalk 76 The Schuit and the Poon 76 The Kaag 76 The Steigerschuit 77 The Yacht 77 The Boeierschuit 77 The Pleit 77 The Otter 77 The Mot 78 The Spitsche Mot 78 The Ever 78 The Bremerkahn 78 The Potten and the Pujen 78 The Snijboon and the Somp or Pegge 79 The Hoogeveensche Praam 79 The Praam (_pram_) 79 The Koftjalk 81 The Kraak 82 The Skiff 82 The Ponton 82 The Halve Pont or Pijper 83 The Gierpont 83 The Kabelveerpont 83 The Bok 84 The Snik 84 The Westlander 85 The Kaag 85 The Utrecht Pram 85 The Schouw 86 The Trekschuit 86 The Yacht 86 The Baggeraak 86 The Bagger- or Moddermolen 87 The Tjotter 88 The Laadbak and the Zolderschuit 88 The Onderlegger 88

THE BOVENLANDERS 89

_The Rhine_ 89 The Dorstensche Aak 89 The Stevenschip 90 The Turfijker and the Hagenaar 90 The Keen 90 The Keenaak 90 The Lahnaak and the Slof 91

_The Meuse_ 91 The Whalemajol, etc. 91

~Chapter V~ 93

_Fishing boats_ 93 The Egmonder Pink 93 The Bush 93 The Kwee and the Hoekerbuis 96 The Hoeker (_howker_) 96 The Haringjager and the Buisconvoyer 96 The Sloep (_sloop_) 96 The Logger (_lugger_) 97 The Bom 97 The Garnalenschuit 97 The Scholschuit or Bazaanschuit 97 The Zwartewaalsche Gaffelaar 97 The Schokker 98 The Haringschuit 99 The Punter and the Gondel 99 The Hoogaars 99 The Steekschuit 100 The Hengst 100 The Botter 100 The Blazer 100 The Lemmeraak 100 The Bolle and the Knots 100 The Jol 101 Use of fishing boats on the Zuiderzee 101 The Waterschip 102

~Chapter VI~ 103

Belgian craft 103 The Tournaisien 103 The Chaland 103 The Bélandre 103 The Pointu 104 The Prij 104

~Chapter VII~ 105

Development of the types of vessels in the North-East of Europe in relation to the first inhabitants of the Netherlands 105

(~Nic. Witsen.~)

]

Holland’s struggle for life has been a constant battle against the invasion of water. If this has been, on the one hand, an enemy to be feared, it has been, on the other, the natural line of communication above all others which has made our ancestors, since time immemorial, a nation of seamen. The boat was a necessity as indispensable as the house.

It is impossible to say who invented the boat; every one has contributed his mite to its building and this has given rise to its gradual development. The discovery that wood would float was due, evidently, to chance.

Use must have been made first of the trunk of a single tree, and afterwards several must have been joined together to make a raft.

Then came the hollowed trunk which was followed, in its turn, by a boat with a framework covered with skins from which the finished boat was born.

Between the floating trunk of a tree and the most complete ship, there have come into existence all sorts of intermediate forms, of which most are still to be found even in our day.

[Sidenote: III 1]

Noah, according to the writers of antiquity, must have been the first shipwright. The old authors enter into circumstantial details on this subject and give various drawings of Noah’s “ark”. Several of these drawings are reproduced in the atlas of this work. The only value of these reproductions of the ark lies in the fact that they probably represent a ship of the time of their author. It must also be noted that the first shipbuilder is as entirely unknown as the first inventor of the boat. That which is beyond any doubt is; that the mutual influences of various nations have been important factors in the evolution of the ship. This latter, on its side, served to bring into contact nations widely separated by water and to open up countries as yet unexplored.

Hence shipbuilding must first have shone forth, under these conditions, among the most civilized races.

Mexico and Peru excepted, it may be said that civilization was developed first among the Chinese in the valley of the Hoang-Ho, then among the Babylonians in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, and among the Egyptians in the valley of the Nile.

The question of knowing whether the Babylonians learned shipbuilding from the Chinese, or the reverse, is one of minor importance. It is certain however that reciprocal influences were at work among the races of Asia Minor and there is no doubt that the Babylonians influenced the Phœnicians, the pioneer shipwrights of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians, who were not a seafaring people do not here enter into consideration.

As the Netherlands lay under the action exercised in Europe, where the development of naval architecture went on about two independent centres, that of the Baltic and that of the Mediterranean, Asia may be set aside in so far as its parts not bordering on the Mediterranean are concerned.

After the Baltic, which will be called the _northern centre_, had introduced shipbuilding among us, this centre, in so far as over seas navigation is concerned, came into contact with the Mediterranean, which will be called the _southern centre_, through the movements of commerce and navigation, and finally the two became fused with each other.

It is easy to see that the influence of the northern centre was preponderant on our naval architecture, hence its importance is capital for us.

The few vessels of ancient times which have been found show us what a high degree of perfection shipbuilding had already reached in almost prehistoric times; the finish of these vessels and the care given to their ornamentation might also be noticed. These observations are not extraordinary, when the large part played by the ship in the existence of nations is borne in mind; the contrary would rather have caused surprise. Nor is it astonishing that the chances of the sea should have been faced with small boats. For are not the valiant fishermen of to-day seen facing the waves of the sea, in still smaller boats than those of the ancients, to ply their rude and perilous trade, and that too during the entire year? For let it not be forgotten indeed, that ocean navigation during the Middle Ages was, as a matter of fact, carried on only in Summer. ~Nic. Witsen~ wrote in 1671, p. 195 of his book, on this subject: “dat men oulinckx in deze landen nimmer ’t zee ging als naer besloten boeken, besproken uiterste wille en met God zich te hebben verzoent: wanneer men het gevaar meer ontzag als heden nu dorst men althans zee kiezen zonder aanzien van tijdt of weer van outs wiert de zee gesloten in de quaetste tijden van het jaar!”[2]

To know what we can do, to know of what we are capable, and, above all, to know what there is still to be learned and even what has to be imitated, are the most important demands of all individual education as they are the fundamental requirements of a race which, after all, is but an unit in the series of the nations.

May this book add its mite to a knowledge of the gradual evolution of shipbuilding; may it also cause to disappear this ridiculous way in which ancient ships used to be represented and, most of all, may it awaken the love for the building of ships.

I am, in this connection, fully of the opinion expressed by ~Witsen~ as follows: “Zoo groot dunkt mij de waerdigheidt dezer wetenschap te zijn dat niemant derzelve hier ten lande, daar de zeevaert de sterkste zenuwe van den staet is, behoorde onkundig te zijn.”[3]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Necessity has taught us naval architecture and the art of war, which give the means by which to dominate the nations.

[2] That, in this country, in former times, when greater fear was felt of the dangers of the sea than is now the case when they are faced in all kinds of weather, people never put off from shore without first having settled their accounts, made their wills and partaken of the Holy Communion. In the old days, the sea was closed during the bad season.

[3] The value of this science seems to me so great that none of my fellow countrymen can afford not to be acquainted with it, as navigation is the nerve and sinew of the nation.

The Egyptians were not a nation of mariners. Their navigation, at the beginning, was limited to the Nile alone; it was only later that they ventured out to sea, preceded and assisted by the Phœnicians. Their vessels were and continued to be river boats. The question of knowing whether the Egyptians borrowed the art of building them from the Babylonians, or whether their art was developed independently of any other is of little importance here and, furthermore, it cannot be solved by the nautical knowledge which we possess. (~Ermann~, p. 679.--Dr. ~Moritz Rühlmann~, pp. 25-33.)

[Sidenote: II 1]

That which is certain is that the Babylonians and the Egyptians had their vessels already in the most remote antiquity; this follows (_L’Anthropologie_, 1899, Vol. X, p. 517, and ~Holmes~, 1900, p. 9) from the decorations on ancient vases which are supposed to date from 6000 to 4000 years B. C.

[Sidenote: II 2]

Doubts have arisen at times--but wrongly in my opinion--as to the question of knowing whether the decorations in question really do represent vessels. Although the drawings are too primitive to furnish any data relating to the form of the boats, it can surely be said, however, that only vessels propelled by oars are there shown and that sailing vessels were probably still unknown at this time. The lines at the bottom of the boats, considered sometimes, but wrongly, as indicating fishing apparatus (_Recherches sur les Origines de l’Égypte_, ~De Morgan~, pp. 91 and 92), represent the propelling oars, and the long strokes at the stern of the boat, the steering oars. The boats were not moved forward by oars but by paddles, which is the oldest mode of the propulsion used, as can still be seen by the interrupted line of rowers found again, still later, among the Egyptians.

The reasons for the almost exclusive use of the oar or the paddle for propelling boats are to be sought in the mobility of the bottom and hence in variations of the navigable passages of the Nile. To these should also be added the great changes in the height of the water and the sudden dead calms. Sails were used later, it is true, but rowing and towing still continued to be employed along with the sails.

The shape of the vessel depended upon the use for which it was intended, so that there can be distinguished among the Egyptians: boats for transportation, boats for towing and boats for fishing. It is not known whether they had any war vessels. Pleasure boats and boats used for travelling by persons of rank formed a large flotilla. (Dr. ~Moritz Rühlmann~, p. 25, and _Aegypten_ by ~Adolphe Ermann~, p. 639.)

The Egyptian boats were flat, as a rule, with the bow and stern rising with a slight slope above the water, the stern generally higher than the bow in order, so it seems, to give the steersmen a better purchase. (_Aegypten_, ~Adolphe Ermann~, p. 637.)

[Sidenote: II 2]

[Sidenote: II 3]

[Sidenote: II 4]

[Sidenote: II 5]

[Sidenote: II 13]

Under the ancient Empire, about 5000 to 3200 B. C., boats were moved by paddles, the boatmen facing the bow. Still, even in these distant times, oars were already employed and, toward the end of this period, they were in general use. This is shown clearly by figures on the monuments of this age, where the rowers no longer face the bow but are turned toward the stern. (~Holmes~, p. 13; ~Ermann~, p. 640; _Ancient Ships_ by ~Cecil Tor~, 1894.) Paddling was kept in use only for boats made of papyrus. When the boats were driven by oars, the latter passed through the side of the vessel or through rings arranged for this purpose. Each oar was worked by a single oarsman. The boat was steered by means of oars, rather larger than the others, and handled also each by a single man. The number of steering oars, as well as the number of steersmen, depended on the number of oarsmen (~Ermann~, p. 641.) For example: for eight oarsmen there were at least two steersmen; for fourteen there were three steersmen, and four for twenty-one oarsmen, etc.

[Sidenote: II 13]

[Sidenote: II 14]

Already, under the ancient Empire, the sail is shown alongside of the oar. The mast, placed in the middle of the boat, was composed of two posts placed crossways and fastened together at the top; this form of procedure is characteristic of the time of the old Empire.

The rigging, set in the longitudinal axis of the vessel, was composed of a heavy rope leading forward and of several lighter ones, generally from six to twelve, leading aft.

The sail, which was rectangular in shape, was always attached between two yards, one of which held the head, the other the foot of the sail, a system followed exclusively in Egypt. Two ropes led aft from the upper yard, which was fastened to the top of the mast, so as to give the means to turn the sail to the wind.

Here are a few figures which will give some idea of the dimensions which were in use.

A relatively large boat, 16 metres long, had ordinary oars 3 metres long, steering oars of 6 metres, a mast 10 metres high with a yard of 6 metres. The area of the sail was about 60 to 70 square metres, hence it was higher than it was wide. (~Ermann~, p. 639.) In calm weather, which was not infrequent, the vessel was driven by oars or else was towed. The mast was then lowered and wrapped in the sail.

In order to attach the rope which connected the vessel with the towing boat, there was used generally a piece of wood set either in the bow alone, or in the bow and the stern: this was the arrangement especially for freight boats. These latter had no rigging, as a rule; they could scarcely make room for a few oarsmen, because the greater part of the boat was occupied by the cabin.

As a general rule, small rowboats were used for towing.

The art of shipbuilding made a great advance under the middle Empire (B. C. 3200-2100). Except for the small papyrus boat, vessels were all propelled by oars and no longer by paddles. The steering oars, which were difficult to handle, were replaced by a single large rudder which could be worked by one man.

The rigging was also changed. The upper yard no longer rested _on_ the mast; it was attached thereto in such a way that it could be removed. The sail was less high, its width was increased and the mast became relatively shorter; finally, the double mast, which was so characteristic of the ancient Empire, was replaced by a single mast.

[Sidenote: II 8]

Under the new Empire, (inclusive of the interregnum of the Hyksos B. C. 2100 to 1600) B. C. 1600 to 730, the art of shipbuilding made no advance. Luxury only increased, especially for the cabins which had already appeared during the time of the middle Empire.

The special feature of this period was the increasing width of the sail. This width was so great that the yards had to be made of two pieces joined near the mast. The following figures give an idea of this constant increase of the sail. (~Ermann~, pp. 643 et suiv.)