CHAPTER XV.

FISH AND AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS.

The sea, estuaries, rivers, lakes, brooks, and ponds often yield an acceptable supply of food to the explorer, who usually adopts the most effective means of securing his prey, without troubling his head much as to whether the mode of capture is strictly sportsmanlike or not. The inhabitants of little known waters are not, as a rule, particularly shy in taking a bait; but some investigation will at times be needed to discover what description of fish are procurable before a successful plan for capturing them can be put in force. Sea fish are generally to be taken with small fish, pieces of fish, fish entrails; shellfish, such as mussels, clams, limpets, cockles, &c.; small strips of salt pork rind, the lug worms from the sand, and the rag worms from beneath stones and drift wood. Artificial baits, too, are often used with much advantage. The bowl of a common pewter spoon, mounted with a pair or three strong hooks, tied back to back, is an extremely killing lure for most predatory fish in both fresh and salt water. To mount and prepare one of these, it will be requisite to cut off the handle of the spoon close to the bowl. Drill a small hole just inside the point from which the stem has been taken off, and another at the small end. Loop through the hole at the large end a piece of strong fine line, about 4ft. long, and to this attach a swivel; then loop on 3ft. more line of the same description to the first swivel, and to the end of this attach a second swivel. A loop fastened to the end ring of this serves to attach the trace and spoon to the main line by. Gut or gimp may be used, instead of ordinary line, when it is desirable to fish "fine." The hooks, either in the form of a "triangle" or simple pair, must be of size proportioned to the description of fish they are intended to catch; and, when securely attached to a 3-in. piece of very strong double gut, should be fastened to the hole in the small end of the spoon. When used with a rod the spoon is spun with, after the manner of any other spinning bait; but when used from a boat or canoe a lead of sufficient weight must be attached to the trace, in order to keep it some considerable distance below the surface, when, as the boat is urged onwards, its rapid revolutions and glittering, flickering play prove most fatally attractive. Many of the pearl-shell baits used by the South Sea Islanders are much the same in principle, only that the hooks they use are usually of shell, wood, or bone. [Illustration] Boneta and albecore are at times taken in considerable numbers by making use of a rude imitation of the flying fish; and the form of this contrivance (represented at Fig. 4 in the accompanying illustration) will show that one need not despair of catching fish because he has no fish hook. {Makeshift hooks.} A piece of oak or other hard wood, about 7in. long, is procured. This is cut slightly tapering towards the tail, like the body of a fish. About 1in. from the tail a hole is bored, and through this a strong sharp nail, such as carpenters use, is driven obliquely. A few turns of twine round the wood and nail serve to prevent shifting or splitting. The "head" end of the stick has a notch cut round it to fasten the line to, and secure a couple of strips of white rag in, so that the free ends may represent the wings or fins of the fish. This affair, when finished and attached to a strong line, is cast into the sea, and kept leaping from wave to wave, when it is greedily seized by the pursuing boneta or albecore, who discovers when too late that, instead of securing a rich and palatable flying fish, he has swallowed a nail instead. The Esquimaux make an excellent substitute for a fish hook by scraping a strip of whalebone round and fine, and then binding on a piece of hard, finely-pointed bone at an acute angle, with a strip of sinew or split ground willow, as shown at Fig. 3. A sail needle may be made to do duty for a hook by attaching it to the line, as shown at Fig. 2.

The albatross can be conveniently taken when following a ship at sea by the use of a baited sailmaker's hook. The point holds in the curved portion of the bird's beak, whilst the swivel at its looped end prevents the line from twisting and becoming entangled. Fig. 1, p. 586, represents the manner in which this hook is formed.

The shanks of horse-nails make very good fish hooks. These, when filed down to the proper thickness, must be laid, one by one, in a narrow groove made in a piece of hard wood, and the barb struck up with a chisel or the sloped edge of a knife. One smart, well-directed blow on the instrument usually effects this. The point is now to be filed up sharp, the wire gently heated in the fire, and twisted with pliers--or, in the absence of these, a split stick--into proper hook form, when it is to be subjected to the case-hardening process. (See "Case-hardening.") Hooks of any size may be made in this way, merely taking care to use good tough iron for the purpose.

Stout, large-sized needles may be used straight for the capture of eels and some other kinds of fish. When so used, the line is firmly secured by waxed thread or silk to the centre of the needle, which is baited by drawing a large worm or other bait over both needle and line, which, when so prepared, lie in a line with each other. On the fish swallowing the bait and the line being drawn tight, the needle at once becomes fixed across the throat, and thus holds the captive until dragged to the shore. The needle is then easily withdrawn by pressing back one end with a bit of stick.

{Tackle, to select.}

We strongly advise the traveller to include in his list of stores a liberal supply of fish hooks of various sizes, for both sea and river fish, together with some strong brass swivels, a few hanks of stout gut, and fishing lines for river and sea fishing. The former should be of the kind known as prepared salmon line, and the latter hemp or cotton sea line. The sea lines should be all "barked" before use; any tanner will subject them to that process for a mere trifle. Lines so treated are infinitely more durable than those used in a raw state. It will sometimes happen that when separated from your stores, short of food, and with very few appliances with you, a catch of fish proves highly acceptable, and tackle of some kind has to be extemporised. We have had on many occasions to do this. Rods can be made very easily from tough sticks or bamboo canes. Fishing lines should never be put away wet, as they will soon decay, and become weak and unreliable. The most portable and convenient form of hand reel we have ever used is made as follows: Two pieces of well-seasoned wood are cut flat, like stout round-ended paper knives. [Illustration] Two holes are burned or bored in each, as at 1 in the annexed illustration; then two round bars are cut with points and shoulders, as at 2. A cork bung is then fashioned and bored in the centre, as at 3; the hole in this admits one of the round bars, and serves to stick the points of the hooks in. No. 4 represents the frame or reel put together, and shows the position of the bung and the loop of the line. The ends or shoulder pieces of the round bars are secured by small pins driven through them. Reels of this description afford free ventilation to the lines coiled on them. They can be taken asunder in an instant, and will pack in a very small space.

{Hints on tackle making.}

We made an excellent outfit for fly-fishing in the Crimea as follows: We selected a set of straight tough dog-wood sticks from the fascines for the joints of our rod; these were feruled with tubes made from preserved-meat tins cut and soldered. The rings were made from wire buttons with the thread covering cut off; the line from hair pulled from the horses' tails, twisted or laid up by the aid of a set of quill sticks, the use of which will be described as our work proceeds. The winch was made from a large-sized cotton reel mounted on a frame of forage hoop iron, and the handle from a piece of a broken Russian ramrod. We were often asked by envious fellow campaigners where we had picked up such an excellent fly-rod and fittings. Our having made it from the limited means at our disposal was never even suspected by them.

{A dinner extemporised.}

The following adventure will serve to illustrate the manner in which a little ingenuity will often procure a dinner. Our little party encamped one morning, after a very long fatiguing night march in Bengal, under the shelter of an immense banyan tree which grew on the banks of a deep reed-fringed lake. A small native village, situated at no great distance, had been pillaged and deserted some time before, and a miserable pariah dog or two wandering disconsolately about between the huts, and a few inquisitive-looking crows perched on the roofs, were the only living creatures to be discovered. No land of Canaan was this; commons of the very shortest kind stared us unpleasantly in the face. Still we had some bags of grain of the country, and a little "ghee" or native butter. An old corn mill, of the "quern" pattern before described, was foraged out from some forgotten nook or corner, and set to work preparing flour. A needle from the doctor's instrument case, when heated in the fire and bent to a proper form, made a very tolerable hook; a skein of his suture silk, a line; a bamboo cane, pulled from the roof of a hut, a rod; a bit of bark with a stick through it made a float; a few shot, split with a knife, sinkers; and some beetle larvæ, which were routed out of a decayed log, formed a very toothsome bait. The lake was clearly our larder, and to it we betook ourselves with as little delay as possible, the long cane over one shoulder, a double-barrelled gun over the other, and a leather bucket swung over the arm in lieu of a fishing creel. No Waltonian enticements in the shape of ground bait were needed here; the bait was hardly out of sight before the float vanished, and then, on the "haul devil, pull baker" principle, out our floundering victims came amongst the sedges and reeds. A shrill blast on our railway whistle not only brought one of the sable camp followers to carry the welcome capture to the cook, but roused six or eight large grey wild ducks, which had lain like so many water rails amongst the tall reeds, and sent them with outstretched necks and whistling wing wheeling round the lake, when by dropping under a hollow bank and keeping well down we lulled suspicion, and the flock come cutting the air right overhead. Now is our time, and, pitching the heavy double well before them, we let drive in rapid succession the two charges of big shot. Three thumping ducks come like clods to the earth; a few feathers drift off on the wind far in the rear of the survivors, who do not linger on the wing; and little did we care where their flight might lead them--our hunter's dinner had been earned, and in less than two hours from its obtainment was duly cooked, eaten, and its merits discussed.

{Alligators, to catch.}

A very effective contrivance for taking caymans or alligators was made use of by Waterton's followers in British Guiana. The annexed illustration represents a modification of it. Two or more tough fire-hardened sticks are notched at the large end like the head of a tent peg, and barbed at the point like a straightened fish hook. The notched ends are bound fast with raw hide lashings to a stout rope, which has been served for about 6ft. or 7ft. with stout wire. When this contrivance is to be used, the barbed tines and rope are thickly wound round with the entrails of some animal, and then suspended just above the water by supporting the rope on an upright crutch, which is so adjusted as to give way on the bait being taken. When the whole mass has been pouched by the alligator, and the rope is hauled on, the tines open, catch across the gullet, and act as a hook. We have heard of alligators being destroyed by inclosing a canister of powder, with the wires of a galvanic battery attached to it, in the offal of any animal; this, when fitted with a line and float, was cast into the water, and, on a bite being perceived, the connection of the circuit was made, when the alligator was shattered by the force of the explosion which followed.

{Alligators, to baffle.}

Alligators are incorrigible pests to the fisherman, waiting until the fish is securely hooked, and then carrying it off, line and all. The following plan is the best we know to baffle the greedy marauders. Strong flexible sticks, like small fishing rods, are to be cut, taking care to select such as have lateral branches some distance down. One of these is to be cut to about 2in. from the main stem, and a notch made in its end for a button on the line to catch in, as shown in the above illustration. This, when freed by the biting of the fish, allows the rod to spring smartly up, and swing the fish high enough to be beyond the reach of the prowling pirate.

{Liggers and trimmers.}

A variety of fish may be taken in ponds and lakes by the use of inflated bladders, of which several can be used at once. They are thus prepared. The bladder, after being well filled with air by blowing into it through a quill or bit of cane, must have its neck securely tied up with twine, and to this fastening a piece of stick the size of the little finger must be attached, so that it forms a sort of stem-like appendage to the bladder. The line, with the baited hook attached, is now to be knotted fast to the centre of the stem, and then wound on it just as thread is wound on a reel. The lower end of the stick or stem must now have a slit made in it. The line, when pulled into this, should have just a sufficient length to hang freely in the water. The bladder is now to be taken to the windward side of the pond or lake, and cast adrift. On the bait being seized by the fish, the line is jerked from the slit. The bladder, revolving on its own axis, allows the coil to unwind from the stem, and from its extreme buoyancy soon tires out the largest captive, whose position it serves to indicate to the fisherman, who gathers up his prizes at his leisure from his canoe or reed boat. Bundles of rushes, large corks, empty bottles, and a number of other things, can be used as substitutes for the bladders. Contrivances of this kind are commonly called "trimmers" or "liggers." Large turnips are often used by poachers to mount lines on for the capture of pike in preserves, as, unless rather experienced hands, the keepers do not suspect the dangerously destructive character of these floating roots.

On the Vaal River, in South Africa, we caught barbel up to 27lb. weight by thus using an empty powder canister; but it was anchored in mid stream by a stone not heavy enough to prevent a large fish from dragging it. This was left all night, and if in the morning it was missing from its place, a black boy was sent up or down to discover it. Our canoe was then launched, and the prize secured. If barbel were fished for, the hook was allowed nearly to reach the bottom; if otherwise, it was kept but a little below the surface. Frogs were generally used as bait. If the fisherman is not occupied as we were by other work, and can spare the time, or does not possess a canoe, he may make fast a sufficiently strong hauling line, and so bring his capture to the shore whenever he wishes. The method of arranging this contrivance is shown in the preceding illustration.

{Otters, to make.}

"The otter" is another contrivance with which great numbers of fish are often taken, and thus it is made: Procure a piece of very light strong wood, and from it fashion a board 22in. long, 9in. wide, and 2in. thick. Trim the ends to a sharp edge, and round them off in boat form. Then, on that portion which would correspond with the keel of a boat, fasten a long strip of lead of the same thickness as the board, and so adjust its weight that, when your board with its lead keel on is placed in water, about 1in. only of the upper edge appears above the surface. Two holes are then to be bored at each end, and through these two separate strings are to be passed, and the ends so knotted as to prevent them from pulling through the holes. The loops thus formed must be just long enough to come in contact in the centre of the board. Four knots will thus be on one side of the board, and the loops the other. A 4-in. piece of very strong, stiff brass wire must now be used to connect the two loops, and on this a stout ring must be placed so that it may travel forward and back on the wire. To this ring the main line on which the hooks are fastened is to be attached by a loop and swivel. To work the otter, it will be necessary to launch it in the water, and walk away along the bank until it runs out with the line, which is coiled on a wooden frame or reel and carried in the hand. The otter travels backward or forward according to the direction in which the string or line is pulled, and is in principle much like a paper kite, the loops performing the part of the "belly-band."

{Ground lines, to manage.}

Ground lines often well repay the trouble bestowed on setting them. They are best made of strong, fine hempen line. A heavy rifle ball or other suitable weight must be fastened to one end, and a pointed peg to the other. A number of hooks on twisted horsehair traces are to be looped on, at equal distances apart, at the end nearest the sinker. The line when duly baited and pegged fast to the bank is to be taken on a long fork-ended stick, so that the end has a swing of about 8ft. or 9ft. With this the baits and sinker can be cast a very long distance out; and when it is requisite to take up the line to re-bait or take off fish, the fork is again made use of to draw it over, and thus keep the hooks clear of the bank. When using a night line, it is a good plan to fasten the shore end to a tough branch twisted in the form shown in the annexed illustration, as by the play it affords when the fish makes a sudden rush the line is saved from being broken.

{Traveller, to make.}

Wide pools in rivers and the stretches of sea beach frequented by fish at the rising of the tide are conveniently fished by the use of a "traveller." This is simply a double line with one half only mounted with hooks. It is thus used: At dead low water a heavy stone is procured, and round it is placed a piece of strong cord, to the end of which is fastened a link of chain, the bow of an old key, a slice from the end of a marrow bone, or a common curtain ring; and through this one end of the doubled line is passed, and brought back to the standing place of the fishermen. As the tide flows and approaches the shore, that half of the line without hooks is drawn in, which, of course, causes the drawing out of that half provided with them. A small cross stick knotted to the centre of the line prevents the first hook from passing through the ring and causing entanglements. As fish are caught, or the bait requires renewing, the line is hauled out and pulled back again to its old position without the trouble of casting. By this method a much larger space can be covered by the tackle than could be commanded by the ordinary method.

{Harpoon arrow.}

The harpoon arrow is at times a very effective means of securing fish, especially when they are basking on the surface of the water or among the weeds. The arrow-head is made from a large-sized sea-fish hook, heated in the fire and straightened. This when cut to the right length is secured to the shaft of the arrow with waxed thread. A small loop is also fastened on, to attach the harpoon line by. This should be composed of very fine strong line; and when about to be used it is coiled carefully away in a small wooden bowl or calabash. The bow should be rather short, and of considerable power. A little practice at floating corks or other light substances will soon serve to teach the method of discharging the harpoon and adjusting the line.

{Basket fish traps.}

Basket traps, of different forms of construction, are much used by Indians for the taking of fish. Some are simple in the extreme, and much resemble a lady's crinoline. With it the native wades about in the wide shallow lakes, keeping the bell-shaped mouth downwards, and frequently striking the bottom with it. When a fish happens to become inclosed, it immediately darts off and endeavours to escape; but its head coming in contact with the side of the basket, the shock is at once felt by the wader, who thrusts his bare arm down through the small or upper opening of his contrivance, and so secures his victim, who, when a strip of vine or ground cane has been passed through his gills, is allowed to trail after his captor. On the Zambesi the women wade in the clear shallow water with a funnel-shaped basket, the smaller end of which is prolonged by a pole or handle. When a fish is seen, the wide lower end of the basket is at once darted down upon him, and he is captured at leisure.

Wicker cages of trumpet form, constructed much on the principle of the ordinary eel basket, appear common amongst the aborigines of nearly every part of the world. Some we once discovered when hunting in the Bheel country were of most elegant form, and woven entirely from the finely-split fibres of single bamboo joints, the knot being left entire at one end, to form a ring through which the bait is introduced. By some tribes of North American Indians long rods are used to form these, just as we employ willows. Some traps made in this way are very large. Huge baskets are often suspended and secured beneath waterfalls in the run of the salmon, which on missing their leap fall back into these traps. When a sufficient number have been inclosed, the Indians, armed with short clubs, enter the baskets and despatch the ill-fated fish, which are then cast out on the rocks to the dusky ladies of the tribe, who are waiting to receive them. On the Zambesi, the B[=o]-tlét-l[=e] River near Lake Ngami, and in North Australia, the natives are very ingenious in the construction of dams or weirs; and creels or trap baskets are skilfully placed at the outlets. Some of these are of stiff reeds or osiers; others, of rushes so flexible as to be merely a bag or net. Long semicircular pounds are, by the natives of some countries, constructed of sticks and twigs between high and low water marks. The fish, getting embayed within these, are left high and dry as the tide falls, and are gathered up before the return of the waves.

{Dams, weirs, and spears.}

Dams and fishing weirs are built across streams by the inhabitants of most countries. At these the fish are either entrapped in hutches furnished with bars, on the eel-basket or sparrow-cage principle, shot with arrows, scooped up in hoop nets, or speared with hand spears of various forms. Some of these are perfectly simple in construction, whilst others are remarkably ingenious and curious. The annexed illustration (Fig. 1) represents one much used by the inhabitants of northern regions for the capture of the salmon. By the Esquimaux these implements are made principally of horn. The handles are of drift wood, neatly bound together with strips of tendon. The centre spikes are of sharpened bone, whilst the barbs in the jaws of the spear are usually made from two common iron nails, obtained by burning chance fragments of wreck. Fig. 2 represents the trout spear of the trappers. The tines are of steel, set in an iron head-piece.

Many of the natives of Africa and Australia are very skilful in the construction of dams and weirs. We have seen in some rivers the smaller channels effectually blocked against the passage of fish, which have at first been gently led--by very slight obstructions, and then forced by impassable barriers, narrowing like a funnel as they went on--to take the desired course, at the end of which creels or basket traps, sometimes of soft rushes, or in other cases of twigs or cane, have been set to receive them; while in sluggish waters, such as the B[=o]-tlét-l[=e] River at Lake Ngami, long zigzag fences of reeds are set up, inclosing a considerable space, and narrowing gradually to several funnel-shaped outlets, at each of which one or more creels are set, belonging to various families. Openings are left in the lines for the ordinary passage of canoes; but when a "take" is to be made these are carefully closed, and the canoes in deep water, with a promiscuous medley of waders in the shallows, form an extended line, gradually closing in and driving the fish toward the traps. Most of the creels are pointed at the farther end, so that the fish wedging themselves in cannot escape, and in all the mouth is armed with a set of elastic reeds like the wires of a mouse-trap, allowing free ingress, but opposing any return. [Illustration:1-3] Fig. 1 shows a Zambesian creel of this class, and several of them are annually washed away by some unexpected rise of the river, and either carried over the falls or washed ashore on rocks or points of land near them. Fig. 2 is ingeniously made of a pole of bamboo, as before mentioned, which is carefully split in the direction of its fibre, into any number of thin rods or strips, care being taken to leave the last joint or internode intact, so that they all remain connected like branches springing from one root; they are then opened out, bent into the proper form, and either laced together with smaller cross pieces of cord or fine rattan, or the strips themselves are often interwoven or plaited so as to form a most elaborate piece of artistic basket work. Fig. 3 is a creel or trap extemporised with three iron hoops, four poles to keep them at a proper distance apart, and sufficient spunyarn to form a net round them; there is an entrance at each end, and, as these are also formed of yarn, their ends must be kept in form and position by lines stretched tightly between them.

{Fishing lines, to make.}

Fishing lines can be made of a variety of materials. Prepared sea-weed of a particular description is extensively used by some of the coast Indians of North-West America. Wild hemp is also made use of by them; narrow strips of hide are in use for some kinds of fishing amongst the Esquimaux; whilst yucca, aloe, and pineapple fibres are made available in tropical countries. The inner bark of trees and the hair of animals, horses especially, are materials well adapted for the purpose. To twist this into traces for fastening hooks to, in the absence of silkworm gut, a common pocket knife can be conveniently used, as shown at Fig. 1 in the annexed illustration. When a hair line of many strands, of considerable length and free from knots, is required, recourse may be had to "quill sticks," as they are called (Fig. 2). [Illustration: 1-4] These are made as follows: Three pieces of deal, or any other light wood, are to be cut to the size of common penholders, and to 4in. in length; one end of each is to be very slightly tapered, and have a half-inch piece of quill fitted to it like a "float cap." Supposing a twelve-hair line is wanted, that number of hairs from an "entire horse's" tail are knotted together at one end, and then all the free ends at the other are to be cut to uneven lengths; four are then placed in each quill, and a stick put in to hold them fast. The knotted end is then secured to a fixed point by a pin, and the sticks laid side by side in the left hand. The right-hand stick is now taken up by the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, the proper twist given to the united strands, and the stick passed over the other two, so that it may lay the third in the row. The next stick is now taken up, twisted, and passed on in the same way, drawing out the hairs from under the cap as the strand shortens until a hair is free of the cap, when another is inserted in its stead, taking care to keep all the lengths uneven. To taper the line, drop a hair from time to time until the line is long enough, when the protruding ends are nipped off. The line will then be fit for use. The above engraving will explain the arrangement of the sticks, quills, &c., and the way in which the horsehairs are inserted. Many descriptions of fibre admit of being twisted in the same manner. Fig. 3 shows the manner in which wires are twisted by the aid of a winch handle and hollow stick; Fig. 4, the way in which a ring can be taken from the finger by the aid of a bit of twisted line. The finger is bound above the ring, and the free end used to draw off the ring, like the worm of a screw.

{Silkworm gut, to make.}

Very strong serviceable lines can be made from almost any of the endless number of vegetable fibres to be obtained by soaking the stems of plants or the inner bark of trees, and then "laying them up," as it is called, which is done by forming the number of strands intended for twisting by dividing a small hank of fibres equally, and then, after imparting the required degree of twist to the strand nearest to the right hand, passing it over the other to the extreme left, and so on, laying in fresh fibres as they are needed. The Indians often twist their lines on the thigh under the hand, as shown in the annexed illustration. The surplus twist may be taken out of all lines by fastening one end to a tree or other fixed point, and then, after having taken a turn round a piece of smooth stick, walking backwards until all the line has been passed under a moderate strain round the stick. In such countries as produce silk-yielding caterpillars, excellent lines may be made from the silk wound directly from the cocoons, and then twisted into thread. "Silkworm gut" can also be obtained wherever silk-spinning worms are met with. To make it, a number of the caterpillars are to be collected just prior to their time of spinning. These are to be placed in a pot or other convenient vessel, containing a mixture of vinegar and water in equal quantities; they are then to be covered down and allowed to stand about twelve hours. A worm may be then taken out, opened, and tested as to its fitness for drawing. If, on pulling the yellowish green coils which will be found within it to their full extent and extreme length, they break from softness of texture, the worms must be allowed to remain in the vessel some time longer, temperature having much to do with the condition of the pickled insects. When the coils are found to be tough, and stand stretching fully out, one end of the strand must be placed in a slit made in the end of a thin board or sheet of bark prepared for the purpose. The strand is now to be drawn and evenly stretched to the other end of the board, in which corresponding slits have been made, when the extremity of the gut is secured in one of them. When all the worms have been thus treated, the stretching board is to be placed in the sun, in order that the gut may dry, which it usually will in about twelve hours. It will now be found that a considerable quantity of yellow substance will remain adhering to the gut. This must be removed, and in order to do so dissolve a piece of common soap about the size of a musket ball in a gallon of rain water. Place this with the gut in it in a boiler, and boil it for ten minutes, when the gut must be turned out on a cloth to drain. Before cooling each strand must be lightly and smartly drawn through a pledget of cotton held between the finger and thumb, which will at once strip off the yellow coating; but great care must be taken not to press the softened strand hard enough to render it flat or curled. As fast as the strands are run through the cotton they must be replaced on the board and again dried in the sun, after which they can be selected as to size, quality, length, &c., and packed up in hanks by twisting cotton or any other kind of thread round them.

{Fishing nets.}

Nets of various forms have been in general use from periods of the most remote antiquity, and, so far as we know, no aboriginal people have yet been discovered who were ignorant of their use. The material and form of construction are found to vary with the region in which they are had recourse to, and the character of prey sought to be captured. Perhaps the most primitive form is that of the common hoop or landing net, so generally used on our coasts for catching shrimps. A forked pole, a net bag, and a little twine, are all that is required to construct one of these of efficient pattern. The two sticks constituting the fork are bent round towards each other, the two ends overlapped, and then lashed together. The net bag is then fastened on. A great number of modifications of this description of net are used, some worked by hand, and others raised from the water by mechanical contrivances. The following illustration represents a fishing raft and lever net as used by the natives of Ceylon and some other islands of the Eastern seas. Some of the Chinese fishermen construct engines much on the same principle; only, instead of raising the net by a rope and lever, a long plank is made use of. This runs along the centre of the fishing boat, and on it sits the fisherman waiting for the shoal to pass over the radius of his trap, when with a sudden backward movement he throws his whole weight on the extreme end of the balance-board on which he has been crouching, and thus raises the nets with a smart upward jerk. The trammel is another form of net of much value to the voyager and explorer. It simply consists of two nets--one coarse in the mesh, and the other comparatively fine--leaded at the bottom and corked at the top, and so moored with heavy stones that they may hang curtain-like in the water across the run of the stream or tide. The fish in their nocturnal wanderings dart against the first net, which is forced through the large meshes of the second, forming a sort of purse in which the fish are secured. Many others become entangled by the twine of the meshes, which in their efforts to escape gets under the gill covers and so holds them fast. Incredible quantities of fish are at times taken in nets of this kind. They are especially valuable on account of the ease with which they can be set and taken up, two men being sufficient for the performance of either operation. When a promising spot has been selected, the first anchor stone is cast over, together with a buoy line and large cork. The foot line, net, and cork line then follow, being cast evenly over by one man, whilst the other either rows or sculls slowly ahead. When all the net has been thus allowed to run out, the other end is secured by an anchor stone and indicated by a float. The spoils are secured in two ways. One is to raise the first anchor stone by the buoy line, and then gather in the net fold after fold, with all it may contain, in the bottom of the boat. The other is to raise one of the stones, pass it over the boat and allow it to sink again to the bottom, thus leaving the foot line and leads in the hands of the boatmen, who proceed to draw the boat along by it, clearing the net of fish, weeds, or entanglements as they go, and allowing the net to sink again as they proceed, until the whole length has been overhauled and re-set.

{"Tip-up," to make.}

A trammel net may be used under the ice by cutting two holes through it at a convenient distance apart. A pole is then passed from one to the other, as shown in the above illustration. The net is suspended from a set of rings which run freely on the pole, and ropes are rove so as to haul the net forward or back to either of the holes, at which the fish are taken out. When clear, the net is set again. Great numbers of fish may at times be taken by fishing with the hook through holes made in the ice. A contrivance known as a "tip up" is often used. The annexed illustration [Illustration] will serve to show the nature of the arrangement. A hole is bored in a piece of flat stick; through this a cross-pin is driven, leaving it long enough at the ends to rest across the hole in the ice. The line, hook, and bait are attached to one end of the flat stick, and a bit of coloured rag to the other. When the fish has taken the bait, the flag end of the stick tips up, and the little pendant flutters aloft and signals "fish caught here." A number of tip ups may be set at once, and are easily watched. When fishing with a common line at an ice hole it is well to rig up a little wigwam or break wind. Strips of cow's udder make excellent baits for use under the ice. Seals may be speared in their blow holes by waiting patiently over them. The form of the excavation in the ice made by the animal is shown in the annexed illustration; an examination of it will show that it is requisite that the harpoon or spear should be very carefully, yet powerfully, thrust down or the seal will probably escape.

The trunk or bow net is extremely useful for catching fish in comparatively narrow streams. These are long tunnel-shaped network bags, flared out widely at one end, and tapered to a pocket form at the other. Hoops of suitable size are made use of to keep the tube properly distended, and a mousetrap-like arrangement of meshes and twine prevents such fish as may enter from going back again. The purse end of the net is made to untie like a bag, and has a piece of rope and a stone fastened to it, so that the wide end of the net is always down stream and in the run of the fish, which is upwards. The larger descriptions of nets, such as seines, drift nets, trawls, dredges, &c., do not strictly come within the province of this work; still all vessels, and even large boats proceeding on surveying or exploring expeditions, should be furnished with both lines and nets. A small ground seine, Cornish pattern, and a light trammel, such as are made and sold by the French, will occupy but little space, and pay well for taking. A few pieces of spare net, and a good supply of twine, are matters by no means to be overlooked.

When engaged in fishing from a boat on rocky ground, it not unfrequently happens that the grapnel or creeper, if simply secured to the end of the painter, and lowered away, will, on an attempt to haul it up again being made, resist every effort and remain firmly fixed among the rocks. To prevent this pass the painter down the shank of the creeper, and take a turn with it over one of the claws just at the back of its bend; now bring your painter up the shank again, and with a piece of common twine tie it fast to the head ring, as shown in the accompanying illustration. Should the creeper get fast, the string will give way on being hauled on, causing the claws or flukes to be upset, when they are at once set free, and the creeper can be weighed.

{Crustaceans, to catch.}

Crayfish and some other crustaceans can be taken readily in some situations by stretching pieces of net over hoops of casks, and then, when suspended by cords weighted with stones, and baited with any offal, these contrivances are lowered down to the haunts of the fish. Crayfish are met with in incredible numbers on some portions of the coast of South America and the adjacent islands, that of Juan Fernandez yielding them, as well as other fish, in vast numbers.

{Fishing implements, &c.}

In Table Bay crawfish are caught in great numbers in baskets made of rough netting of rope yarn, stretched upon an iron hoop, and baited with bits of fish or offal (as in Fig. 1), let down nearly to the bottom, and hauled up as soon as the "krief" is seen or felt tugging at the bait. The crawfish constitutes the food of a great proportion of the Malay or Mahometan population. Fig. 2 is a crab pot. Fig. 3 is a peculiar kind of mace, with spikes as long and as sharp as possible, used by the Malay lads in Table Bay. We do not at present remember the name by which it is locally known; but it is thrown in the manner of a lobstick into the midst of the shoals of small fish that frequent the bay, and seldom fails to secure one or more of them.

{Hints on the haunts of fish.}

The haunts of fish will be found to vary considerably, particular species abounding in situations where other inhabitants of the same waters are but rarely met with; and, although no absolute set of rules can be laid down for the discovery of the fish of either rivers, lakes, or the sea, still there are conditions favourable to their congregation. Thus the mouths of streams discharging themselves into the sea are usually good fishing pitches, as are the waters covering reefs and beds of sunken rock, which crop out and raise their crests above the ordinary sea bottom. On sand and gravel stretches flat fish of most kinds are to be successfully sought for; whilst a rugged, rock-strewed bottom, broken up into deep crevices and yawning weed-fringed gulfs, is a favourite resort of the larger crustacea. Nearly all sea fish are most disposed to feed as the tide rises. In tidal rivers many species of fish come "down" in force to the coming flood; whilst others run up from the sea--mullet, bass, and many others do this. Tributary streams and rivulets discharging themselves into lakes, rivers, or ponds, usually supply a considerable quantity of food suitable for fish, and form gravel beds on which spawn can be deposited. The mouths of such streams are much frequented by all kinds of fish. The deep, well-like spots amongst the beds of water plants, and the still deeps beneath the shade of overhanging trees, are favourite spots with most of the soft-mouthed fish, such as carp, and many others of similar habits and tastes.

{Hints on baits.}

In some localities the seeds and blossoms of certain plants overhanging the water, and occasionally falling in, act as a lure to considerable numbers of fish. In North Australia the large globular fruit of the water pandanus yields seed round which is a sweet, well-tasted farinaceous pulp, which may not only be eaten by the fish, but by the traveller as well. This substance is an excellent bait for both fish and water turtle. The latter are best caught by a short, strong hook, which need not be barbed, as it is not expected to pierce through, but only to catch in, the horny bill, and to bear the heavy back strain as the creature resists the attempt to heave him in. A short, stiff pin bent into a hook will do for the small kinds, or a sailmaker's hook for the larger. Ship-biscuit dust, cast by the handful into the water and allowed to sink gradually, will frequently attract large shoals of many kinds of fish.

The fish inhabiting ponds and water holes are at times destroyed by some tribes of Indians by the use of juices of the euphorbia, or the Indian milk bush. The juicy branches of either of these are crushed between stones until a sort of pulp has been formed. This is cast into the water, and soon poisons the fish, which float helplessly about, and are soon collected. A powder made from the _Coculus Indicus_, when mixed with dough, is also used for this purpose. Small pellets of the paste are broken off and thrown to the fish, who soon become intoxicated, and swim round in a circle at the surface, when they are taken up with a small hand net, or a piece of cloth stretched on a forked stick. Lime is often made use of to destroy fish, but dire necessity can alone justify the use of either of these latter modes of fish capture, as they lead to wholesale and indiscriminate slaughter. Pools, wells, and water holes are often completely drained of their contents by thirsty men and equally thirsty cattle. Search should always be made under stones and in sly corners for both fish and water tortoises, which will frequently repay the trouble of looking for. Some chains of ponds in Australia and water holes in other countries contain enormous eels. These should be well looked after, as they make a most palatable and nutritious meal. The largest are to be taken with night lines, the lesser ones in the eel baskets, before described.

When mackerel fishing off the island of St. Helena, we provided ourselves with a good supply of biscuit dust, which, when sprinkled broadcast in the sea, brought immense numbers of the small-sized brilliant mackerel usually taken there round our boat. The bait we used was a narrow strip of very white pork rind. The hook was a very small one, and the tackle as fine as that usually used for trout fishing. There is no limit to the quantity to be thus taken when the fish are off the island. We on one occasion had great sport amongst the bream at the Cape de Verds by having recourse to the same expedient. We often attract numbers of sea fish to the neighbourhood of our boat or canoe by placing bran, biscuit dust, or pulverised crab shells, with all the fish offal we can collect, in a piece of old fishing net, and then lower the mass, with a good-sized stone in it, by a stout cord until within about 6ft. of the bottom and directly under the boat, when the cord is made fast. Bait with fish entrails or strips of fish, and use a lead sinker.

When about to fish the waters of little-known lands, it will at times be requisite to employ baits gathered about the immediate neighbourhood of the scene of operations, and the naturalist-sportsman will usually discover some kind suited to his purpose. Some species of ground nuts when roasted over the fire make a very attractive bait for some members of the carp family, amongst which is the "Roheta," or sacred carp of India. Grasshoppers, locusts, mantis, beetles of various kinds, and the larvæ found feeding amongst the leaves or burrowing in the decayed logs, are all good in their way. Small fish, frogs, and young birds are excellent for trolling with, or for baiting night lines. Earthworms, slugs, snails, and pieces of meat from any animal or bird which may be shot, are all available. Pieces of beef are in high repute as baits on many rivers of South America and amongst the Falkland group. Artificial flies of the rudest style of manufacture often prove as destructive as the most elaborately finished specimens. Feathers and coloured fur or wool secured to a hook, in the shape of a rough hairy worm, form a very killing bait for both sea and river fish. It is hard to say what these anomalous-looking contrivances are taken for. Flies they in no way resemble. Still they are greedily snapped at by the fish, and that is the main point after all. The Indians of the lakes and Pacific coast of America make use of a very singular feather contrivance, with which they attract the fish within their reach. A shuttlecock-like affair is constructed and loosely attached to the end of a long rod or pole, which is thrust far down in the clear deep water. The shuttlecock is then detached by a sudden jerk, and comes spinning and gyrating towards the surface. The fish on seeing it make a rush and endeavour to effect a capture, but are transfixed by the ready spear of the Indian sportsman.

{Fish spearing.}

Fish spearing by the aid of fire has been practised in all parts of the world from the very earliest ages. Canoes or boats of light draught of water may be used. Pine knots, or any other resinous or fatty fuel, is usually made use of. A species of grate or fire pan is fixed so as to project beyond the bow, and the spearman stands ready with his weapon--such as is represented at Fig. 2, page 596--and strikes the fish when he sees him. Torches of reed or vegetable fibre bound together are often carried along the banks of rivers, or out on the wide sand shallows of certain seas, to effect the same object. Great numbers of turbot and small sturgeon are speared in this manner by the Tartars inhabiting the Russian shores of the Black Sea. Fig. 4, p. 604, is a set of grains for striking dolphins or small fish. The smaller pair of prongs screw on and off, or turn on a pivot, so that they can be laid flat with the others, and stow in less room. The line is made fast round the neck of the iron close by the barbs, and the end of the staff is heavily loaded with lead, so that when a fish is struck the weight turns up the points, and prevents any chance of its escape. Along the shallow beach of Walvisch Bay we used frequently to wade with a harpoon, striking sting-rays, flat sharks, fiddle or angel fish, or occasionally a more dainty sole in the shallow water; although not unfrequently sharks of larger size would cruise in our vicinity, and sometimes try to get between us and the shore. We found in striking the smaller fish that the great barb of the common harpoon would frequently either drive them out of its path with a superficial wound, or would cut through their sides without securing them; and we therefore took as a substitute a soft iron Kafir assegai, or spear (Fig. 5, p. 604), and, fitting it into a bamboo shaft, cut several barbs in each of its edges with a fine tenon saw, which caused it to hold all it penetrated.

The few Hottentots who maintain themselves in the vicinity of the bay do so partly by assisting in the fishery or in discharging the cargoes of vessels, and also in a great measure by spearing sand sharks and sting-rays in the shallows of the lagoon. For this purpose they use either sticks pointed and hardened in the fire, or the sharp straight horns of the gemsbok (_Oryx capensis_) set like a pike-head upon a stick; and, because they have to wade a great distance in the shallow waters, and it would be inconvenient to go ashore with every fish they kill, they set up a tripod of sticks near them, and on this they hang their prizes until they have accumulated enough to be worth carrying ashore to the women, whose task it is to clean and dry them for winter use.

The spear or javelin--launched from the hand, projected from a bow, dropped from a height overhead, or in some cases fired from a gun, and yet secured to a line--seems to be known in some form or other to most nations, whether civilised or barbarous.

The elaborate combinations of mechanical skill and scientific knowledge supplied to our whalers, and intended in some cases to be fired from swivels or shoulder guns, sometimes to destroy the creature in whose body they are buried by their explosive power, and sometimes to paralyse the vital energies by chemical compounds or by powerful poisons, are beyond the province of this work, and we shall take, therefore, as our type of this species of weapon the harpoon in its most simple and, as we believe, its most generally effective form, as used by whalers in every ocean that has yet been traversed. The weapon itself consists of two parts, the iron and the shaft, so fitted as to remain firmly united till the blow is struck, and then, when the strain comes upon the line, to separate from each other, so that there may be no danger of the barb being torn from its hold by the weight or leverage of the staff when violently swayed by the convulsive struggles of the whale.

The head of the harpoon is triangular, or perhaps more nearly heart-shaped, the point representing the apex, and the barbs the two sides of the base. Its size is about 3-1/2in. each way, or as large as the palm of a moderately-sized hand, and its thickness where it joins the shank nearly three-quarters of an inch, and from this it rounds off gradually, rather than tapers, to the edges. There are various opinions as to the metal of which it should be made; some prefer iron so soft that the back of a sailor's jack knife will scrape it to an edge, somewhat rough and anything but permanent, but yet sufficiently keen to cut through the skin and blubber into the flesh of the whale; others say soft steel which may be sharpened by a file; and some insist on having it edged with steel of the finest quality, and ground and set to as fine an edge as a razor. Each has its advantages. The fine keen edge of the last will be more certain to enter, and will pierce more deeply, but, if once blunted, it cannot be so readily sharpened by the simple appliances at the command of the sailor. Against this, however, it should be guarded by being kept in a leather sheath of such form that the edges cannot be blunted by contact with any portion of it, and at the same time cannot damage it by cutting the seams. It is well partially to fill this sheath with grease or tallow, in which the edge of the harpoon may be embedded, and so kept perfectly secure from rust.

Of the material of the shank there can be but one opinion. It should be of 1/2-inch iron of the best possible quality, smooth, even free from flaws, tough of fibre, and so pliable as to admit of being coiled round its own staff, uncoiled, and straightened again without breaking. It should be from 20in. to 2ft. in length, and should terminate in a conical socket to receive the shaft. The shaft should be of ash, hickory, or other strong and even-grained wood, 3in. in diameter, and generally about 5ft. long; though in one of full size it would be 6ft., and the iron part 3ft., making a total length of 9ft. A lanyard about 3ft. in length, and of 2-1/2in. rope, is attached to the shank by simply taking two turns of it tightly round the iron, and then returning and seizing the end down upon itself. The lanyard is "stopped" to the staff with spunyarn so tightly as to keep the point of the wood firmly pressed down into the iron socket under all ordinary circumstances, and in its farther end is spliced an eye, into which, when required for service, the line is hitched, the regular whale line being 2-1/2in. in circumference and 200 fathoms long; and when the whale is struck, and the line checked as the wounded animal darts away, the increased tension draws the staff from its socket, and it remains fast by the "stops" already mentioned to the lanyard, secure from being lost, and incapable by its leverage of loosening the hold of the barbed iron upon the flesh.

Many of the less frequented bays and harbours in our colonial possessions are frequented by whales and cetaceans of various kinds; and we have seen exciting chases even within the limits of the anchorage in Table Bay. The peculiar construction of the whale boat is well known. She is generally from 25ft. to 30ft. in length, 6ft. or 7ft. in breadth, and 2-1/2ft. or 3ft. deep, rising with a graceful sheer till the stem and stern would be from 4ft. to 5ft. high. She generally pulls five oars, the boat-steerer taking the bow, while the boat-header steers with a long oar or sweep, confined by a grummet to the stern-post. A tub, with the whale line coiled in it, is placed in the stern sheets; the harpoons, each properly sheathed, are hung in beckets in the bows, and near them are the lances. These are half-inch rods, 5ft. or 6ft. long, with one end flattened out to the shape and dimensions of the bowl of a large table-spoon, only that the narrow end is attached to the shank, while the broad one is forward, and is sharpened as the cutting edge. The other end of the iron has also a conical socket, in which a shaft of wood similar to that of the harpoon is fitted, making a weapon about 14ft. in length, to which is attached a lanyard of perhaps 20ft. to prevent its loss. The blades are also sheathed like those of the harpoons, not only to preserve their edge, but to prevent their accidentally cutting any of the crew; a broad-bladed knife is also kept handy in its sheath for the purpose of cutting the line should it be necessary.

Generally the whalers keep a man on watch upon some commanding height, or agree with the keeper of some signal station to hoist a private signal when a whale is in sight, and sometimes even to turn the advantage of his elevated position to account by signalising to the men in the boat the movements of the whale.

The end of the line is taken from its tub, led forward over the thwarts between the rowers, and bent on to the eye of the harpoon lanyard. As the boat approaches, the boat steerer lays in his oar and stands up, harpoon in hand, watching the most favourable moment to drive it with all his force, through skin and blubber, deep into the solid flesh, the boat sometimes actually touching the whale before the harpoon is launched. The oarsmen back the boat off as quickly as possible out of the reach of the sweeping tail, and the whale generally dives, then darts forward at full speed, sometimes below and sometimes at the surface of the water. The boat steerer now makes his way aft, and takes the steering oar, while the header goes forward and takes charge of the line. While the whale is strong it is allowed to run out, checked only by one turn round the bollard, while the boat is towed with almost alarming swiftness through the water; but as soon as he becomes weakened or slackens his speed another turn is taken, and the line checked as much as possible, or even hauled in, if it is safe to do so, water being freely used to keep the rope from burning when the line is running on the strain.

As soon as possible the boat is hauled close up to the whale, the long lances are thrust into his side, still further weakening him with wounds and loss of blood, until some vital organ is reached, and the condensed breath blown from his nostrils is crimsoned with his blood. Then the boat backs off till the death struggle is over, and the carcase of their mighty victim being taken in tow, is beached upon some convenient spot for cutting it up and trying down the blubber.

Of course the whale is towed head first, as in that position the involuntary action of the fins, moved by the ripple of the sea, helps the boatmen; while were they to attempt to tow him by the tail, the same action would not only neutralise all their efforts, but would most probably tow them in the opposite direction.

Few sailing vessels bound upon long voyages go to sea without a harpoon, a dolphin grains, and a shark hook; and the former is called into requisition whenever a shoal of porpoises are seen keeping way with the vessel, ever and anon letting her pass them, and then darting ahead to recover their position in advance. A rope, generally the end of the fore bowline, passing through its own block at the bowsprit end, is then bent on to the lanyard of the grains. One of the crew goes out on the martingale guys, and, having made a line fast about waist high to the martingale or dolphin striker, to give him a little additional support, stands watching the movement of the porpoises beneath. At length one comes directly under him, keeps the same course as the ship, and perhaps, for a moment, the same speed. He launches the grains, and, if his aim has been true, the porpoise is transfixed. The men at the inner part of the bowline haul on, and raise the victim clear of the water. The harpooner seizes the end of a rope previously laid near him, and passing it round the harpoon line quickly ties in it a running bowline knot. This he passes over the head of the porpoise, and tightens it at the juncture of the body with the tail; and not till then does he consider his prize secure. Of course in this case the sport, the trial of skill, the opportunity for displaying quickness of eye and skill in the management of the weapon, is the chief inducement; yet the capture is not without its value. The flesh of the warm-blooded porpoise is in reality fresh meat, and is sold as such among the lower classes in many foreign ports. Several gallons of oil may be obtained from one of moderate size, and the skin furnishes good tough leather for making thongs, or covering any portion of the rigging that needs serving with raw hide. Long narrow strips of the fish, when carefully cut out with a sharp knife, make a kind of porpoise biltong; this, when thoroughly aired by laying it in the sun, makes a fair kind of food. A kind of rissole is also made from the solid portions of the fish; these are cut into mincemeat, formed into balls of suitable size, and then fried. Steaks are also to be extemporised from the best cuts.

The hippopotamus harpoon of the Zambesi differs considerably from that just described. The iron is only 6in. or 8in. long, with a small barb at one end and a spike in the other, to stick loosely into a staff of light wood 2in. thick and about 5ft. long. The iron has a kind of knob or thickening in the centre to serve as a catch for the line, which is knotted round it. The line is about the thickness of a small lead line. It is very neatly and firmly twisted by hand from the fibres of plants and shrubs bordering the river, and is coiled tightly and evenly round the staff of the harpoon from end to end, so as to increase its thickness, and make it as large as can conveniently be grasped in the hand. The end of the line is securely stopped to the staff, which is secured from splitting by being bound round with small cord, with a kind of Turk's-head knot turned upon the end that receives the iron.

The hippopotami live in families or small herds of from half a dozen to twenty each, basking upon the sandbanks in the tropic sun, bathing in the depths and raising their clumsy-looking equine heads above the surface to look out, or taking nightly walks for miles into the country to crop the herbage of some favourite spot. Taking advantage of the prowling habits of the animal, the natives construct in his path or run, a harpoon trap or drop. The full-page illustration will serve to show the manner in which this contrivance is arranged. The instant the ground cord is detached from its hold by the advancing foot of the hippopotamus, the heavy beam holding the barbed iron drops with tremendous force, and fixes the spear-head deeply in the flesh beneath the tough skin of the victim, who rarely escapes with his life. A general hippopotamus hunt is not unfrequently undertaken, which is conducted as follows: The natives, having decided which herd they intend to attack, muster about half a dozen canoes, each carrying two men--a harpooner and a paddler; they close gradually and cautiously round the herd, and deliberately select their victim; closer and closer they draw in, till, as the semicircle of canoes narrows round them, the animals exhibit first curiosity and then alarm, and extreme caution is necessary to avoid so terrifying them as to make them break the line and take to flight instead of gazing at the advancing boats. When the animals dive, the canoes come on; when they rise or appear much alarmed, they stop, or approach but slowly. At length a fortunate harpooner finds himself near an animal; the hippopotamus dives, the canoe perhaps gains another length and is close upon him; when he again rises, the harpooner stands erect and next to naked, like a magnificent statue, in the bow, his upraised right hand grasping the harpoon, and his left a paddle, every muscle of his body as rigid and immovable as if he were in reality of bronze. The hippopotamus eyes him suspiciously; he seems to know that danger threatens him; but, like a cunning fencer, he waits the moment of the blow, and will not expose himself by prematurely attempting to avoid it. His instinct, however, is no match for the cunning of his enemies; the harpooner makes a feint of striking with the paddle; the animal starts aside to avoid the expected blow; and as he does so the hunter delivers the harpoon with all his force. The small barb penetrates the tough thick skin, and no power can draw it out again; the line uncoils; the light staff, sometimes even with a bladder attached, floats behind to mark his track; the wounded animal finds no rest; other harpoons are delivered; and as he becomes wearied with exertion, pain, terror, and irritation, opportunities are found to thrust at him with broad-bladed spears until he sinks beneath his wounds and dies.

The harpoon of Lake Ngami and the B[=o]-tlét-l[=e] River differs from that of the Zambesi, and more nearly resembles our own, except that, as iron is scarce and valuable, the head is still a mere spike, barbed at one end and pointed at the other, for insertion in a heavy beam of mimosa or kameel-doorn. The iron draws from the staff as soon as the barb pierces the thick hide, and the animal springs forward in its efforts to escape; but it is attached to the staff, not by a long line like the Zambesian, but by a short skein of twenty or thirty small cords of mimosa bark loosely twisted together, firmly seized or lashed to the iron at one end and to the staff at the other, and slightly stopped to it in the middle, still further to prevent any risk of fouling. The staff is of wood too heavy to float; a hole is bored in the upper end, and a short loop of strong rope woven or twisted into it, and to this loop is bent on the end of a stout rope of twisted palm leaves, which serves as the harpoon line, and is kept in the canoe, paid out or hauled in again like ours, and has beside the advantage of being so light that, even were the hunter to let go the end, it would float upon the surface, and eventually lead to the discovery of the animal. In consequence of this arrangement the chase of the hippopotamus nearly resembles that of the whale, differing chiefly in the fact that it is carried on in a freshwater river or a shallow lake, instead of the sea. When hippopotamus hunting on Lake Ngami the canoes approach with the same caution as those on the Zambesi, until the harpooner finds an opportunity to strike; then, when the wounded animal darts away, the canoe men hold on to the line, slacking it out when they are obliged, and gathering in as much as possible at every opportunity, and endeavouring to haul alongside as soon as they notice the first symptoms of fatigue, and use the formidable spear they carry for this especial service. This is, however, a task of difficulty and danger, for the irritated animal may turn and crush a tolerably large canoe in his tremendous jaws, and has been known, although not carnivorous, completely to sever the body of a man; more frequently, however, as the natives dexterously avoid his charge, he champs the staff of the harpoon, and endeavours to bite through the skein which connects it with the iron in his side. Were this a single rope he would soon liberate himself, but the small cords become entangled between his teeth, and, though he may cut through a few of them, others are sure to remain strong enough to hold him. Many canoes join in the chase, annoy him on every side, bewilder and weary him, and drive him at length into shallow water, where the hunters, carrying the line ashore, catch a turn round the nearest tree, yielding a little if his strength appears yet sufficient to tear out the barb, but always gathering it in as the assailants, some in canoes and others wading in the shallows, drive him nearer and nearer to the shore, inflicting wound after wound with their broad-bladed spears, till, spouting blood from his nostrils like a whale in its mortal agony, he ceases to resist, and becomes the prize of the hunters.

The carcase of an animal like this is indeed a valuable acquisition; the flesh of even a moderate-sized one is at least equal to that of three oxen, even after allowing for the wasteful manner in which wild flesh is generally consumed. His hide, 2in. in thickness on the neck and withers, is excellent as food, or profitable as an article of barter with the colonists, who make the great "agter zambocs," or whips for the after oxen of their waggon teams; while the tusks, which will frequently weigh 6lb. or 7lb. each, and sometimes more, are, or used recently to be, worth about 18s. per pound in London, though, since the introduction of mineral compositions for dental purposes, we believe the value of "Zeekoë" ivory has much declined.

The natives of Australia use spears of considerable length, varying from 10ft. to 12ft., and are also remarkable for the great distance to which they can throw them, attaining in some instances, we have been assured, to a distance of 270 yards, a range for which they are indebted to the use of the womera or throwing stick, an instrument that assumes different forms among various tribes, though its principle is the same in all. Those we had an opportunity of seeing in North Australia were rather narrow boards, 3in. wide, and little more than 1/2in. thick, so cut as to be conveniently grasped, and tapering from the handle till they were barely 3/4in. wide at the point, on which a little reverted piece of bone about the size of a cock's spur was affixed with gum and lashings of vegetable fibre, and the point of this just fitted a corresponding indentation in the end of the spear shaft.

The womera is about 30in. in length, and is held in the right hand, the forefinger of which sometimes grasps the spear also, to steady it until the moment before it is thrown, while the left hand supports the centre of the shaft, prevents the weight from depressing the point, and steadies and directs the aim.

The advantage gained by the use of the womera will be readily understood by anyone who will remember that the length of stroke is an important element in estimating the power of a steam engine. Suppose the length of a man's arm, from collar-bone to fist, to be 3ft., and the chord of the arc through which he is able to swing his body in the act of throwing 4ft., we shall have 10ft. as the length of his stroke; and if we add to this double the length of the womera, or 5ft., we shall find that he is able to apply propelling force to the weapon while it is passing through 15ft. of space, an advantage which naturally exhibits its corresponding effect in the increase of range. The spear point is generally charred to harden it.

The boomerang, a weapon whose apparently mysterious property of coming back to the hand that has thrown it, must be now much better understood in England than it was before the arrival of the Australian cricketers. It is a thin blade of wood, curved either sabre-like in the segment of a circle, or bent in the centre at an obtuse angle. But its peculiar property is that, owing to a slight twist or change in the plane of surface on either side the centre, it becomes in reality a segment of one turn in the flange of a screw of exceedingly small pitch, and if its length were indefinitely increased it would assume the form of the spiral springs used in candle lamps, or in the well known toy of Jack-in-the-box; and supposing a small segment of one turn cut from the wire of such a spring and flattened, without altering either its circumferential or its spiral curve, we should have an exact representation of the boomerang. Little more need be said of this weapon, as no one but a native could ever hope to use it effectively.

{Turtle spears.}

A very simple form of harpoon is used for spearing turtle by some Australians we fell in with near the Goulburu Islands. They had evidently been alongside European ships, and it was probably from this source that they had acquired the essential part of their harpoon--an iron spike about 6in. long, and pointed at both ends. To this was fastened a small line, which was also stopped to the staff--a light pole about 8ft. long--the remainder of the line being held loosely coiled in the hand. Sometimes the Australians use their paddle as a spear by having the blade end sharpened, barbed, and hardened.