CHAPTER XVIII.

PALANQUINS, STRETCHERS, AMBULANCES, ETC.

In many countries where it is difficult to keep riding or draught horses, or where the want of roads precludes the use of wheeled carriages, those who can afford to ride are borne upon the shoulders of men in conveyances more or less simple or elaborate; and not only do these vary much in different countries, but the mode of shouldering, and even the step of the bearers is as various as the fashion of the vehicle. The peculiar short trot of the palkee bearers differs from the elastic spring of the Zambesians when they carry in single file, and that again from their swinging walk or run when they carry in pairs--each man embracing his comrade, while the pole rests on the right shoulder of one and on the left of the other; while they walk on separate paths, about 3ft. apart, each man leaning inward, at an angle of 15 degrees or 20 degrees towards his comrade, just as the horse and rider lean inward in a circus.

The machila, or masheela, is simply a couch, slung by chains or leather thongs to a pole of female bamboo of the largest possible diameter, so that it may bear easily on the shoulders of the men, and not cut them, as a smaller pole would. Generally an awning of chintz or calico, spread on yards like a boat's awning, with curtains on either side, is attached to the bamboo; but sometimes, when the masheela is intended to be more strictly a private carriage, a sloping roof or pent-house of reeds is slung saddle-wise over the pole, completely screening the occupant from the public eye, while a small window on each side affords sufficient facility of observation from the interior. All the Portuguese on the Zambesi keep masheelas and sets of bearers, who generally have a tolerably easy time of it, their duty being to convey their master or mistress to and from the corn land, the church, or any house in the little town where an evening party is afoot or a morning call to be made.

When it is actually necessary to carry a sick or disabled man, a hammock may be extemporised, by rolling a small stone into each corner of a blanket, and thus forming a knob, or projection which will prevent the slipping of the cords or thongs with which it is made fast to the pole. We saw a young Dutch lad, under the influence of fever, carried by a couple of Zambesian natives in a skin hammock, two corners of which were fastened to a short cross-pole, or yard, at the head, while the other end was gathered up and tied altogether to the main or bearing pole.

The pressure of this pole on one shoulder was partially relieved by a stick held lever-wise over the other, so as to take a portion of its weight, as shown in our illustration; and, in connection with this, we may well remember the carrying stick of hawkers and packmen:--Smooth, round, and just thick enough to be grasped with comfort in the hand; then spreading to nearly 3in. in breadth as it curves gently over the shoulder, and again turning more decidedly upwards, to form a hook for the pack to hang upon. Almost anyone with ordinary ingenuity and a little patience could find out the most convenient form for himself.

Fig. 1, in the following series of sketches, is a hammock, either of canvas, like a seaman's, or of ornamental grass rope, like those of South America, Sierra Leone, or other places, where considerable taste is often shown in weaving in the different lace-like patterns of the borders or in arranging the various colours. The ends are spread by two sticks or stretchers, about 2ft. long; these may either be stitched or woven into the material, or simply kept in place by having the ends of the clews knotted round them. It is slung to a pole of female bamboo, which should be as light and of as large diameter as possible.

Fig. 2 is a cot, a most luxurious arrangement, which may be made up to any degree of simplicity or completeness. The bottom consists of one breadth of stout canvas, fully 6ft. in length, or more if for a very tall man. A piece about 1ft. in depth is then strongly seamed on to each end, and a similar piece along each side; and the upper edges of these should be turned down, and sewn into pipes capable of containing poles or stretchers of about 1-1/2in. in diameter. These pieces should not be stitched together at the edges, which meet when they are turned up, but should have eyelet holes and lacings, so that when not in use, or when laid down as the foundation for a bed, or taken apart to be washed, the canvas may lie like a flat sheet. The eyelet holes for the clews should be so made that each clew may encircle the stretcher in its canvas pipe and tie round it. The ends of the stretchers should have holes bored in them, so that they may be firmly, but not too stiffly, lashed together with small cord; and those at the bottom may either be secured in the same manner, or a regular frame of joiner's work may be made to fit it, and a web of stout sacking or of cords tightly interlaced, as in Fig. 6, may be substituted.

Fig. 3 is the common military stretcher, which may be thus made: Take 6ft. of 30in. wide stout canvas, draw a line with chalk or charcoal 6in. from each side and parallel to it, or fold and crease the canvas along a thread; turn each edge down to one of these marks, and stitch it so as to make a pipe of 6in. in circumference, into which a pole, somewhat smaller or a little less than 2in. in diameter, will slip easily in and out; these poles should be at least 8ft. or a trifle more to leave sufficient ends for the bearers. Then take two boards, 5in. broad, 1in. thick, and a little over 2ft. long; bore or cut in each two holes large enough to let the ends of the poles pass through; and with the nearest parts of their circumference, just 18in. apart, put them together, as shown in Fig. 3; when not in use, lay the boards in, as in Fig. 4, and roll them upon the stretcher; in this figure one of the poles is shown withdrawn from the side pipe. In active service one of these is usually carried by a soldier in the rear of his company; and if a comrade is wounded, four men carry him on the stretcher, while four more carry their muskets, and act, if necessary, as a relief. The wounded man's blanket and great coat serve for his pillow, and those of his comrades, if necessary, are used to cover or support him in any position his injury may require. A plot of ground, as smooth and as much sheltered from shot as possible, is selected. The sufferer is laid down, the poles are withdrawn from the pipes on each side, so that there may be no impediment to medical examination; and when the wound is dressed, the poles are once more inserted, and the man borne to the temporary or permanent hospital.

Fig. 5 shows a little addition we improvised in Damara land. We screwed clamps of wood upon the end pieces, and in them inserted other poles, the lower ends of which were short, and stout enough to serve as legs, and converted the stretcher into a low bedstead, while the upper supported a small awning, and were steadied by stays leading to the ends of the bearing poles. This was constructed for the purpose of bringing home a friend who had been wounded, at a distance; and during our journey towards the spot we used it nightly, and found it a most comfortable bed; it rolled up like the military stretcher, and the clamps of the awning poles increased its bulk very slightly.

Fig. 6 is the "kadel," or bed frame, usually slung in a Cape waggon, with two of the yokes, or more, if necessary, lashed under it as bearers.

Fig. 7 shows how the muskets of a small party may be used to carry a wounded comrade. The belts serve as lashings, and overcoats or blankets as bedding; or if grass, or small branches are available, a quantity may be cut, and a tolerably soft couch made of them. Of course it is quite possible that eight muskets could not be spared; in this case two only might be laid side by side, with three across them--one to support the head and shoulders, one under the hips, and the third under the knees, the belts passing as much as possible under the other portions of the body.

Fig. 8 indicates the use of lances and swords for the same purpose; the sketch is purposely made in the simplest possible form, in order to show more clearly the principle of construction. If more lances or swords are at hand, the possessors of them will see at any moment how to suit the comfort of the wounded man better than any details we could give would teach them.

The form of stretcher indicated in the accompanying engraving is worthy of remembrance: it resembles two short ladders, hinged side by side, and is furnished with stout straps, being often used with more regard to the security of the prisoner than to his comfort.

In some countries a couple of horses or donkeys are harnessed between the ends of two long poles or shafts, on the centre of which the load is supported, as shown in the annexed illustration. This arrangement might, under favourable circumstances, be made available for the carriage of a wounded man, or in a case of great emergency the ends of a blanket might be knotted together; and, two men being laid in the bights, the central part might be laid across the back of a horse, with one man hanging on each side, and secured with the best means available at the moment. Among civilised nations it would, perhaps, be better to leave the wounded to the mercy of a victorious enemy than to risk the extinction of life by such rough means; but in fighting savages no living man ought, under any circumstances, to be left in their power, and a soldier had better die under the rough, though kindly, efforts of his comrades to remove him than become a prisoner--to be kept alive as long as he is capable of enduring torture.

The Kaffirs, and we suppose most other savages, carry off not only their wounded, but also the dead, not from any motives of humanity, but simply to deprive the enemy of a trophy. Among some tribes a quantity of reeds are cut and made into a bundle, with the corpse inside; this is firmly lashed to a long pole, and is easily carried upon men's shoulders. When our late friend, C. J. Anderson, was wounded in his gallant and self-sacrificing attempt to free the Damaras from their Namaqua oppressors, we had to adopt a somewhat more elaborate arrangement. The fact that a limb had been shattered rendered it impossible that he could lie with comfort upon the yielding canvas of the stretcher (Fig. 5 of the group given on page 684); and, therefore, when it was found necessary to remove him, we sent to Objimbengue for planks, and with them made a level and unyielding surface, supported by cross battens, notched at each end, so as to lie securely on the bearing poles. On each side we raised one breadth of about 9in., making them work upon claw hinges of brass wire, so that they could either be turned down or entirely removed at pleasure; on these sides we screwed uprights or stanchions, with notches in their edges, so that crossbars could be laid in them (as may be seen in our full-page illustration), and raised or lowered from notch to notch as needful. One of these crossbars was near the head of the stretcher, so that he could occasionally rest his shoulders, by taking hold of it by partially lifting himself from his bed; and two others were nearer to the foot, for the purpose of slightly supporting and steadying a box, with falling sides, in which, for further security, we encased the shattered leg. When we halted to dress the wound the crossbars were first removed, the sides let down or taken away, the sides of the small box containing the limb also removed; while the awning was left spread, and occasionally blankets were stretched from trees to shield it from the direct action of the sun. When the dressing was completed everything was easily restored to its place, and a few points and lanyards, knotted in their proper places, made all fast again. The same engraving also shows a rude but not an uncomfortable form of litter, extemporised for a wounded Damara, from a forked branch, with the smaller twigs lopped off where they were in the way, or interwoven where they would serve to fill up a gap in the bed; other boughs and cross pieces were added, and a few skins, karosses, or blankets, converted it into a very comfortable couch.

Sometimes a man, though unable to walk, can sit and practically support himself; in this case two men may lay their muskets together, end for end, and hold them across between them for him to sit on, with his arms upon their shoulders; and even if they have no weapons at hand they may make him a very comfortable seat by joining their hands and arms, as shown in the above illustration.

Thus, the two bearers stand side by side, and half facing each other, No. 1 grasps his own right wrist with his left hand; No. 2 does the same; No. 1 then grasps the left wrist of No. 2 with his disengaged right hand, and this brings the right hand of No. 2 into the proper position to catch the left wrist of No. 1. In this easily extemporised chair they can bear a tolerably heavy man without undue strain on the muscles of their own arms; and when they become weary two others can at once take their places, or they may gain a little relief by interchanging the position of their right and left hands, while nothing can be more comfortable to a disabled man than the easy chair thus formed for him. Fig. 4 shows how a short pole can be used to form a seat-rest for carrying.

The mode of carrying used in mountainous countries by a chair strapped on the back of a porter, and still further secured by a band passing round his forehead, as shown at Fig. 5, might occasionally be found useful. The principle of the sedan, or of the electioneering chair, fastened on two fore and aft shoulder-poles, in a manner which any sailor could effect with a few bits of cord, should also be borne in mind, to be used or not, according to the necessity of the case.

{Bandages and medical appliances.}

In our illustration on p. 690, Fig. 1 represents the cross bandages applied to an injured head; and here we may remark, once for all, that in bandaging, as in knotting or lashing, simplicity is the essence of security. Let as many turns of the bandages be used as are absolutely necessary to cover and secure the dressings of the wound; all in addition are not only superfluous, but detrimental.

Fig. 2 (p. 690) shows the support for a dislocated shoulder or broken collar-bone: a roll or pad of calico is placed under the armpit, and secured by a bandage over the opposite shoulder; another bandage is then passed in figures-of-8 fashion round the arm and the body, in order to confine the arm close to the side. The arm of this figure, with the palm of the hand placed against the breast, as at Fig. 3 (p. 690), shows the position in which the limb should be placed in cases of fracture of the bones or other injury; the hand then lying between the prone and supine positions, and the bones and muscles assuming, without constraint, their natural relative position towards each other. This figure also shows the manner of applying a bandage to a taper limb. If the bandage were wound spirally round, one edge would be unduly tight while the other would be slack; therefore, at every turn round the limb a turn more or less decided is taken in the bandage, which thus accommodates itself easily and exactly to the shape of the limb.

In the next figure is shown another form of head bandage (Fig. 4), one part of which forms a loop, while the next, passing through it, is turned upwards at right angles over the head, and this is repeated until the whole, or as much of the scalp as is necessary, is covered. This is a very convenient form when, from any other injury, it is not advisable to pass a cross bandage under the chin.

Fig. 5 is the strapping or bandage for a broken jaw. It is made of sticking plaister, a hole is cut for the chin, and the ends are cut in swallow tails, to allow them to take the shape of the face they are laid on.

Fig. 6 is the bandage for a broken rib. If the body is at rest, the bones will assume their natural place, but the expansion and contraction of the chest in breathing disturbs and disunites them. Sometimes, therefore, the whole chest is tightly bandaged; but as it will answer the purpose just as well if the injured side is prevented from expanding, strips of adhesive plaister may be cut sufficiently long to reach from the sternum to the spine, and so to confine the wounded side and leave the other free.

If the back of the hand should be injured, it may be necessary to place a ball of calico or other soft substance in the palm of the hand, then closing the fingers upon it to bind the fist firmly down, as in Fig. 7.

If it is required to keep the elbow bent, a bandage may be applied, as in Fig. 8; this may be in case of cuts in the bend of the arm or similar injuries.

Figs. 8, 9, and 10 are =T= and cross bandages in case of injuries in the groin.

Fig. 11 is in case of a broken knee-cap. The limb must be supported with the foot as high as possible, so that there be no possibility of the muscles drawing asunder the parts of the patella, which must farther be drawn together by bands of sticking plaister, crossed over, to prevent the broken edges rising out of their place.

Fig. 12 is a many-tailed bandage. It may be made of several slips of calico stitched upon one, crossing them all in the centre; or, if the sore be of such a, nature that, it may be necessary to remove one or two without displacing the others, it is better simply to lay them on a flat sheet of calico or a small pillow made for the purpose, and gently introduced beneath the limb.

In the figure the bands nearest the knee are laid first on the pillow, the others overlap them as they go down, then that which is nearest to the toes is first lapped round the foot, and the others follow in succession to the knee; the last band alone needs fastening, and this is perhaps the neatest and most secure bandage known.

Fig. 13 is a cross, or figure-of-8 bandage, exceedingly useful when applied to the turn of a joint, as in the sketch.

{Splints, &c.}

Fig. 1, in the group of illustrations on p. 692, is in case of injury to the radius close to the wrist joint. It may be necessary to have a crooked splint and bend the hand on it, as shown in the figure. We believe it will more frequently be found advisable to place the palm of the hand to the splint; but this must be left in a great measure to the judgment and daily experience of the operator and his patient.

Fig. 2 is a splint, in case of fracture of the bones of the lower arm. There will also be a short splint on the inner side, and the arm must be supported by a sling.

Fig. 3 is an angled splint for injuries near the joint. It may be carried ready made of gutta percha, or may be extemporised with the best materials at hand.

Figs. 4 and 5 of the annexed illustrations are splints for the inner and outer bend of the arm; the outer may support the arm nearly to the wrist; the inner should be shorter; others should be ready made in gutta percha.

Figs. 6 and 7 are substitutes for them, extemporised from the smooth bark of a young tree, as near the size of the arm as possible. Fig. 8 is a piece of bark so cut as to allow of its being bent to the form of No. 6. Figs. 9 and 10 are inner and outer splints for the leg, usually made of gutta percha, and of course made right and left. Sometimes a fully sufficient hollow is left for the ankle, and sometimes a hole is cut entirely through.

Fig. 11 is a leg with a cradle of bark supporting the thigh, the calf, and the sole of the foot, and with a splint or shield of the same covering the instep and the shin.

Fig. 12 is a leg which has been broken, bandaged and supported in the best position to avoid any derangement of the parts by unequal tension of the muscles. Of course splints would have to be secured above these bandages.

Fig. 13 is a jointed rest, sometimes used in fractures of the thigh, to give ease to the limb when there is not much fear of muscular action disarranging it. The pegs at the sides draw out for convenience of dressing, and serve at other times to keep in position the pads or cushion which are placed under the limb.

Fig. 14 is the full-length splint for a broken thigh. The limb is bandaged, the splint secured at the ankle and hip, and the over-all bandage partially passed on. We have had to wear a splint bound over all with starched bandages from toe to armpit. Sir Samuel Baker mentions one of the Agageers who broke his thigh, and whom he bound up in this manner like a mummy with strips of bark and calico, stiffened with gum, and who, after lying on his back a few weeks, was able to rise and join in the chase as energetically as before.

Fig. 15 shows the extension of the leg without a splint, by folding a long strap of sticking plaister up each side of the calf, making a line fast in the bight, leading it over a sheave or roller, and attaching a weight, say of 6lb. or 8lb., to the other end.

Fig. 16 is a sheet, or long towel, or piece of cloth, with two half hitches made in the middle, and passed over the ankle for the purpose of extending the limb; care must be taken that ends on which the pull is made come out on the inner side, abreast of the hollow of the foot.

These last two expedients are useful in case of fracture in a strong and muscular limb; for, by keeping up a continued strain, they weary out the muscles, and cause them to relax, when the bone may be set with less difficulty. We once assisted Dr. Kirk to set the thumb of a Zambesian negro. We had no appliances at hand, but had to sit behind him, embracing and holding him back, while Dr. Kirk grasped and hauled upon the thumb. The involuntary contraction of his muscles was for a long time more than a match for us; but at length we succeeded in wearying him out, and slipping the thumb into its socket.

Fig. 17 (p. 693) is a foot-rest we made for our friend Anderson. It is simply a piece of board about 27in. or 30in. long, hollow where the calf of the leg comes, and cut completely through where the heel would otherwise rest. A piece of thin board is then cut nearly to the shape of the foot, and is fixed by a pivot joint across this space; a couple of strings leading from holes in the board support it at any angle that is most comfortable for the foot, which is bound to it; and a small bracket beneath the end of the principal board raises it so far that the heel cannot chafe or press upon the mattrass, which, however slight may be the contact, becomes, when endured for hours without a change of position, more painful to a helpless man than one in health, and free from constraint, can readily believe.

Fig. 18 (p. 693) is a box-splint, with sliding bottom and falling sides, which we also made on the same occasion. Its use was to serve as an external case and protection for the wounded limb. When all the dressings were on, the hinges were merely pieces of cord, passed figure-of-8 fashion through the holes, and the lanyards were strong enough to suspend the whole perfectly clear of the bed when it was necessary to change the linen.

Fig. 19 (p. 693) is a light awning frame to support the weight of the bed clothing, which might otherwise press painfully upon the toe. The last three articles were made at Barmen, a remote mission station in South-West Africa, with no more tools than a traveller usually carries with him, and therefore we presume that they are by no means beyond the power of others who may be similarly situated.

The illustration on the opposite page represents the mode of setting a dislocated shoulder. A man takes off his boot, sitting beside the patient, places his foot under the armpit, then taking hold of the wrist he pulls it steadily towards him, until the muscles relax and the bone slips into its place. A pad must then be secured under the armpit and the arm bound firmly to the side.

Sometimes it is necessary to stop the too copious flow of blood from a wound; and for this purpose a tourniquet (Fig. 1), as shown in the annexed illustration, must be extemporised: a handkerchief may be rolled up with a stone in it, or an overhand knot may be turned in the thickest part, or any means adopted to insure pressure on the injured blood-vessel; each end of the handkerchief must be then returned upon itself, so as to form a bight, through both loops so formed a short stick must be passed and twisted tightly, until the compression stops the flow of blood; if an artery is cut, the blood gushes forth in regular pulsations, bright and red; if only veins are injured, the flow, however copious, is steady, and the colour is darker.

Many of the South African Kafir and Bechuana tribes have a very ingenious method of cupping. They take the end of an ox-horn, about the size of a small wine-glass (Fig. 2), and perforate the smaller end with a small hole communicating with the internal cavity; they scarify the part to be operated on with a group of perhaps half a dozen cuts, half an inch long and a quarter of an inch deep, made with an assegai or rough-edged iron knife; the large end of the horn is then placed over the wounds, the operator sucks with all his might, and as soon as he has produced a partial vacuum dexterously plugs the little hole with a bit of wax, and allows the horn to remain until the blood drawn from the wounds so far fills the cavity that there ceases to be a vacuum, and the horn drops off. The clot of blood, about as large as a florin and half an inch thick, is then cleared out and thrown aside, a fresh operation is then performed, and others in succession, till the whole surface of the limb, generally the inside of the thigh or arm, is covered with groups of little scars, and blood enough has been extracted.

TAILOR'S WORK.

Although it is in every respect better and more economical for a traveller to take full supplies from home so as to be able to devote all his time to the real objects of his journey, yet it is quite possible that these may fail, and that he may have to trust to his own ingenuity to replace them. A cotton or woollen shirt, worn over all, and belted round the waist, is in cold weather a very simple, and not inconvenient or unsightly, addition to the clothing. We have taken a navy serge frock, and folding in and stitching a slight gore down the back, and turning up the skirts inside towards the waist, and stitching them there, have made a very neat and comfortable hip jacket for walking or riding, without cutting it in any part, except down the front, where a couple of buttons, in addition to those already attached, were quite sufficient to confine it. A cotton shirt may be treated in this manner for a lighter blouse or jacket; and for those who wish something more stylish in appearance we give a diagram, which we think will sufficiently explain itself. [Illustration] {Trousers, to make.} We have, in cases of need, cut out a pair of trousers, and stitched them while sitting on the waggon box during the morning journey, so as to have them ready to put on at the next station; and we have done this without intermitting our usual observations for course and distance and notes of the route. These may be made in two pieces, one for each leg--2-1/2yds. or 3yds., according to stature, being enough for a pair. The duck, or other material, is folded along the centre through its whole length, and it may then be folded in half, but should not be cut until the measurements are taken; if the stuff is scant, the diagonal line of each part at the waist may cross into the other half, and thus it may be found sufficient. The duck, of which trousers are usually made, is 27in. in width, and in general this is found to be enough, with little or nothing to spare; if stuff is plentiful and time of any importance, the trousers may be made in two pieces, each of which forms one leg and half the body; there is no difference except in the front, the buttons being sewn on the right side, while the corresponding holes are on the left. Presuming the length from above the hip to the heel to be 40in., 2-1/4yds., or 81in., with care in supplementing one part by the pieces cut out of the other, will just serve; but we will suppose that we have 2-1/2yds., or 90in., and are not compelled to such an exercise of ingenuity. Each half will now be 45in. long, of which mark or crease off 1in. at the end, _l_ _l_, for the hem at the bottom; from this line, _k_ _k_, measure 40in. along the edge, 41in. along the centre, and 42in. along the other edge; draw a diagonal line through these points, and draw another 2in. beyond and parallel to it; this will be sufficient to turn down for the waistband, and will occupy the remainder of the 45in. of stuff. In duck or canvas, where both sides are alike, some inches might be saved by cutting it diagonally across the centre; but in drill moleskin, or anything that has a right and wrong side, this will not be the case, so that it had better be left out of the question. The inner seam of the leg will be 30in., measured from _k_ _k_ to the points _a_ and _h_, where the duck will remain of its full breadth; take the girth of the waist at the point _l_, and, finding it 32in., divide it by four, and mark off 8in. on each side the central line; then take that of the hips along the line _b_ _b_, and, finding it 36in., divide it by four, as before, but instead of marking off 9in. on each the centre, mark 8in. before and 10in. behind it; then on the edge intended for the front draw a curved line from _a_ to the point _b_, and continue it in a straight line upward; then draw the outlines of the piece that is to be folded into the parts _c_, _d_, and _e_, each of which is to be 1-7/8in. wide, and cut round the outline, which is strongly marked in the diagram, folding and creasing sharply, but not cutting the material along the dotted lines. Cut the back of the trousers from the point _h_ with a slight curve, touching the end of the measured lines _b_ and _j_. We should then commence by turning down the parts _c_, _d_, and _e_, working button-holes in them as in the diagram, and stitching them firmly, but very neatly, in their places, and remembering that we are working on the left half of the garment. We should then take the right half, fold in the parts _c_, _d_, and _e_, as before, and stitch them, omitting the button-holes. We should then take the two parts, and laying them together at _a_, stitch them as far as _b_; then laying together the point _h_, stitch up the back seam, next bringing _a_ and _h_ together, stitch down each leg, turn down the waistband, and stitch it, making button-holes as at _f_, in the diagram, and fixing buttons to match, turning up and seaming the bottoms of the legs. Making eyelet-holes for a lacing at the back of the waistband braces we usually make no provision for; but if the wearer desires, buttons may be affixed for them in their proper place.

{Jacket, to cut out.}

We give also the outlines of a plain and useful jacket, which may be made in six pieces, of which three only are drawn: Fig. 1, half the back; Fig. 2, half the front; Fig. 3, one sleeve; the others of course are exact duplicates of them. Our drawing is made on a scale of 1-12in. to 1in. Fig. 1 is half the back, the first measurement for which is taken from the collar, so far down the centre as just to clear the saddle--say, for instance, 24in.; the next is the girth of the chest--say one quarter; say 8-1/2in. is allowed for the half back, and a little more, or 9-1/2in. for the half front. The rectangular figures, 1 and 2, should be first drawn to these measurements, and this will much facilitate all future operations. In like manner, if the circumference of the neck for collar be 12in., the proportions will be for the half back 2-1/2in. and for the half front 3-1/2in. From the collar down to the line across the shoulders will be about 6in., and from the collar to the line of chest measurement 9in. The first of these lines drawn on the parallelogram will give the point from which to draw the diagonal line for the shoulder seam, and the second the bottom of the oval that is to be cut out for the armhole; the edges are hollowed about 1/2in. for the waist. The diagram, we hope, will be sufficiently clear to indicate the few remaining measurements.

From the front of the collar on Fig. 2 down to the line of the shoulders will be about 5in., and from the collar end of the shoulder seam to the same line will be fully 7in.; the oval for the armhole will be 6in. deep and 4-1/2in. across, of which 1in. is to be cut into the half back and 3-1/2in. into the half front. About 4in. beyond the front line of the diagram may be allowed on each half of the front for overlapping, and on this the buttons will be placed according to taste.

The dotted lines of Fig. 3 represent the sleeve, the measure for which will be from centre of back to armhole; 7-1/2in. from armhole to elbow; when the arm is raised and bent inwards, 10-1/2in. from elbow to wrist; 10-1/2in. the circumference of the arm--loosely taken, will probably be 10in.; and the wrist 9in.; but more may be allowed, according to the wearer's fancy. A straight line, 21in. in length, must now be drawn, and at 4-1/2in. from the top it must be crossed by another of 10in., 8-1/4in. of which must project in front, and 1-3/4in. behind; on these lines the curve which marks the insertion of the sleeve must be drawn, beginning from the longer end of the cross line, and sweeping round by the top; down again to the shorter, then continuing downward for the convex seam till it crosses the first line, about 8in. from the bottom, and farther on the base line, about 2-1/2in. in front of it; 9in. more forward must be allowed for the width at the wrist, and a straight line drawn from this point to the longer arm of the cross will give the inner seam.

In stitching the parts together, we should commence with the shoulder seam, from the armhole upward; then with the side seam, from the arm downward; then, folding the sleeve piece, we should stitch the inner seam from the wrist upwards; and, placing the termination of this seam on the fore part of the armhole, 1-1/2in. or 2in. below the shoulder line, stitch the sleeve in; then, commencing at the collar, would make the back seam, and, this done, would trim off all inequalities of the edges; then turn down, and hem them, and finish, more or less, according to taste or convenience.

We have had but little experience in jacket-making, as it is a garment we seldom use in African travel; but to our ability to cut one, in at least endurable style, for the chief Moshotlani, on the Zambesi, we are indebted for some of our best views of the falls. At 9 o'clock each morning we would say to him, "We have fixed enough for your men to sew all day, now we want the canoe, and the man to go down with us to the waterfall."

DISTINCTIVE BOX MARKINGS.

When a traveller has to employ (as is most generally the case in wild countries) servants who cannot read, it is as well to mark his boxes with some rudely-drawn pictorial sign, which should, if possible, have some relation to the contents; though this is not a matter of absolute necessity, so long as the owner himself knows what is in each and what distinguishing mark is placed upon it. We give a few specimens, which will sufficiently illustrate our meaning; and any number may be devised if necessary, such objects being chosen as are most likely to be familiar to the servants employed: thus, on maritime or fishing stations, different vessels, cutters, luggers, schooners, brigs, barques, or ships, or parts of vessels, as guns, anchors, capstans, windlasses, various knots, as the reef-knot, bowline, &c., remarkable and at the same time familiar forms of fish, or implements used in catching them, as hooks, large and small hand-leads, harpoons, grains, nets, &c., would be appropriate; while in hunting or pastoral countries various animals--the ox, the horse, the sheep or goat, the elephant, the camel, the giraffe, the lion, and many others--would naturally be chosen. One box might bear the figure of a man, another of a woman; the tool chest might have a saw or an axe; a powder horn would indicate the box containing gunpowder; while others, holding round or conical bullets, cartridges, or small shot, might be marked with their peculiar sign; clothing might be indicated by a jacket and trousers.

The late eminent and amiable Dr. Holden, who perished in the attempt to explore South-Western Africa, was accustomed to mark all his boxes in this manner. He had left a waggon in the care of the chief Lesh[=u] la t[=e]b[=e], at Lake Ngami, and when this was received by the agent of the surviving relatives it was found that all the boxes had been broken open, and plundered of everything of value to the natives; but one, after being broken, had been sent out of the town to a lonely hut near some adjacent village. We insisted that it should be returned, no matter in what condition or however terrible might be the contents; and at length the mysterious box, which for more than two years had been a terror to the country, was placed before us. It had been broken, like the rest; but the plunderers, on lifting the lid, and finding themselves confronted by a veritable human skull, grinning horribly a ghastly smile, had shut it hurriedly down, and sent the dreaded box away. They were not a little astonished at our temerity when they saw us quietly lift up the emblem of mortality; nor were we less gratified to find beneath, securely guarded by the grisly sentinel, five bottles of the best French brandy, which the unfortunate doctor had taken this ingenious method of preserving. We ought also to mention that his medicine chest was marked with the figure of a snake, signifying poison; and it would be well if all chests, bottles, or cases containing either poison or medicines, which might be hurtful if wrongly used, were marked with a death's head, a snake, or crossed bones, or some other unmistakable warning.

DEMEANOUR TOWARDS COMPANIONS OR NATIVES AND WHITE SERVANTS, HINTS ON TRAVEL, ETC.

Everything during a journey beyond the limits of civilisation depends upon the good feeling and harmony among the party, and nothing short of unavoidable necessity should be suffered to interfere with this; there are, of course, cases in which human nature can stand no farther provocation, but it should be remembered that forbearance is seldom repented of, while hasty resentment, even if expressed only in words, may lay the foundation of ill-feeling, which becomes all the more bitter because the parties cannot separate from each other. At the same time, even forbearance should be exercised in a kindly spirit, for even an outspoken quarrel is better than the habit of "nursing the wrath to keep it warm;" the first may admit of explanation, or the parties to it, if reconciliation does not follow, may agree to dismiss the subject and work together till the close of the journey; and, if both be honourable, each will disdain to do less than his duty, or to throw an unfair share of labour or privation upon the other. But in the second case no such explanation is possible; the person who feels himself the subject of displeasure has no chance of learning what is the nature of his offence, and goes on unconsciously, perhaps repeating it, till, like an overcharged thunder-cloud, the storm bursts, and the restoration of peace which, in the first instance, would have been easy, becomes impossible.

Many a tale could we tell of comrades in travel who have freely risked their lives over and over again for each other, and counted it not even a thing for which they expected thanks, who have remained fast friends until the close of their journey, and in most instances, we are glad to say, this friendly feeling has remained undisturbed.

In one case related to us, one of the travellers had been called a coward by his comrade because he failed to fire at a lion at the expected moment. His reply was, "We will not quarrel over it now; but we separate at the first opportunity, and meantime I may find a chance to prove that I have not deserved your reproach." One day he who had been thus stigmatised remained at home; and, when his comrade returned, said to him--"I thought I should be able to show that your words were undeserved: a lion has attacked the camp." "Where is he?" asked the other. "Lift up the covering, and you will see him here," was the reply. There was but _one wound_--it was in the forehead--and from so short a distance had the death shot been discharged that the flash of the gun had singed the hair around the orifice it made. The accuser apologised for his hasty words; but the breach was never healed, and the separation took place soon after.

The choice of servants must be very much guided by the habits and disposition of the traveller himself; but if he can, as ought to be the case, dispense with many of the luxuries of civilised life, then we should consider it best for him to engage people accustomed to the duties they are required to perform from among the servants of the colonists or white residents, who know and can answer for their character and ability.

Many travellers who start for the Cape Colony like to have a white man as an overseer, and he generally acts also as cook and personal servant. Such men as these are to be found in most of the frontier towns, and one who is really competent to the work in hand is invaluable; but care must be exercised in the selection, for however inexperienced the traveller may be he had better command his own attendants than submit to the intervention of a man who is unfit to manage them. In the first case, they will at least look upon him as the "master," who hires, who pays, and feeds them, and for whom they feel bound to work; in the latter, they have no hesitation in saying to an incompetent overseer, "You are not our master, but only a servant like ourselves, and we care nothing for you." More especially is this the case if they find him ignorant of the management of oxen, an inefficient hunter, or too much dependent upon guides for indications of his way in the bush. Nor is this to be wondered at; the discipline of a ship may be carried on, though the captain be incompetent, if his first lieutenant be a thorough seaman; but if that officer is not up to his duty, even a first-rate captain can hardly atone for the deficiency.

If a man who, in his youth, has been a soldier or a sailor, enters the service of a traveller, he possesses many advantages over ordinary servants. The soldier ought to have learned something of the value of discipline and order, and to be able to combine respect for himself with obedience to his employers; while the sailor must have learned, during his probation, a thousand shifts and expedients; and, above all, have acquired a habit of self-reliance in difficulty and danger that cannot be too highly valued. Efficient men, however, must be _sought_ out and well paid; it is of little use to expect them to flock to the intending traveller and ask employment; they are not of the class who generally hang about large towns, but are more likely to be found on the very borders of civilisation. Moreover, they are not too plentiful; they would be more likely to ask, as was the case in Australia, have you a good character from your last servant? and inquiry should be made in time among other travellers as to the character and reliability of such persons as they have reason to think fit for the charge.

Within a colony, in case of a dispute with a servant, an appeal to the magistrate is possible; though if, as is sometimes the case, the nearest justice should live from thirty to fifty miles away--not always convenient--the master perhaps inquires of his native herdsman respecting the fate of a missing ox or two or three sheep; and, the replies not being satisfactory, hints his suspicion that they have been killed and eaten; the herdsman indignantly denies it, shortens his knobkeerie in his right hand, and gathers his kaross, or blanket, over his left arm, as a Spaniard does his cloak. If the master be of quick temper, he closes with and disarms him, or perhaps gets knocked down. If otherwise, he takes the more prudent alternative of riding to the magistrate. If he does the first, the native, whose time is of no value to him, starts off at once to the magistrate, and obtains a summons against his master for assault. If he chooses the latter, his herdsman probably takes advantage of his absence to add as many more cattle as he can to the missing list, and before he can be legally summoned is far away from the power of the law, seeking refuge among remote tribes.

Under these circumstances, it is not to be wondered at that occasionally the colonists took the law into their own hands; and of their manner of proceeding the following incident, related to us by a friend, may serve as a fair example. A native servant having transgressed in this manner, the people of the farm were assembled, and he was put upon his trial; the evidence was against him, and he was asked, "Will you be taken before the magistrate? Will you receive forty lashes at the waggon wheel, or will you be shot?" "They generally," said our informant, "choose to take the flogging offhand." "But how," said we, "if some cunning fellow should choose to be shot?" "Oh," said he, "that is not very likely; but a man once did so, and he was allowed to run a hundred yards, when a bullet was fired past him, but sufficiently near to let him hear the singing of it."

It was not very far from the locality where this event happened that a flock-master began to find a steadily-increasing mortality among his sheep, the very healthiest of which, without any apparent cause, sickened, and in a short time died. Now, when merino or other wool-bearing rams are imported at a cost of 120_l._ each, it behoves a man to look well after the good condition of their progeny, but no symptom of disease marked the approaching deaths; the shepherds asked for the carcases, and, finding these, he proposed to serve them out as rations, but they refused, and insisted that sheep should be killed for them as usual. "Very good," said he, "dig a pit and throw in the carcases, and I will kill for you." Next morning he found the pit had been opened and its contents abstracted. When sheep were again brought in dead he threw quicklime into the pit with them; the mortality began to diminish, and a post-mortem examination resulted in the discovery that a very fine mimosa thorn, specimens of which may be had of all sizes, from that of a sewing-needle to 5in. or 6in. in length, had been thrust under the shoulder, and left to work its way to the heart of the animal.

Unless, in case of gross and insolent disobedience, which it is necessary to chastise with a strong hand upon the spot, some form of trial and examination of evidence for and against the culprit ought always to precede the punishment; and this course, so far as we have seen, is generally adopted by English travellers, a love of fair play being, we are fain to hope, in spite of occasional excesses, inherent among us.

One of the most marked instances we have known of this occurred not far from Objimbengue. A train of waggons was passing up country from the Bay; wine and spirits were flowing freely; and, as is usually the case where long-enforced abstinence is succeeded by opportunities of unlimited indulgence, some of the party were not quite as judges ought to be before dinner. Jealousy--that fruitful source of quarrels--produced one during the night, and an Englishman broke a Hottentot's head--that is to say, inflicted a scalp wound half an inch wide and as deep as the thickness of the skin would permit. The inflictor of the blow (we never found out who was the actual aggressor) was confined in the room that had been assigned to us, and, with the exception of a few wild tricks inspired by the waning influence of the liquor, such, for instance, as drawing a sword-bayonet and giving point at a friend who entered, behaved with remarkable propriety, till a "raad" could be duly formed among the rest. Of evidence very little was required; there was the "tottie" with his wounded head; the defendant pleaded provocation and the influence of drink, and expressed his willingness to pay a fair compensation. Eight pounds sterling was proposed and consented to, and a bill drawn out and signed upon the spot. Rather exorbitant damages we thought for a wound which disabled the lad but for a day; but we were fresh in the country then, and thought the old hands knew best how to manage their own affairs. Extravagant and wild as was the scene, it was nevertheless a proof that wherever a number of Englishmen, or their colonial descendants, can be gathered together, a spirit of fair play will actuate the majority.

With native servants, very much must depend upon the custom of the country in which they are hired. Among some of the superior tribes, if men are well chosen, they may be left to perform their own duty in their own way; an occasional expression of approval from the master, and half an hour's chat with them now and then, to show that, though he trusts them, he is not careless of his own interests nor unmindful of theirs, being nearly all that is required; while the power of withholding a good character or making a deduction from their pay at the end of the journey is enough to restrain any irregularity they might be tempted to. Sometimes they may be hired from the chiefs, who then transfers to the master, for the time being, his authority over them, and looks to him for the safe return of his men at the end of the stipulated time. In this case the traveller becomes _pro tempore_ their chief, and may exercise his power in summary punishment of a culprit, or may reserve his right to appeal to the actual chief on his return. In other cases, as with Lascars or other natives of India, a gang may be hired with their own Serang, or Tindal, to whom all orders respecting them should be given, and from whom they will submit to any amount of punishment, though they would resent it as an insult, only to be atoned with blood, if inflicted by a white man. The Kroomen of the coast near Sierra Leone, who are usually employed on board our men-of-war, are generally engaged in this manner. We had twelve on the Zambesi expedition, under a very fine head man, called Tom Jumbo.

When our little steamer, the _Ma Robert_ (which, if not the best constructed, was certainly the best abused little vessel afloat) was put together on the Zambesi, Mr. Rae, the engineer, took some trouble to train Tom Coffee (a Krooman) to act as stoker and general assistant. Tom had, however, a will of his own; and, proving refractory, was brought before Dr. Livingstone, who, from motives of humanity, instead of ordering him corporal punishment, put him off duty and stopped his pay. The Kroomen gathered in serious consultation over the sentence, and at length deputed Jumbo to appeal against it: "The Kroomen," said he, "do not understand being put off duty; they come to work, and they must work. I will see to that, and they will expect their pay when this voyage is done. If they are insolent or lazy, or deserve punishment, tell me of it, and I will flog them; they 'savey' that, but they do not 'savey' stoppage of their pay." Mr. Rae also felt the sentence press rather heavily upon him. None of the other men were fit, without fresh instruction, to take Tom's place; and as the duties of chief engineer, with those of stoker and assistant, were rather too onerous for one individual, he was fain to join in the request that Coffee should be set to work again.

In some places it is almost impossible to avoid the employment of slave labour in some form or other; for even though the master do not, as of course no Englishman with proper feeling will, retain a man in compulsory bondage, or sell him for profit when his term of servitude is expired, it is in some countries impossible to hire a free labourer; and to give a man his liberty immediately after he has been purchased from his chief, or master, would only deprive the hirer or purchaser of all benefit during the expected period of service. This is particularly the case in some of the countries bordering upon the upper branches of the Nile. A well-known traveller in that region was once taxed with slave trading; he indignantly denied the charge. He had bought men of their chief, as everyone who required servants was obliged to do; but he challenged proof that he had ever detained one in bondage or sold him again when his service was completed.

An English military officer, in the same dilemma, bought men; he was a kind master, he found them good servants, and when he required them no longer he made them presents and set them free. A sudden cloud darkened every brow. Had they not served him well? What fault had they committed that he should now discard them, and turn them adrift, without providing them another master?

We once met in Dielli, the capital of the Portuguese settlement in the island of Timor, an English captain who, moved by compassion at the miserable condition of some prisoners in the hands of Malay pirates, yielded to their entreaties, and purchased some of them; and on arrival at the first British port he went ashore to consult the magistrate as to the proper manner of giving them their liberty. "You cannot give them their liberty," said he, "they are free already; and, though you have acted from motives of humanity, you had better let them go as quietly as possible, for not only is your purchase of no effect, but you have brought yourself into some danger by making it."

In South Africa the English travellers, or traders, very properly refuse to have anything to do with the purchase of slaves, though men and boys will come to them desiring to be bought. A friend of ours had an offer of this kind made while we were together; but though it would have been very advantageous to have a couple of lads who, in a short time, would have been well qualified to act as interpreters, he declined the offer.

On a previous occasion, however, when a boy had begged hard that he would buy him he refused, but told the lad to go and make the best bargain he could for his own liberty; the price was handed over to him, he ransomed himself, and joyfully returned to enter the service of his new master.

Frequently a white man picks up some miserable, neglected child, lets it sit by his fire, and huddle among his servants, getting a share of their food; and if he be, as he ought, a kind-hearted fellow, an occasional pat upon the woolly head and a tit bit from himself. When its condition is improved, he perhaps sets it to some trifling work; but no sooner is it supposed to have become useful than down come the parents or brothers, or some impostors who represent themselves as such, and threaten to take the child away unless they are properly paid for allowing him to keep it.

In Damara land especially such cases were common; and we became quite accustomed to hear the native servant girls telling each other, as a matter of very little importance, that such a one had "thrown her child into the fire that morning." Not that the statement was to be taken literally; but rather that the mother had just abandoned it, and the poor creature had crawled towards the fire for warmth, and so scorched itself.

There were also some natives who had a great facility for establishing a relationship with these unfortunates; and two or three had gained quite a reputation for their skill in discovering some genealogical affinity with anyone that had become the pet of a European supposed to be able to afford to pay for the luxury of keeping it.

In the Portuguese settlements on the Lower Zambesi a modified form of slavery exists, totally distinct from, and unconnected with, the slave trade, and rendered much more endurable by the fact that the slaves, or, more properly, serfs or bondsmen, are subjects of the Crown, and may not be removed from the colony, an ordinance, however, respecting which something may be said on both sides; for, if it prevents subjects being sold as slaves into foreign bondage, it is sometimes assigned as a reason for not legally marrying a native woman; that if a man were to do so, he could not take her from the country, and, not being allowed to leave her, would thus pass upon himself a sentence of confinement there for life.

With regard to the question of servitude under the Crown, the position of a slave seems to be that he cannot change his master, and his master cannot discharge or sell him, except under certain restrictions.

During the Livingstone expedition we were frequently served by slaves lent or hired to us by their masters. One of these, Katura, lent us by Major Sicard, the commandant, who always addressed him as Vossa Merc[=e]e, or Mister, acted as our house steward, and had under him Jos[=e], the _cuisinier_, who became highly indignant if any of us razeed his many-syllabled title into "cook." Katura had a position to maintain, and he understood it; he was not only a steward, but a plucky little fellow, and the first dead man we sketched there (whose corpse will be seen in the picture of Mazaro Mutu, in Dr. Livingstone's second book) was one of his shooting. Although a slave he had rights of his own, and was well aware of them. Sometimes he would bring us a few eggs, and when we offered to pay for them proudly remarked that the "ova katura" were not for sale, but he had no objection to accept a present; neither would he agree to put a price on any service we asked him to do for us; we made him a present of navy serge--enough to make a "frock" of. Next morning he told us that his master wanted it, and asked us how much calico he should demand in return. We told him three yards for one of the serge; the major demurred to this, and Katura refused him the serge, and after a month or six weeks made the bargain on his own terms, and asked us for a foot rule that he might measure the calico he had received. "A queer sort of slavery this!" said a Yankee friend, to whom we afterwards related the circumstance.

The following valuable hints on travel were communicated by Captain Stuart, the Australian explorer, to Mr. A. Gregory, on his taking command of the expedition before referred to in this work, and in which we took part. In order to render the directions as concise as possible, we have, in repeating them, avoided the repetition of the leader's name, &c. In other respects we give the directions, words of advice, and hints, in Captain Stuart's own words. In communicating them, he says:--

"Mr. Augustus Gregory, not being a military man, and not, perhaps, having acquired the habits of caution peculiar to that service, I venture to put together a few hints for his consideration, which I would fain hope may be of use to him, and for offering which my past experience in the field of discovery, and my anxious desire to promote the success of the undertaking in which he is embarked, must be my apology.

"I would recommend the leader to come to a strict understanding with his men before he engages them to conform to the terms of the agreement I have drawn up, and which is a copy of that which I made the men sign who accompanied me on my central expedition. It is the only means, when at a distance from home, to keep the men in order and subjection. I found it most efficacious on one occasion; when, one of the men having misconducted himself, I struck his name off the pay list, reduced his supply of provisions, and only reinstated him at the earnest solicitation of his comrades and on their guarantee that he should not offend again.

"The commanding officer should have his camp always compact. His sheep in the centre of it, and the drays flanking the sheepfold with the tents at the angles. I would caution him never to be without a guard. Let him give his men to understand that he will never dispense with the guard. I never did but on one occasion, which might well have been excused, and on that one occasion I was robbed. Mr. Gregory may rest assured that his safety at all times, whether in the presence of natives or not, depends on this necessary vigilance.

"I have been peculiarly fortunate in my intercourse with the natives. I believe the reason of this is that I have always put myself in their position, and deemed the alarm and vehemence they have exhibited at the approach of men and beasts they had never seen before as only natural. Instead of approaching nearer, I have given them time to recover from their amazement before I have separated myself from my men, and walked singly and unarmed towards them, and sat quietly down on the ground, until they had lowered their spears and appeared pacified. One of the natives is sure to advance and sit down as I had done, and so, by gradual approaches, we at length sat down side by side. But it is long before the native raises his eyes to look at you. I have always respected their customs in this respect, and am happy to say that I never failed. Treat the natives kindly, and they will so treat you. On no account did I allow my men to have any intercourse either with the men or women. This I interdicted under the severest penalties. The leader should not remain too long in one spot. He will understand that familiarity subdues fear.

"I would recommend him to have a respectable and responsible storekeeper, who should have a tent with the overseer of stock. The provision should be weighed out weekly to the men, and stock taken once a month, and a return of what has been issued and what remains given by the storekeeper to him. Such regularity inspires confidence.

"If the commander should follow a river into the desert, he will most probably find it assume a chain of ponds, and ultimately disappear in a vast plain. I would beg of him in such case not to move on his party until he has ascertained that there is water in front of him. He can have no idea how soon he can place himself in jeopardy.

"I know not that I can give Mr. Gregory any further friendly hint. Doubtless he is experienced in all the arrangements of an expedition, and he may be assured he has my best prayers for his success.

"The following general rules for the treatment of Indians, given by Dr. Brown, may also be useful in reference to other tribes, though a traveller's behaviour to a barbarous or savage people must, to a great extent, depend on circumstances--his position in the tribe and the customs of the nation, which ought never to be wantonly outraged. These rules were partially drawn up for me at an early date of my residence among the North-West American Indians by a gentleman whom to mention would be to name, perhaps, the most celebrated of all the _eeries_ of the fur trade. I afterwards added and amended them by my own experience.

1. Never pass an Indian village in the night if you suspect any mischief. They will be sure to find you out, and then, like all bullies, seeing that you are afraid of them, will act upon that knowledge.

2. If you suspect mischief, camp outside at a distance, and pass in daylight; you can then see better what you are about.

3. If you come to a village where you think there is likely to be an attack made on you, go into the chief's lodge, and, if possible, into one where there are a number of women and children. If their sense of hospitality does not prevent them from molesting you, they know that when white men are attacked bullets fly about, and some may strike the women and children. It is an axiom that no man likes to put his head down a gun-barrel.

4. Trust to an Indian's _honour_, and you are tolerably safe--you and your goods; but not to his _honesty_, for he will steal the ears off your head, unless you are very skilful in making a _cache_. If in a neighbourhood where there are Indians, you had far better leave your goods in their charge until you come back; you will generally find them safe; but if they find your _cache_--their honesty being doubted, and having no honourable scruples--they will be sure to clean it out.

5. Never appear to be afraid of them.

6. Never give them one cent less or one cent more than you bargained for--_as a right_. If you do, they will think it only yielding to them, and then imagine you have cheated them at first. You may give a small present if you like. It is a custom the Hudson's Bay Company have introduced of giving after a trade has been completed a small "potlatch," or gift, of their free accord, according to the value of the goods traded. Those Indians who have traded with the Hudson's Bay Company expect it.

7. In making presents, take into consideration their wants; only make presents where you may expect a return; they do that with you; and goodness of heart is only thrown away. Never calculate on this last weakness.

8. In making presents for conciliatory purposes, always make them to the head people; never mind the smaller tribes' men. Be sure, however, that it _is_ the chief you are making presents to, and not some forward and impudent fellow, who is usually the first to accost you at the outskirts of a village. The chief generally retires on his dignity, and wants to be sought out. Secure the head man's regard, and you need not mind the favour of the smaller ones; but even if you had abundance of goods to distribute, you would be sure to create red blood and heart burnings by one man's present being better than another, or supposed to be, &c.

9. I have generally adopted the practice, when I had not much to give, of giving it to the children. If you win the children, you win the mother, and of course the father. A little present goes a long way with the children. If you give it to the mother, you often excite the father's jealousy, and frustrate your purpose. Always remember, in addition, that a savage values a man's generosity, &c., according to the size of his presents, and act accordingly.

10. Never allow the natives to eat with you as your equal. As a rule, play the great man with them.

11. If a savage is travelling with you, give him food whenever he wants it. Food given when he wishes it is of ten times more value than when he gets it when he does not need it, or is not hungry. Consult his wishes in this respect.

12. Never attempt to gain anything by force; always by persuasion, argument, and _presents_.

13. Notwithstanding all you will be told about the value of a medical knowledge in travelling among savages, I have generally found it of very little benefit, and frequently, when put in practice, of real detriment. An Indian will never come to you unless when at death's door and he has lost confidence in his own sorcerers. You may give him some medicine, and perhaps in nine cases out of ten the patient dies, as he would have done anyhow. Their professional jealousy is raised, and you are accused by the "medicine men" of killing the person; and the worst of the matter is, it is often believed by the credulous people. If the man recovers, it is rarely that you get the credit of it. It is the medicine men who have done it. With surgery it is somewhat different. If the operation is one not involving any very serious consequences if unsuccessful, by all means perform it. They then _see_ the working of your superior knowledge before their eyes.

14. Be just and firm, patient and equanimous with them. Display no anger or violent and passionate gestures, and never be very prone to notice insults.

15. Never say you will do a thing and not do it. Never threaten to do anything unless you intend to do it.

16. No people notice the weakness and moral shortcomings of a man quicker than savages; therefore beware, especially _in re foeminâ_.

17. Try by all means to learn the customs and social etiquette of the people; for nothing raises you more in their estimation than this knowledge, or enables you to see when you are slighted.

18. If you are attacked, and at the _last extremity_ have to fire, take to the bush. An Indian does not like to venture in. He knows there is a man there and a gun, and that somebody may be shot, and that somebody may be himself.

19. If you have a watch at night, never stand near the fire; for then you are only giving the man a chance to fire at you.

20. Always, and above everything, remember that the hearts of all mankind are the same, and that all the difference between one and another is merely the overlay caused by etiquette, custom, and education; at heart they are the same.

"There are many arts which might be mentioned as useful in treating with Indians; but, as these depend upon a knowledge of the particular tribal customs, these _general_ rules must suffice."