CHAPTER XVI

HOME

We left on Sunday (20th), intending to call at Madeira, but the north-east trades proving too much for the _Quest_ I adopted the sailing ship route and proceeded “full and by” in the direction of the Azores. Conditions were now more pleasant than we had had them since setting out from England at the commencement of our enterprise. The weather became daily cooler and the air fresher. The winds blew the dust and ashes away to leeward, and we were able to have a clean ship.

It was quite like the old days, the young, happy days of those fine old clipper ships of Messrs. Devitt and Moore:

Beating up for the western isles Close hauled in the north-east trades.

Early in the morning of September 3rd we picked up the Azores, and about 5 P.M. entered the harbour of Ponta del Gada, in San Miguel. I was anxious to give the hull a coating of paint, but as it was Sunday, and a feast day, there was no hope of any work being done.

We stayed two days, the only incident of interest being a visit to the United States ship _Wilmington_, which had put in here with a broken crank shaft on her way home from Shanghai. The captain and some of his officers, in turn, visited us.

Our work done, we set out, and on a perfect evening proceeded along the coast of the island, which is very picturesque. The land is terraced, and there is evidently a considerable amount of intensive cultivation. Pretty little villages nestle in its hollows, and windmills are dotted all about the hills. The _Quest_ proceeded smoothly. The sea was calm, and in the still air of this lovely summer evening one felt that nothing could be more perfect and that one could go on and on for ever. We had had so much bad weather and our trip throughout had been so arduous that we felt this respite all the more.

I had hoped on leaving the Azores to run immediately into westerly winds, but for some days we had light north-easters. The wind finally came round to north-west and blew up strongly on our beam. The ocean gathered itself up for one more fling at us, but it was but a half-hearted one; we were homeward bound, and what did we care? In a few days we should be in England, and though I have experienced many goings and comings since those unforgettable first ones, the parting never seems to lose its hurt nor the home-coming its thrill.

God gave all men all earth to love, But since our hearts are small, Ordained for each one spot should prove Beloved over all;... —KIPLING.

On September 16th we entered Plymouth Sound and anchored in Cawsand Bay. As was fitting, the first man to join the ship was Mr. Rowett, who gave us the warmest of welcomes home. He was very interested in all I had to tell him, but was deeply touched when I spoke of our old “Boss” whom we had left “down there.”

So we returned, quietly, as was befitting. My task when the leadership fell on my shoulders was to “carry on.” This, with the aid of the men who gave me their unquestioning obedience and showed unswerving loyalty, I was able to do. It gave me great pleasure when Mr. Rowett, whose support and co-operation alone made the expedition possible, said, “Old man, you’ve done splendidly!”

We had made observations and brought back a mass of data gathered through long days of hardship and bitter toil, and I hope, when all is sorted and fully worked up, that our efforts may prove of value in helping to solve the great natural problems that still perplex us.

I have taken part in five expeditions to the Antarctic, and though I think that my work there is done, I shall never cease to feel glad that it has fallen to my lot to pioneer and guide the groping fingers of Knowledge on the white edges of the world.

APPENDIX 1

GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, by G. VIBERT DOUGLAS, M.C., M.Sc., Geologist to the Expedition.

As planned by the late Sir Ernest H. Shackleton the voyage of the _Quest_ to Southern Regions was intended to explore the coast from Enderby Land westwards to Coats Land, a length of approximately 2,500 miles. On the routes to and from this main objective it was his intention to call at many seldom-visited islands in the Atlantic, Southern, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

A part of the second objective was attained, and the reader who desires to learn of the detailed geological results of the expedition is asked to consult the full scientific report which is now being prepared, and which, by the courtesy of the authorities of the British Museum of Natural History, is to be published as one of their Memoirs. It is the purpose of the writer in these notes to give an outline of the general geology of the islands which were visited. The names given to the rocks are only field terms, as no microscopic examination has been made up to the present.

_Methods Employed_

It was found to be seldom possible to do accurate and close geological mapping, owing to the limited time that was available for work ashore. Maps of the areas had to be made, as those of the Admiralty are of too small a scale to do more than provide a skeleton upon which the larger scale sketches can be based. The sketches were generally the result of a rapid reconnaissance with plane table or compass and pace, or in some cases simply a freehand sketch from the summit of a ridge.

Wherever possible hand specimens were collected and the general geological associations noted.

The order in which the following islands are described is not that in which they were visited, but they are grouped as follows:

{ South Georgia (68) Islands of the Southern Ocean { Elephant Island (1) { Zavodovski, South Sandwich Gp. (0)

{ Gough Island (5) { Tristan da Cunha (2½) Islands of the South Atlantic Ocean { Nightingale (1) { Middle (1) { Stoltenhoff (0) { Inaccessible (1)

{ St. Paul’s Rocks (½) { Saõ Miguel Açores, St. Islands of the Mid-Atlantic { Vincent (Cape Verdes) (3) { Ascension (3) { St. Helena (1)

(The numbers in brackets refer to the days spent ashore.)

ISLANDS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN

SOUTH GEORGIA.—_Lat. 54° S. Long. 37° W._

_Topography_

This island is about 116 miles long by 20 miles wide, with the longer axis lying in a general N.W. and S.E. direction. It has the appearance of an upland dissected by cirque recession and enlargement. The highest peak, Mount Paget, which is an isolated remnant of the upland, is about 8,000 feet high.

The average peaks in the comb ridges are about 2,000 feet, and the average level of the interior would be placed by the writer as about 600 feet above sea level. The glacial valleys run in general across the longer axis and are separated from each other by comb ridges. The majority of the glaciers show signs of withdrawal. At the N.W. end of the island many of the valleys are free of ice altogether.

One interesting investigation was carried out at Royal Bay, where the Ross Glacier comes down to the sea. The position of the foot of the glacier relative to the shore was first measured by the Gauss Expedition of 1882, then again by Nordenskjold in 1902, and then by the members of the _Quest_ in 1922.

These measurements show this interesting fact—that there was an advance of the foot of over 4,000 feet during the period 1882 to 1902, and that now it is back in the position of 1882. It is suggested that this does not indicate any general advance or withdrawal, but rather that the glacier, which is operating, to use an hydraulic term, under a high head is being forced out to sea where the foot is afloat. It will continue to advance until the effect of the rollers on the floating mass of ice overcomes the tensile strength of the ice and it breaks away. If we assume that twenty (20) years represent this period (it may be a multiple of a smaller period), then this gives an advance per year of about two hundred and twenty (220) feet.

_Geology_

From Cooper Bay to Bird Island the rocks seen by the writer were of sedimentary origin. They are of the nature of grits, tuffs and phyllites. To the east of Cooper Bay the rocks are igneous. The basement is of a basic nature, with flows, at least two in number, over it. Back from Cooper Bay, and just east of the contact with the sediments, there is a small stock of a more acid rock, which has been called a syenite.

A provisional table is here drawn up to show the relative age relations, with the more recent at the top:

AT LARSEN HARBOUR

Epidosite } Spilite } Doleritic dykes cutting these. Gabbro }

NORTH-WEST OF DRYGALSKI FJORD

Quartz diorite stock Gabbro Complex system of dykes.

_Tectonic Movements_

The sedimentary rocks have been subject to considerable folding and faulting. From the direction of the folds and the general trend of the line of schistosity it would appear that the pressure had come from the S.S.W. or N.N.E.

_Age_

A few fossils of a very indefinite character were obtained, and are now being worked out.[16] Provisionally it may be said that one, a fossil plant probably of the Araucaria type, points to an age not older than lower carboniferous.

ELEPHANT ISLAND.—_Lat. 61° S. Long. 55° W._

This is one of the easterly islands in the Powell group of the South Shetlands, and was only landed on at two points, Lookout Harbour and Minstrel Bay.

_Topography_

The features of Elephant Island probably are similar to what those of South Georgia were before the intense glacial erosion sculptured the island as already described.

It is a plateau 300 feet at the rim, but rising gently towards the interior. It appeared to be covered by an ice sheet, and the same may be said of Clarence Island, which lies a few miles to the eastward; only in the latter case there was a definite cliff of ice visible above the rock face.

The glaciers were more of the hanging than of the valley type. Especially was this so on the west coast.

_Geology_

The rock specimens collected and the little mapping which was done indicate that the island is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks which have been much metamorphosed. Phyllites predominated, but various schists, slates and banded limestones were also seen.

ZAVODOVSKI.—_Lat. 56° S. Long. 27° W._

This island, the most northerly in the South Sandwich group, was not landed on by the members of the _Quest_, and the following observations from the ship must be considered only probable and in no way certain.

The island is of volcanic origin, rising as a cone from the sea. The upper levels were not seen by us, but the height of the summit is given by Bellingshausen as 1,200 feet. The cliff rises vertically from the sea about 40 feet, and then there is a long, gentle slope gradually getting steeper.

The lava flows seen on the cliff face appeared to consist of a compact columnar basalt at the base. Above there was a line of red cinder, and above this again what looked to be rough pahoehoe lava. A number of clefts and vents were seen on the face of the cliff, and from these there issued bluish fumes.

Soundings with the Kelvin were taken every half-mile or so, and the material collected corresponds with the basalts and cinder mentioned.

It was unfortunate that we were unable to visit the other islands in this group, for with the exception of the scanty reports of Bellingshausen, C. A. Larsen and a German expedition, the geology and natural history are practically unknown, and the existing charts are not by any means complete.

PETROLOGICAL REPORT, by W. CAMPBELL SMITH, M.C., M.A., British Museum of Natural History.

Rock fragments washed from material dredged at 19 fathoms off Zavodovski, South Sandwich group, 20/1/22.

The sample consisted of a few grammes of rounded black pellets varying in diameter from 1 to 5 mm. They consisted of the following:

Ten dense black glassy basalts. All appear free of olivine. Some are crowded with minute laths of plagioclase; others contain fewer minute laths but show a few small phenocrysts of plagioclase, or of augite, or both.

Four dense dark-brown glassy olivine-basalts, some containing many crystals of plagioclase, and a few crystals of olivine and augite. The glass is crowded densely with magnetite and sometimes with other undetermined microliths.

Four rather paler basalts with holocrystalline-porphyritic texture. These contain very small phenocrysts of plagioclase and sometimes of augite, in a ground mass of very minute laths of felspar and grains of augite and magnetite. The texture of the ground mass is intergranular. One of the specimens contained no augite phenocrysts, but rather numerous microphenocrysts of magnetite.

Two small fragments of pale basalt-glass, deep olive-buff in colour. Microliths are absent in one specimen, but they are abundant in the other and consist of small laths of plagioclase, and minute prisms of augite and a few crystals of what is probably olivine. The felspar laths gave extinction angles of 15°, but only a very few measurements could be made. This material resembles the pale patches of glass in the palagonite tuffs of Sicily and of Kerguelen Land,[17] and a somewhat similar though darker coloured rock has been described from Schwartzenfels Hesse as vitrophyric basalt, and has been elegantly figured by Berwerth.[18]

ISLANDS OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

GOUGH ISLAND.—_Lat. 40° S. Long. 10° W._

Gough Island lies roughly 200 miles south of the Tristan da Cunha group. It is 8 miles long by 3 miles wide.

_Topography_

The island forms a monoclinal block with dip slopes to the west and escarpments to the east. The highest point on the long ridge which runs down the longer axis of the island is about 2,915 feet above sea level.

The west side of the ridge goes down in a long slope to the cliffs bordering the sea.

The escarpments on the east side are cut by three or four glens. The largest one, about half-way down the coast, gives access to the interior.

The most striking feature, looking up the glen, is the great stock of an acid intrusive rock, which rises to 2,270 feet. It can best be described in the words of Scott:

“Shooting abruptly from the dell Its thunder splintered pinnacle.”

_Geology_

The island is the result of a series of fissure flows of a basaltic and trachytic nature. These flows have been intruded by the stock just mentioned above, and many fissures were opened by it. These have subsequently been filled by dykes. The rock forming the dykes is very hard, with the result that they are now a very prominent feature, and stand up in some cases about 50 feet above the surrounding country. This is due, of course, to differential weathering.

It is probable that the east coast represents a fault plane, but as the erosion has been great, direct evidence is wanting. Apart from this fault no faulting nor folding was observed.

TRISTAN DA CUNHA.—_Lat. 37° S. Long. 12° W._

_Topography_

Tristan is an island octagonal in plan, about 8 miles across. It rises as a prism for about 2,000 feet, and then tapers off as a cone to about 6,400 feet above sea level. The crater is now filled with water, and at that level is about 200 feet across. The rainfall on the upper slopes is very great, and they are deeply eroded. At the foot of the cliff, on the northern shore, there is a gently sloping lava plain, upon which the settlement is situated. In extent it is about 3½ miles long by half a mile wide. About midway between the extremities there are a few small craters rising above the plain. The plain is grass clothed, and the upper slopes are covered in moss, bracken and scrub trees. This vegetation continues up to about 4,000 feet, above which point the rocks are bare.

_Geology_

The island consists of a great series of lava flows which have poured from the volcano, and are of the nature of scoriæ, cinder, trachyte and basalt in succeeding and alternating layers. As is so common on these volcanic islands, the lower lava is generally a hard, compact basalt showing rough columnar structure.

Only one section was observed, which is placed below, but there is good reason to believe that to the west, in the neighbourhood of Swain Bay, more complex conditions exist, as many samples of bombs of a rock carrying large crystals of felspar and hornblende and other coarse grained rocks were given to the writer by some of the islanders, who stated that they came from this locality.

Preliminary note by W. Campbell Smith, M.C., M.A., on the samples given by islanders at Tristan da Cunha and reported to have come from the neighbourhood of Swain Bay. The specimens can be grouped in four types:

(1) Rocks with felspar almost _nil_. Probably consist mainly hornblende and pyroxene, with perhaps some olivine, apatite and magnetite.

(2) Rocks with a little felspar and characterized by large poikilitic plates of hornblende. These contain abundant pyroxene, and some olivine, apatite and magnetite.

(3) Rocks with long, thin blades of hornblende in a fine-grained matrix of labradorite, and with some patches of black “glass” and abundant minute prisms of apatite. In hand specimens these look like dyke-rocks, but I think the texture and the patches of magnetite show that they are segregations.

(4) Coarse-grained rocks with perhaps more felspar than hornblende. Hornblende in large crystals in a matrix of labradorite. The texture is coarser than in the preceding type. Felspars reach 2 or 3 mm. in diameter. The hornblende includes some small crystals of yellow pyroxene. Apatite and magnetite are given abundant.

All four types appear to be closely inter-related. They contain the same minerals in varying proportions and probably grade one into the other.

The obsidian and the pieces of red glass are basalt glass, and are probably similar to the specimen described by Renard in the Report on the _Challenger_ Collection, p. 82. He states that the inhabitants use the rock for striking fire.

OBSERVED SECTION FROM THE PEAK TO HERALD POINT

_Elevations._ _Rock provisionally named._ _Remarks._

FEET

6,400 Scoriæ and vesicular basalt. Forming summit. 6,200-5,700 Loose scoriæ and bombs. Crater cone. 5,700-5,500 Basalt. 5,000-4,550 Trachy-basalt. 4,400 Vesicular basalt. 4,300 Trachytic agglomerate. 4,250 Compact basalt. 4,150 Red scoriæ. 3,950 Basalt. 3,750 Scoriæ. 3,600 Scoriæ and basalt. A contact. 3,520 Basalt and scoriæ. A contact. 3,420 Scoriæ and basalt. A contact. 3,220 Grey basalt. (Break in the observations). 1,200 Basalt and scoriæ. A contact. (Break in the observations). {This rock is used for 225 Basalt. { building the dwellings { by the inhabitants. 223 Cinder. 222 Scoriæ. 220 Tuff. 216 Agglomerate.

To sea Compact basalt. Rough columnar level. structure.

A number of vapour vents were observed at different points.

It is apparent that the small craters mentioned above as existing on the settlement plain sprang up after the main period of eruption when the island was built.

To the west and about 22 miles from Tristan there are the four islands—Nightingale, Middle, Stoltenhoff and Inaccessible.

NIGHTINGALE

_Topography_

This island, which is the most southerly of the group, is rectangular in plan, one mile by three-quarters. High cliffs bound the south, east and west sides. The northern slopes descend gradually to the sea, where they terminate in cliffs about 30 feet high.

The highest point is on the east side of the island, and is about 1,000 feet above sea level. It is connected by a low featured col to the high land to the south-west. To the west, that is, towards the interior of the island, there is a depressed area which now has a small pond in it. It is probable that this was once the crater from which the lavas issued.

_Geology_

One day only was available for work on this island, and orders were that the supposed guano deposits which were reported at the north side were to be examined. These deposits are of no economic value, and an analysis is here appended.

_Certificate of Analysis._

Ogston and Moore, Analytical Chemists, 89 Aldgate, London. July 28, 1922.

_Guano from Nightingale Island._

Moisture 72.12 Organic matter and ammonia salts 24.70 Phosphoric acid _nil_ Lime _nil_ Magnesia, alkalies, etc. 1.60 Silicious matter 1.58 ------ 100.00 ======

_Guano from Cave on Middle Island._

Moisture 17.00 Organic matter and ammonia salts 15.15 Phosphoric acid 3.85 Lime 5.10 Magnesia, alkalies, etc. 10.20 Silicious matter 48.70 ------ 100.00 ======

The rocks, however, appeared to be in general of a trachytic nature.

MIDDLE ISLAND

_Topography_

Middle Island lies less than half a mile to the north of Nightingale. It is in plan about a quarter of a mile square, and rises to a height of about 200 feet. It is flat-topped, with minor depressions.

_Geology_

There have been questions asked as to the origin of Middle Island, and to the writer, who had this in mind when visiting the island, the following were the reasons for its existence.

The trachytic flows from Nightingale probably extended at one time about a mile farther to the north than the present northern shore of Nightingale. This is evidenced by the trachytic agglomerate and trachyte seen on Middle. Following this there was an effusion of a hard, compact lava from a neck which exists on the latter island. The border of the neck is marked by a breccia. The dykes emanating from this lava are not seen on Nightingale, but some of the rocks which infest the channel between the islands are probably their eroded remains. The action of the sea on the mass of altered trachyte between Middle and Nightingale Islands has in the course of time cut a channel through.

STOLTENHOFF

It is not possible to land on this island, as it rises sheer from the sea to about 200 feet. It is flat-topped, and in area about 500 yards by 150 yards. The rock of which it is composed appears to be of a trachytic nature, and may be the northern limit of the flow’s from Nightingale, which have already been mentioned; it may, however, be a centre of activity, such as is described as existing on Middle Island.

INACCESSIBLE ISLAND

_Topography_

Eleven miles to the N.N.W. from Stoltenhoff is this island, which is the most northerly one of the group. In plan it is pear-shaped, being about 3 miles by 2½.

In its general features it is a basin, being a great caldera, the south-east side of which has been blown out. A cone rises to about 1,500 feet towards the north-east of the depressed central area. The interior is broken country clothed in verdure, and on account of the high rim, which affords protection from the winds, would be suitable for human habitation. A stream winds through the interior, finally falling in a beautiful cascade to the beach at the north-east shore, where a landing is easily made if the wind is not from the north.

_Geology_

The central cone is a mass of scoriæ, and the section from here to the sea near the waterfall shows that there have been successive flows of basalt and trachyte. The high cliffs to the west of the landing are cut by a series of parallel dykes, which are an outstanding feature.

ISLANDS OF THE MID-ATLANTIC OCEAN

THE ST. PAUL’S ROCKS

These lie just north of the equator, almost midway between Africa and Brazil. These rocks are almost unique in occurrence, for, as Charles Darwin remarks in his journal, “Its mineralogical constitution is not simple.... It is a remarkable fact that all the many small islands, lying far from any continent, with the exception of the Seychelles and this little point of rock, are composed either of coral or erupted matter.”

The St. Paul’s Rocks are a group of eight or nine small rocky islands, the largest of which is only about 350 feet long by 150 feet wide. This island and the most northerly were the only ones where a landing was effected.

The whole of the southerly portion of the main island is composed of a highly weathered rock which has thin veinlets of serpentine cutting through it. Running in a north and south direction, and in places dragged and folded and cutting this formation, there is a dyke, which stands up prominently from the main country rock. About 30 yards to the east the rock is cut by a series of irregular interlacing narrow dykes having the appearance of old concrete. The ground mass is hard and to the eye amorphous. It contains rounded pebbles and possibly shell remains.

Towards the centre of the main island the rock formation changes abruptly to a compact glassy green rock, probably a peridotite. It has developed a jointing, and but for the conglomerate forms the remainder of the island and possibly the other islands as well, because the country rock on the north island is of a similar nature.

Along the inside of the central basin at two points there occurs a conglomerate—pebbles ranging from 3 inches in diameter to a fraction of an inch cemented in a matrix.

Towards the north end there is a fault which crosses the island in a N.W. and S.E. direction, and parallel to which there is a dark, rusty dyke.

In two or three places on the main island, one of which is near this fault, there are small pot holes. There was a rounded boulder in each, and probably, as the sea comes swirling in at high tide, a rotary motion is given to the boulder and the pot hole develops.

The general formation of the islands might be described as a stock of glassy peridotite which has risen from the bed of the ocean and of which only the highest points are now visible.

SAÕ MIGUEL AÇORES, ST. VINCENT (CAPE VERDE), ASCENSION AND ST. HELENA

The above islands were called at and examined, but as the geology has already been described by others who had more time at their disposal, no new light was thrown on them. The visits, however, were valuable in that they will enable the writer to compare the conditions existing at these places with the seldom visited islands already above described.

DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS

In collaboration with the hydrographer, material from the sea floor was obtained by soundings in various localities. This material is being examined microscopically, and its physical properties are being determined (specific gravity, gradation of sizes, radioactivity, etc.).

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

The general reader is reminded that the geological observations recorded here are in no way complete. Much detailed work is necessary on these various islands before the full record can be written. Nature has laid open the story of her history to the careful investigator, but from the casual one she withholds the deeper meaning.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes in conclusion to thank the following for their hearty co-operation, which made the above results possible:

Capt. G. H. Wilkins, M.C., F.R.G.S. Major C. R. Carr, D.F.C. Messrs. Dell, Argles and Marr.

The work at South Georgia would have been impossible but for the kind assistance of the managers of the whaling companies:

The De Pesca Company, of Buenos Aires The Southern Whaling Company (Lever Bros.) The Tönsberg Company, of Norway The Westfahl Company, of Norway The Salvesen Company, of Leith, Scotland

The excellent surveying instruments which were so kindly lent by Messrs. Troughton and Simms proved invaluable under all conditions.

Thanks are specially due to Mr. John Quiller Rowett, LL.D., without whose generous support the expedition would have been impossible.

APPENDIX II

NATURAL HISTORY

Soon after leaving England numbers of landbirds were seen about the ship. In position lat. 43° 52´ S. and 11° 51´ W. long, we saw a heron passing overhead, steering in a S.S.E. direction towards the northern coast of Africa. After leaving Lisbon on the way to Madeira, numbers of robins, wrens, doves, larks and sparrows flew aboard in an exhausted condition. They were captured, measured and their colourings noted, afterwards given food and water, and allowed to go free. One dove that came near the ship was so exhausted that it fell several times into the sea, which was very choppy. We expected it to drown, but on each occasion it rose from the break of the wave and finally settled on the topsail yard, where it rested and dried itself, and finally set off with renewed vigour in the direction of land. Mother Carey’s Chickens joined us soon after our start, and we were rarely without them throughout the voyage.

At St. Vincent we collected specimens of vultures, mostly black or dark brown, but some were white with black markings. A few crows, larks and other small birds were seen. A white owl was presented to the naturalist by one of the residents. The species is not common to the island, but is reported to have been seen after high winds blowing from the mainland.

In latitude 60° 26´ N. we were surrounded by a particularly large school of porpoises, and secured one by harpooning it from the bowsprit. It was a male, 7 feet 7 inches in length, and the stomach contained the remains of 5 squids and 114 octopus beaks.

We visited St. Paul’s Rocks on November 8th, when two species of birds were found to be nesting: the Noddy Tern and the Booby. The Noddy Tern (_Anous stolidus_) is shy, and few except those with young remained on the island. We collected some of their eggs, many of them addled. The young were almost fully fledged, but each was attended by the parent bird, which stayed to defend it. These birds varied largely in colourings, chiefly in the degrees of white and lavender grey of the forehead and back of the neck, the lighter phase being the more common. Nests were built roughly to a height of from 12 to 15 cm., and composed largely of seaweed and guano. Built-up nests predominated, but several eggs and young were found in depressions in the broken rocks. The Brown Gannet, or Booby (_Sula leucogastra_), is so called from its stupid expression. The nests consisted of rocks, a few feathers and guano, or merely depressions in the rock. We collected some eggs and several young ones in all stages, from one which was newly hatched, without down or feathers and eyes closed, to those which were almost fully fledged. The nests are so set in the irregular and sloping surfaces that the birds continually foul each other, the young especially becoming very filthy in this way. They live largely, if not entirely, on flying fish, and gorge themselves so heavily with them that when taking flight on our going amongst them each bird disgorged one, two or three fish in different stages of digestion.

Crabs abound on the rocks. They are very active and nimble, and at the approach of man scramble into crevices. They are able to jump, and on several occasions were seen to gather their legs under them and leap squarely forward a distance of two or three feet. Some grow to large size and develop powerful claws, but apparently they make no attempt to seize the birds, the chicks or the eggs. When the adult bird disgorged on rising, the crabs hastened to seize the flying fish, and, tearing them to pieces, crammed them voraciously into their jaws. There is a lagoon in the middle of the rocks, the floor of which is covered with marine plants of many varieties, whilst fish swim to and fro in great numbers. Sharks, varying in length from four to eight feet, swarmed in it, and we harpooned several. The stomachs of most of them were empty, and the others contained only a few squids. A full description of the fish of St. Paul’s Rocks will be found elsewhere. Numerous specimens of all species were taken from the rocks and preserved for sending to the museums.

We left Rio de Janeiro on January 18th for South Georgia. During this part of the journey we were followed by stormy petrels, Wilson petrels, wandering albatross, mollymauks, Cape pigeons, Cape hens, sooty albatross, and saw several terns. As we neared the island we observed penguins, skua gulls and giant petrels, and, as we passed along the coast, prions, diving petrels and dominican gulls.

The whaling stations of South Georgia are visited by many varieties of seabirds, which congregate there in hundreds of thousands for the offal which finds its way into the sea. By acting as scavengers they serve a very useful purpose. Cape pigeons thickly cover the water for hundreds of square yards and present a really extraordinary sight. They chatter and squabble incessantly. Terns flit gracefully about, never settling on the water, but making occasional short dives for morsels. Wilson petrels flit like fairies over the surface, their feet touching, but their bodies never entering the sea. Dominican gulls, skua gulls, mollymauks and giant petrels also come about in hundreds, for there is food in abundance in the harbours.

There are about twenty-four species of birds in South Georgia, including a wagtail (_Anthus antarcticus_), which is found on the lower slopes of the island about the beaches. The Wandering Albatross (_Diomedea exulans_) is the most stately and graceful of all flying birds, yet when seen ashore or at close range has a curiously foolish expression. It nests on the grassy promontories of the main island and on some of the smaller outlying islets. The nests are pyramidal mounds composed of tussock grass, mud and a few feathers. The hen lays one egg, which the parent birds take turns in incubating. The chicks are pretty white fluffy things, which later take on a brown adult plumage. As the bird increases in size so the brown colouring gives way to a white phase, the very old ones being almost entirely white. The nesting season commences about the middle of January. Wilkins observed that inter-mating took place between birds of neighbouring nests, a male bird wandering off to visit an already mated female. This usually took place when the husband bird was out at sea in search of food, but occasionally it was observed that the apparently true mate would appear on the scene, and, discovering the intruder, would show fight, and a battle would ensue. This, however, was never a serious matter, and was mainly an exhibition of side-stepping, feints and vicious snaps of the beaks, but the combatants rarely came to real pecking or blows. The female looked on and kept up a chattering noise with the bill whilst the fight lasted. Only once was a female seen to leave nest and egg unprotected. In a moment a skua had swept down and thrust his beak into the egg. The albatross does not nest on the north-east coast of South Georgia farther south than Possession Bay.

The Sooty Albatross (_Phœbetria palpebrata_) rivals, or even excels the “Wanderer” in gracefulness of flight. It is not very common in South Georgia, those found being at isolated points on the north-western coast.

The Blackbrowed Albatross, or Mollymauk, is found in two varieties (_Thalassogeron melanophrys_ and _T. chrysostoma_). They are found breeding at the north-western end and on the neighbouring islets. Numbers of the former are common; of the latter, rare. Wilkins discovered a nest and egg, and succeeded in obtaining specimens—the first to be collected. He also cinematographed the bird on its nest. The newly hatched chick is covered with light grey down, slightly darker on the wings, and increasing in depth of colour with age. The bill is a dark horn colour, the iris light brown, and the feet light grey.

The Giant Petrel—Nellie, or Stinker—(_Ossifraga gigantea_) is found nesting on all the grassy bluffs, but most commonly on the islets of the Bay of Isles, amongst the “Wanderers.” They are exceedingly ugly and ungainly, have an unpleasant smell, and their feathers are infested with ticks.

Cape Hens (_Majaqueus aequinoctialis_) are seldom seen near land except in the evening, when they sit at the doors of their burrows chattering away in neighbourly fashion.

Wilson Petrels flock in great numbers about the whaling stations. They nest in burrows.

The Diving Petrel (_Pelecanoides urinatrix_) frequents the west coast of South Georgia in greatest numbers, but an occasional one may be found at any place near the shore.[19]

Whale Birds (_Prion_) are very common on most of the small islands and on some places on the main island. They live in burrows. They are rarely seen by day, as they can only leave and return to the burrows under cover of darkness, for they are preyed upon relentlessly by the skua gulls. They flock out to sea in clouds just after nightfall and return in the early morning. Those which fail to get in by daybreak almost certainly fall victims to the rapacious skuas, which are responsible for the death of thousands of them yearly. They lay a single egg.

Cape Pigeons (_Daption capensis_) are the brightest and cheeriest of all seabirds. They frequent the whaling stations in hundreds of thousands. Their chattering and chaffering as they squabble over choice pieces of offal goes on unceasingly all day and all night. They nest in clefts high up in the cliff faces.

Snow Petrels (_Pagodroma nivea_) have been seen in the vicinity of the island, but are rare.[20]

Silver-Grey Petrels (_Priocella glacialoides_) were seen during our second visit to the island, but are also rare in this locality.

There are two varieties of skua gull: _Megalestris McCormicki_ and _M. antarctica_. They are pirates and live by acts of piracy. All the seabirds have in one way or another to protect themselves from their depredations. The smaller birds live in narrow clefts or in burrows. The larger birds, which nest in the open, have to keep a continuous watch over nest and chick. The skua is brown coloured and has a strong, curved, hawk-like beak. Its habits and mode of life present a fascinating study, but space prevents a full description. Skuas make their nests on grassy slopes about the island, and resent any approach by strangers. Often when proceeding over the bluffs one is annoyed by these birds, which have a disconcerting habit of circling in the air, to descend with a swoop and a loud rush of air straight at one’s head, clearing it by only a few inches.

The Dominican Gull (_Lartis dominicanus_) is a fine-looking black-backed gull which nests in the tussock grass. It is found in large numbers about the whaling station.

The Tern (_Sterna vittata_) is a prettily-marked little bird which nests in the open, and is also found about the stations. It has a pretty, graceful flight, and hovers continually above the surface looking for scraps, in search of which it occasionally makes short dives.

The Blue-Eyed Shag (_Phalacrocorax atriceps_) is found in large numbers round the island. It is a most business-like bird, and goes steadily about its daily work, taking very little notice of outside interruptions. It is more prettily marked than the northern shag, having a black back and white belly. The back of the head is black, and carries a tuft of black feathers. The white of the belly is continued up over the under part of the neck and head. The eye is blue coloured. It lays two or three greenish-white eggs, and the young are covered with a dark-coloured down. Their food is fish, which they obtain by diving, and of which they consume an enormous number daily.

Paddies, or Sheathbills (_Chionis alba_), are not common on this island, though a few were seen about the coast by the naturalist.

South Georgian Teal (_Nettion georgicum_) are said to be getting very rare. A few were noticed and some specimens collected.

Falkland Island Geese—introduced by man—are also rare, and none were seen by the naturalist.[21] The whalers say that a few are still to be found about Cumberland Bay.

There are three species of penguin: Gentoo (_Pygoscelis papua_), King (_Aptenodytes patagonica_), and Rockhopper (_Eudyptes Chrysolophus_). The Gentoo is a brightly marked bird with black head and neck, black back and white belly, yellow legs, and a white patch over each eye that gives it a curiously inane expression. It is the most shy of the penguins, and easily takes fright if rapidly approached. By dropping on its breast and using both feet and flippers it can travel at considerable speed and can dodge cleverly. It nests in tussock grass. The King is larger than the Gentoo, and has very bright markings about the neck and upper part of the breast. It nests in tussock grass, but keeps nearer to the sea edge than the Gentoo. The Rockhopper is less common than either of the others. It is smaller than the Gentoo and resembles it somewhat in appearance except that the feet are of a more browny yellow, the patch over the eye is lacking, and it has a tuft of yellow and black feathers. Occasional Ringed and Adelie penguins were noticed, but they are stragglers and not commonly seen on the island.

Sea-elephants are common on all the beaches of South Georgia during the summer months, and are found also throughout the winter. They lie on the beaches or in wallows amongst the clumps of tussock grass. The smell from them is unpleasant and unmistakable. The bulls, except in the rutting season, usually remain apart from the cows, which collect, together with their young, into harems numbering from fifteen to fifty. The flippers, though short, are wonderfully flexible, and have curious little rudimentary fingers with which they scratch themselves in what is, at times, a ludicrously human way. They are fond of heaping sand upon themselves. When approached they make a curious windy roaring noise, and they may often be heard trumpeting from their wallows. Wilkins, in crossing the island, saw a sea-elephant track which led the whole way over. It was in soft snow and was unmistakable. Many other tracks went for a mile or so inland, but turned and came back to the beach from which they started, and only one was found to cross all the way. Weddell Seals come ashore in numbers, and also occasional sea-leopards.

The managers of the whaling stations reported that whales were plentiful during the height of the season (1921-22), though, as was to be expected, the numbers fell off with the onset of winter. The most numerous were humpback and blue whales, and a few sperm and sei-whales were caught. The return of the humpback is interesting, for in the early days of the whaling industry in 1904 and for several years afterwards this species formed the bulk of the catch (over 90 per cent.). The numbers fell off rapidly, till in 1912-13 they formed 38 per cent.; in 1915-16, 12 per cent.; and in 1917-18, only 2.5 per cent. It was generally considered and admitted by many of the whalers that the decline was due to ruthless hunting, but the explanation seems to lie in the distribution and drift of food supply. For a fuller description of South Atlantic whales and whaling, readers are referred to Appendix I of “South,” by Robert S. Clark, M.A., B.Sc.

During our second visit to South Georgia Mr. Hansen, the manager of Leith Harbour Whaling Station, showed us a porpoise which had leapt ashore. It was coloured bluey black and dirty white; total length, 53½ inches; tip of nose to blowhole, 6 inches; tip of nose to dorsal fin, 17½ inches; tip of nose to flippers, 9 inches. It has been provisionally determined as _Phocaena dioptrica_.

Small shore-life in South Georgia comprises flies, found along the beaches and breeding in the semi-rotting seaweed cast up by the tide; several forms of spiders, beetles (_Hydromedion_), mites (_Bdella_), tiny jumping flies, and an earth worm (_Acanthrodilus_).

Vegetation ashore is very scarce, the only grass which grows in evident quantity being the tussock grass (_Poa flabellata_). The naturalist was able to collect specimens of plants referable to sixteen species, but many of them were marine algae.

Seventeen reindeer which were brought to the island in the years 1911 and 1912 have increased and multiplied to such an extent that there were about 250 when we were there, and this notwithstanding the fact that the whalers have periodically killed numbers for food. Wilkins examined the stomachs of some that were killed, and found them normal in size, not distended, as usually happens when the food is of poor quality.

The _Quest_ left South Georgia on January 18th, 1922. A few miles out from the coast we passed thousands of whale birds (_Prion_) feeding on the surface of the water, probably upon crustaceæ, which were so plentiful that the sea was highly coloured. Cape pigeons, Wilson petrels, sooty albatross and a number of mollymauks came about the ship, but wandering albatross were conspicuously absent at this stage. On the second day we met snow petrels (_Pagodroma nivea_), which remained intermittently with us till our return to South Georgia.

On January 20th we visited Zavodovski Island. The slopes were covered with Ringed penguins, and the beaches under the glaciers were occupied by a number of King penguins. Fumes were issuing from caves on the eastern side of the island, and it was noticed that the penguins kept clear of them. Many Giant petrels flew round the ship, and a number were seen resting ashore. Cape pigeons, Wilson petrels and a blue petrel were noticed in the vicinity of the island. As we turned farther south prions became more scarce, but Wilson petrels and Cape pigeons kept up in numbers. The light-mantled sooty albatross seen in these areas was conspicuously light-phased, and became markedly so in the more southern latitudes. Silver-grey petrels (_Priocella glacialoides_) were first seen in lat. 57° S. and 15° E. long. They were observed throughout the voyage till we returned to South Georgia, where the naturalist obtained some specimens.

In lat. 58° S. we met the Antarctic petrel (_Thalassoeca antarctica_). They occurred in groups of ten or fifteen, but never in large numbers, as seen in the Ross Sea. In this latitude also an occasional Sooty petrel (_Oestrelata macroptera_) was seen, and a species of whale bird, classed temporarily by the naturalist as _Prion desolatus_. We saw a Cape hen in lat. 61° S., and a Giant petrel after we had crossed the circle; the latter is very rare in the Antarctic proper. One of the latter seen in 67° S. had a very white phase.

In lat. 68° S. Arctic terns were noticed. Some of them were already (on February 8th) beginning to change their plumage, the dark cap in many cases being streaked with grey. Emperor Penguins (_Aptenodytes Forsteri_) were seen in numbers south of lat. 67° S., but, taken on the whole, were not common throughout the trip. They are the “farthest south” penguins. Numbers of cheery little Adelies were seen in greatest numbers near “Ross’s Appearance of Land.” Crab-eater Seals (_Lobodon carcinophagus_) were seen in large numbers about the pack edge, especially in those parts where the ice showed marked diatomaceous bands. Often as many as a dozen of these seals were seen on a single small floe heaving up and down on the swell. Killer whales were present in numbers at the time we were in the pack, and were frequently seen in the open leads. The Crab-eaters, on the other hand, seemed to avoid the larger leads of open water. On February 13th we had occasion to kill a number of Crab-eaters, when each female was found to be pregnant, the fœtus varying in length from one to three inches. Sea-leopards were seen, but were rare.

We visited Elephant Island on March 28th, and effected landings at Cape Lookout and on a narrow beach at the western end of the northern coast. Animal life is scarce, and plants are confined to a lichen, which grows on some of the rocks on the sides facing north, and a species of moss. The bird life consists of Gentoo, Ringed and Rockhopper penguins, the latter being very scarce; seabirds, including Cape pigeons, Skua gulls, Dominican gulls, Blue-eyed shags (all of them plentiful), and Mollymauks and Giant petrels (more rare). The Paddy, or Sheathbill (_Chionis alba_), is plentiful.

The Ringed penguins made their rookeries on steep rock-faces close to the sea, and spent many patient hours in climbing up and down from their positions, hopping carefully from ledge to ledge. The Gentoos selected easier slopes. Rarely a Gentoo was found in a Ringed rookery, but Ringed were found fairly frequently among the Gentoos. The Paddies haunted the rookeries, their food being obtained largely from the excreta of penguins, from which they pick small round worms or nematodes, with which the penguins are infested. The stomach and intestines of the Paddies themselves are wonderfully free from parasites. They eat readily of any offal which may be lying about. Those which remained during the winter were very thin, due to the departure of the majority of penguins. Numerous seals and sea-elephants were lying on the beaches. On the rocks are dark-shelled limpets (_Patella polaris_), which never come above low-water mark; no doubt they would freeze to death in the colder air.

We returned to South Georgia on April 6th, and left for Tristan da Cunha on May 9th. During the voyage we saw Wandering Albatross, two Sooty Albatross (_P. palpebrata_ and _P. fusca_), mollymauks, Silver-Grey petrels (_Priocella glacialoides_), Wilson petrels, Giant petrels, Diving petrels, several varieties of prions, Cape hens, Cape pigeons, Terns, Skua gulls and Shearwaters. As we neared Tristan da Cunha we lost _Phoebetria palpebrata_, and the only kind of Sooty Albatross seen was _P. fusca_. The islands of the Tristan da Cunha group are so close together that the animal life is similar to them all. The naturalist found eggs of the following: The yellow billed mollymauk (_Thalassogeron chlororynchus_), greater Shearwater (_Puffinus gravis_), Rockhopper Penguin (_Eudyptes chrysocome_) and _Catharacta antarctica_. The evidence of the islanders regarding the bird life of the islands is as follows (birds are recognized by general description and plates): Wandering Albatross used to breed on Tristan, but now only found rarely on Inaccessible Island. Sooty Albatross (_P. fusca_) nests in August. Young birds leave the nest in April (the young of _P. palpebrata_ were hatched on January 15th at South Georgia).

Yellow-nosed mollymauks (_T. chlororynchus_) nest in August. Young birds leave the nest in April (the young of _T. chrysostoma_ were hatched on January 1st in South Georgia).

_Oestrelata macroptera_ moults in May, lays in July.

_Oestrelata mollis_ lays in November.

_Pachyptila vittata Keyteli_ lays in September.

_Priofinus cinereus_ lays in May and June.

_Sterna vittata_ lays in November.

_Stercorarius antarcticus_ lays in August.

_Anous stolidus_ arrives in September, lays in November, but goes away for the winter.

_Eudyptes chrysocome_ moults and leaves the island in March, comes again in August, and lays in September.

A thrush (_Nesocichla eremita_) and a finch (_Nesospiza acunhae_) are found on Inaccessible Island, but seem to have left Tristan.

Wilson petrels, Cape hens, Cape pigeons and gulls are not often seen and do not nest on the island. A diving petrel is frequently seen, but no eggs have been found. With regard to sea-life, fish abound in plenty in the kelp about the island. The naturalist had little opportunity for a collection of specimens. The following is the list given by Mrs. K. M. Barrow, who spent three years on the island:[22]

Blue-fish, Snoek (_Thyrsites atun_), Mackerel (_Scomber colias_), Five finger (_Chilodactylus fasciatus Lac_), Soldier-fish, Craw-fish and Klip-fish. The southern blue whale is occasionally seen, as are also seals and sea-elephants. Sharks are common, and several were caught from the ship whilst lying off Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands.

We arrived at Gough Island on May 27th. At first sight it appears as a green island clothed in verdure. As we approached the western side we saw a number of birds, prions, wandering albatross, mollymauks, a diving petrel, skua gulls and terns. Both _Phoebetria cornicoides_ and _P. fusca_ were seen. After rounding south-west and south points few birds were seen except skua gulls and terns, and they were not common. No albatross were seen on the eastern side during the whole of our visit. Just after passing south-east point Wilkins saw what he thought was a noddy tern (_Anous stolidus_), which was previously reported as visiting the island. Immediately on landing on the Glen beach buntings (_Nesospiza goughensis_) came tamely about, but did not let themselves be caught by hand. Numbers were seen feeding on flies, which swarmed in the decaying seaweed, and also inland, where they were seen on the stems of tussock grass or clinging to the branches of the tea plant (_Chenopodium tomentosum_). They were found everywhere up to the level of the thicker vegetation, which ends at about 2,000 feet. There are two types: one, black-throated and mouse-coloured; the other, light and dark brown, with yellowish markings. They were feeding together, and seen to be in about equal numbers and of equal size.

On every part of the island visited the sharp “Chuck! chuck!” of water hens could be heard, and several were shot for specimens. They were shy, and at sight of man hastened in amongst the tussock grass, where it was impossible to see them. The frontal shield is bright red; bill and feet, bright yellow; plumage, black and cinnamon. All parts of the Glen which gave a sufficient depth of earth and which were not overgrown with trees were honeycombed with the burrows of different kinds of petrels. They did not come out by daylight, but their croaking frequently betrayed them, and in this way several specimens were added to the collection, These included _Priofinus cinereus_ and broad-billed prions (_Pachyptila vittata Keyteli_). At night a large fire was lighted on the beach, and several specimens were shot as they flew inwards through the light. Some of them fell into the tussock grass, and in the dark could not be found. In the morning, when taken up, they were seen to have been almost entirely picked to pieces and eaten by mice, which swarmed in large numbers at the foot of the Glen. These mice are the ordinary _Mus musculus_, and were no doubt introduced by earlier landing parties. On several parts of the island were large penguin rookeries, deserted at this time of year except for a few straggling Rockhoppers (_Eudyptes chrysocome_). The thrush, common on Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands, was not seen at all on Gough Island. No albatross or mollymauk nests were seen, but there might have been some on the north-west side, which is the most exposed to the winds, and thus most likely to be selected by these birds.

The collection of birds from Gough Island numbered over fifty specimens, referable to nine species:

_Garrodia Nereis Chubbi_ (Matthews), which was shot as it flew over the light of the camp fire.

_Priofinus cinereus_, found in burrows on the hill.

_Oestrelata mollis_ (Gould), found in burrows near the beach. Their croakings could be heard all night.

_Pachyptila vittata Keyteli_ (Matthews), found as above. From the noise they were making there must have been many in the neighbourhood of the camp.

_Stercorarius antarcticus_ (Lesson). Skuas were not common, and only about twenty were seen during the visit.

_Sterna vittata_ (Reich). Many terns were seen, both in adult and juvenile plumage.

_Nesospiza Goughensis_ (Eagle Clarke). Birds of this type were brought back by the Scotia and described by Eagle Clarke, Orn. Report Scottish Nat. Antarctic Expedition. They have been classed as two species, but from examination of the twenty-eight specimens in the _Quest_ collection it is thought that these birds are of one species, and the difference in plumage can be accounted for by age. (N.B. See paper by Mr. P. R. Lowe, M.B.O.U.)

_Gallinula_ or _Porphyriornis Comeri_ (Allen). This water-hen is common on Gough Island, but is not seen on Tristan da Cunha. Some of the islanders say they have seen it on the western side of Inaccessible Island.

_Eudyptes chrysocome._ Only two or three were seen.

Gough Island gives an impression from the sea of almost tropical greenness, and on landing at the Glen one has much the same impression, for the slopes and hillsides are thickly covered with vegetation. Trees, tree ferns and tussock grass are most abundant, whilst the rocks and cliff faces are covered with mosses and lichens. The trees are the Island Tree (_Phylica nitida_). An interesting discovery was made by the geologist of a grove of trees of a different sort. They were in the “little glen” on the southern side of Archway Rock, and he describes them as “growing as if planted in an orchard,” reaching a height of four to five metres and spreading to four metres or more. It has since been identified as a variety of _Sophora tetraptera_ J. Mull, var. nov. _Goughensis_. About the beach there is a luxuriant growth of dock (_Rumex fructescens_ and _Rumex Obtusifolius_). There was also a wild celery, which was found by comparison to differ considerably from the type species from Tristan da Cunha (Thouars Fl. Trist. p. 43 _Apium Australe_). This plant was also collected by the _Scotia_, and after an examination of the specimens, as well as those from the _Quest_, it has been decided to name it as a new species, _Apium Goughensis_. In the sheltered parts of the cliffs were several varieties of maidenhair fern (_Adiantum aethiopicum_); mosses and lichens were everywhere. On the flat ground bordering the beach grew a thick covering of grasses, mostly dwarfed _Scirpus sp._, with here and there some bunches of _Agrostis ramulosa_. Thistles and _Gnaphalium_ grew rankly near the edge of the penguin rookeries. The wild tea plant (_Chenopodium tomentosum_) flourished luxuriantly. The small _Hydrocotyle_ (most probably _leucophalica_), though dwarfed by its environment, was noticed by its distinctive leaf. The thicker vegetation grew to a level of about 2,000 feet, when most of it ceased. At this level the cranberry in its southern temperate form (_Empetrum nigrum_ var. _rubrum_) grows abundantly. At this season of the year (June 1st) it was loaded with bright red fruit. _Lycopodium_ was found by the naturalist at the highest level attained by him, but in a dwarfed condition. _Agrostis ramulosa_ and _A. media_ seemed to thrive at higher levels. _Cotula Goughensis_, a new species described by Dr. Rudmose Brown of the _Scotia_, which grows to a height of 30 cm. near the beach, is dwarfed to 5 or 6 cm. on the higher slopes. Only closely related forms were noticed at the higher levels, but a longer period ashore and a more careful and prolonged search at these levels might produce something new. In all thirty specimens referable to nineteen species were collected. Of these, three were not in the collection made by the naturalists of the _Scotia_, but they collected several species not collected by us. Two of the new specimens are of plants common to the Tristan da Cunha group. _Sophora tetraptera_ had not been previously collected, though Mr. Comer, who was amongst one of the earliest parties to visit the island, described two different types of trees. The members of the _Scotia_, whose visit, owing to bad weather, was very hurried, not finding the second tree, decided that the tree fern (_Lomaria boryana_) was meant.

We left Gough Island for Cape Town on June 1st. We saw several kinds of petrels, Wandering albatross, Cape pigeons, many shearwaters (_Puffinus gravis_ and _Priofinus cinereus_), and two species of mollymauk, black-browed and yellow-nosed, in juvenile plumage with a showing of grey under the throat, were observed. Several attempts were made to catch a specimen with a grey marking on the throat, but without success. It appeared to resemble the mollymauk described by Dr. Harvey Pirie and Mr. Eagle Clarke, but identification was impossible whilst it was on the wing. Several dark-brown petrels, probably _Oestrelata macroptera_, were seen. A number of Sooty albatross which came about the ship had white spots on the head and shoulder. Attempts were made to hook one with a fishing line, but failed. As we approached South Africa albatross of a darker phase and a number of mollymauks with dark-grey heads and throats were seen, probably the young of _Thalassogeron chlororynchus_. Nearer land many gannets were noticed diving into the sea.

This report[23] cannot be regarded as an exhaustive account of the natural history work of the expedition, being merely a résumé of the naturalist’s provisional report. Much work still requires to be done before the full value of the collections can be estimated. The collection, especially of birds, is a large one, and has added considerably to the material already available in the museums. Several new species and varieties have been provisionally determined. Throughout the whole period of the expedition conditions were never favourable for natural history work, and change of plan compelled that many of the parts should be visited in mid-winter instead of in summer, with consequent disadvantages as regards weather and landing facilities. The amount of material brought home reflects great credit on Captain Wilkins as a collector and on his assistants.

NOTE.—At the time of going to press I learn that one of the buntings taken from Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands has been determined as a new species, and that the larger Gough Island finch is a new genus. The latter is being named —— _Rowettia_, after Mr. Rowett.

APPENDIX III

METEOROLOGY

J. A. MCILROY, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., AND L. D. A. HUSSEY, B.Sc.

Meteorological observations made at one single station are of little value by themselves. Their full value lies in the possibility of their being correlated with observations made contemporaneously at other stations in neighbouring parts of the world. Particularly is this so where the station is a moving one, as in the case of the _Quest_. Consequently no attempt can be made here to draw any general conclusions from the observations which were made on the voyage.

The complete meteorological logs have been handed over to the Marine Meteorological Section of the Air Ministry, as, with all the material that they can collect from ships all over the world, that body is in a position to make the best use of our results.

At the outset of the expedition the Air Ministry very kindly gave us every assistance, and lent us a great deal of apparatus and many instruments on the understanding that they would be allowed to use the information that we gathered. This arrangement has been carried out, and we hope that among the many scientific results of the expedition we have been able to add one link to the chain of observations which is being made daily all round the world, and so we may have justified our existence.

The instruments used consisted of the following:

(_a_) Two standard ships’ screens, in each of which were a wet and dry bulb thermometer. These were placed one on each side of the bridge, well exposed and as far as possible away from any draughts and convection currents from galley and engine-room. The readings were taken from the screen on the weather side.

(_b_) A marine-pattern mercury barometer, hung in the gyroscope-compass room, which was also used to check the ship’s aneroid which was placed in the wheel-house.

(_c_) A barograph, which was, however, of little use owing to the bad weather that we experienced and the continual rolling and pitching of the ship.

(_d_) Several sea thermometers and hydrometers for surface work.

(_e_) Various equipment, such as kites, balloons and meteorographs, which were taken for experimental purposes.

Complete observations were taken every four hours of air and sea temperatures, humidity, pressure, wind, direction and form of clouds, etc., in the usual ship’s meteorological log.

Except when the ship was in port, where permanent stations existed, these observations were carried out continuously during the whole of the voyage, making roughly about two thousand odd sets of observations in all.

Although no general conclusion can yet be drawn from these observations, a general summary of the weather conditions experienced by the _Quest_ may be of interest.

As far as actual wind _force_ is concerned, the first part of the journey, to Lisbon, was uneventful, except for a short but heavy gale when off the Bay of Biscay. This gale lasted at its height for about eight hours, after which it gradually eased off. It was accompanied by a sudden very marked fall in the barometer, but no corresponding change in the wind, which was blowing from the south all the time.

The day after leaving Lisbon, when well out to sea, a large waterspout was observed only about a mile away westward.

From now onwards, until after leaving St. Vincent, the wind was steady but weak, never once approaching gale force. The north-east Trades, even, almost failed us, and were of very little assistance indeed.

This state of affairs continued till we reached Rio de Janeiro, and it was after leaving this port on December 18th, 1921, that our troubles from the weather commenced.

Two days before Christmas, 1921, a very calm sea and still, damp air, with the horizon obscured, gave us fears for the future. That these were only too well founded was proved next day, when, with a steadily falling barometer and an equally steadily rising sea, the wind increased from the south. The sky became overcast and intense squalls followed each other in rapid succession. Conditions became worse during the next three days, and on the following two days, December 29th and 30th, the wind blew with hurricane force. Huge seas threatened to swamp the ship, the helm was lashed, and everyone except Sir Ernest and Captain Wild were sent below. Sir Ernest said that never in all his life had he seen such mountainous seas. Oil-bags were hung out, and we ran before the storm. On the fifth day conditions seemed to improve, but it was only a temporary lull, and a storm of equal violence succeeded this, lasting for two days. This gale lasted in all over seven days, and during most of this time it was rarely possible to cook a proper meal or, indeed, keep one’s balance on deck at all; and the mere taking of the observations under these circumstances entailed a pretty thorough soaking. Fortunately a barographic curve was obtained during the whole of this storm, and it shows in a striking way the sudden rapid fall in atmospheric pressure which occurred during this time.

There was not a dry spot left on the ship, and the hydrograph and maximum and minimum thermometers were encrusted with salt from the seas, which even washed over the upper bridge where these instruments were placed.

January, 1922, gave promise of fair weather, and as far as wind was concerned that promise was fulfilled. The voyage from South Georgia down to the pack was marked by one or two gales of moderate severity, with the sky almost continuously overcast. Close, heavy pack seemed nearly always associated with fine, clear weather and southerly winds, while the reverse obtained as the wind veered to the opposite direction. When actually frozen in and drifting with the pack the weather was generally fine.

The lowest temperature experienced was 6°F. on March 15th in latitude 63° 45´ S. and longitude 45° 12´ W., and again on March 16th and 17th in about the same position. At these temperatures—26° below freezing—the water round the wet-bulb was frozen, and so dry-bulb readings alone were obtainable.

From this time onwards gales generally from the south were of much more frequent occurrence than fine weather or even moderate winds, and Elephant Island lived up to its evil reputation by being the centre of such bad weather as to make landing extremely dangerous.

From South Georgia to Tristan da Cunha—May 8th to May 19th—the journey was marked by such bad weather that winds of under gale force occurred on less than half a dozen occasions only. This can to some extent be accounted for by the lateness of the season and the approach of mid-winter.

With the exception of one sharp gale, the weather experienced round Gough Island was a considerable improvement on that which had been our almost daily lot for the previous two months.

Our stay at Tristan was not long enough for us to collect information as to general weather conditions on the island, but the padre who is now there, and who is erecting a meteorological station, will doubtless supply a useful series of observations.

From Gough Island to Cape Town—June 2nd to June 18th, 1922—similar weather was experienced, only about four days not showing gales. Slight, but _very_ slight, improvement in weather conditions occurred on the way up to Ascension from the Cape, but from thence onwards much finer weather was our lot till we were two days off England, when another gale welcomed us home.

As we made clear at first, this memorandum is not intended to be a complete and detailed dissection and analysis of the two thousand odd series of observations that were made during the voyage, but only to indicate how bad weather handicapped all our efforts in the southern hemisphere.

If, when these results come, in the course of time, to be considered in conjunction with others made in those parts, we shall have added our little bit to the present very meagre knowledge of weather conditions there, we shall feel satisfied. For every addition to our knowledge of regional meteorology contributes to our knowledge of meteorology in general, and so helps us to understand the many perplexing problems which meteorologists all the world over are up against.

In conclusion, a word of thanks is due to Captain Brooke-Smith and Commander Hennessey of the Meteorological Section of the Air Ministry, for much valuable advice and assistance, both before we sailed and after our return home.

APPENDIX IV

HYDROGRAPHIC WORK

_The following is a brief account of the hydrographic work carried out by_ COMMANDER WORSLEY, R.N.R., _assisted by_ LIEUT-COMMANDER JEFFERY, R.N.R., J. DELL, P.O., R.N., _and_ CAPTAIN G. V. DOUGLAS.

The hydrographic equipment consisted, besides sextants, theodolites, chronometers and compasses, of three sounding machines—a Kelvin and two Lucas machines—a gyroscope compass, two rangefinders, and a wireless set.

The Kelvin sounding machine has a 7-stranded steel wire ·35 of an inch in circumference and 300 fathoms long. It is intended for soundings to a depth of 100 fathoms, for which purpose thin glass tubes of chemicals are provided which record the pressure to that depth, but we frequently took soundings to 280 fathoms by stopping the ship and getting a perpendicular cast.

The Lucas machine, which, in addition to having been lent to Sir Ernest Shackleton on his different expeditions and supplied to the French, German and Australian Antarctic Expeditions of 1908-10 and 1911 and also the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913, has done the major part of the work of exploring the profound depths of the world’s oceans, and is, I believe, easily the best machine to-day for the work.

Ours had 6,000 fathoms Brunton wire, having a diameter of ·028 inches and weighing 12·3 lbs. per 1,000 fathoms, with a breaking strain of 200 lbs. We also had a 500-fathom Lucas, suitable for boat work, and with which I have always hoped at some time to sound, through a crevasse, for the thickness of the Great Antarctic ice sheet. The 6,000-fathom machine could also be used for kites, small balloons and other aerial work.

The Sperry gyroscope compass worked well as far South as we went—69° 18´—but the liveliness of the vessel made the initial adjustments difficult, and the constant ramming and blows from the ice threw it out again. The new type of mercury ballistic with which it was fitted minimized much of the bad effects of the bumping. Add to this the small size of the vessel not enabling us to carry more fuel for the actuating dynamo, and the lateness of the season prevented us stopping often for the necessary time to steady it up.

We can, however, say from our experience of it that in a slightly steadier vessel, with more time and dynamo fuel, that even in latitudes beyond 70° it would be most useful for quickly ascertaining the variation of the magnetic needles and, in conjunction with the rangefinder, for quickly making a chart of a coast or islands which the vessel might be passing. Much of our survey of Gough Island was so made. Our average time taken to get the gyro running correctly from the start was about six hours.

The 65 c.m. Barr and Stroud rangefinder was useful in giving the distances to lay off the bearings of the various points in survey work and, with vertical angles, obtaining the heights of peaks, islands and icebergs.

The larger 4 feet 6 inches rangefinder was virtually useless, as we could only use it in a completely land-locked harbour.

The naval wireless set, rotary spark transmission and continuous wave, lent us by the Admiralty, was particularly useful in giving us G.M.T., and so correct longitude. Our reception was very good; we received, when 68° 49´ S., time signals from Rio Janeiro at a distance of 3,206 miles. We heard messages from ’Frisco at a distance of about 8,000 miles while in 65° S. lat., and later in lat. 50° S. received time signals from Nauen, Germany, 9,000 miles distant. The latitude appeared to be a governing factor, as S. of 50° S. lat. we experienced very bad atmospherics, while S. of 55° there appeared to be an almost constant roar in the receivers, making it impossible to read signals, although they could be often heard. There may have been more silent intervals than appeared, as we only had one operator, and being busy on ship’s work he only listened for half an hour at the appointed time for the signals.

The greatest distance that we transmitted signals was about 400 miles in Cape Colony; normally we could get 200 miles. The earth was rather a problem; being a wooden ship, we fastened large copper sheets to the ship under water, but they were repeatedly torn loose when forcing our way through the ice.

The wireless telephone lent by Marconi’s worked very well. We spoke for a distance of 100 miles with it approaching Rio, and it was made evident that on any expedition it would be very useful, its only drawback being the loud roar made by the engine, which could be silenced considerably.

A new large-scale chart was made of St. Paul Rocks and surrounding submarine plateau contained within the hundred-fathom line on a scale of 200 feet to the inch, the Admiralty Chart 388 being on a scale of 2,029 feet to the inch.

From their small size (the largest being 380 feet by 180 feet) and the probability that erosion is taking place, it is doubtful if they can ever be used for an aerial station or any other purpose except a lighthouse or wireless meteorological and directional station.

At South Georgia we carried out series of over two hundred soundings W., S.W., N. and E. of South Georgia, discovering several banks, one with apparently a fairly clear bottom for trawling in from 50 to 100 fathoms from 10 to 30 miles offshore to the N.W., but this area requires more examination than we had time to give it. All the other banks had very irregular bottoms.

We found no indication of a bank at a greater distance to the N.E., as has been reported, but the 200-fathom line is much farther off to the S.W. than was expected.

From whalers’ reports and our soundings it would appear that there is a more or less continuous bank to the N. and N.E. of and parallel to the island, with deeper water forming a submarine valley between. With a limited examination, we found the bottom to consist mainly of a dark grey sand, gravel and stones. The whalers report that these banks swarm with an incredible number of very good eating fish, so easily caught that they can be “jigged” up with no bait, but a bit of bright metal on the hook.

There is a large Roman Catholic population eight days’ steam away in South America, and it is possible that a profitable trawling and fish-curing industry could be started here.

A sketch chart of Prinz Olaf Harbour in Possession Bay, where Lever Brothers have a whaling station, was made. This is the best harbour at the west end of South Georgia.

Some additions to the plan of Stromness Bay, Admiralty Chart No. 3,579, were made.

Soundings from Cumberland Bay to Cooper Island were taken. The bottom here is rocky and irregular, with several reefs and dangers, all, however, fortunately marked by kelp—the great safeguard and aid to the navigation around South Georgia, except on the south, south-west and west coasts, where icebergs tear much of the kelp off. The kelp is useless, however, if steering towards bright sunlight, as the glare on the water makes it impossible to see it soon enough. The SS. _Fridtjof Nansen_ was so wrecked on a reef 7 miles offshore near Cape George in 1907; but the whalers steam full speed straight for the coast in thick fogs, and being very handy turn in almost their length immediately they see the kelp, which frequently reaches to the surface in 60 fathoms and even deeper water.

A sketch chart of the passage inside Cooper Island and of Cooper Bay anchorage for small vessels was made.

A rough chart of Larsen Harbour, the best harbour at the S.E. end of South Georgia, was made. There is enough flat ground here to make a small whaling station, and sufficient water could be got from the glacier streams.

We took new soundings in Royal Bay and across the front of the Great Glacier, steaming along a quarter of a mile inside the line of the glacier front of 1902 (Nordenskjold), but along the line laid down by the German survey of 1882, showing an advance and then a retreat of the glacier front.

Lastly, we sounded from Cooper Island out to and east of Clerke Rocks, and obtained a bearing and sketch of Clerke Rocks from the hills at the back of Cooper Island.

A running survey with soundings was made round Zavodovski, the northernmost island of the Sandwich group, an inhospitable island, difficult or dangerous to land on, and still more so to gain a way up the cliffs of rocks and ice to the upland.

The peak, unfortunately, was hidden by clouds, and no signs of activity of the volcano were seen. No outlying dangers were visible—in several places we got 20 fathoms 100 yards from the shore. On the north side were numerous grounded bergs, indicating shoal water. These bergs were about 40 to 50 feet high. On the basis of 1 fathom below water to 1 foot above they would give a depth of 40 to 50 fathoms. On the eastern side we saw faint blue hazy smoke issuing in several places from clefts and caves in the cliffs, and when we got to leeward could distinctly perceive an unpleasant sulphurous smell. In this connexion Captain C. A. Larsen, in November, 1908, reported: “... An active volcano; air poisonous with fumes of burning sulphur; landing impossible owing to steep-to coasts....” (Larsen, as a matter of fact, was ill for some days as a result of breathing such fumes in one of the group.)

Two gently sloping uplands on the S. and E. afford a breeding ground for myriads of penguins, who appear to keep scrupulously clear of the fumes on the eastern side.

At Elephant Island we made a rough survey of Cape Lookout anchorage where we anchored, and took several soundings S. and W. of Elephant Island. We anchored at Cape Lindsay (N.W. of island) and Seal Rocks, taking bearings and soundings. None of these anchorages can be described as harbours, and with an onshore breeze they must be left at once. We steamed through the intricate nest of rocks and reefs that stretch for over 20 miles to the west and north-west of Cape Lindsay. This was very ticklish navigation, requiring a very close, unremitting watch from the crow’s-nest, there being no warning kelp, the only guides being a brown discoloration under the water and an occasional swirl of the sea.

The existence of Pagoda Rock was practically disproved by a sounding of 2,902 fathoms 2 miles east of its reported position. It can with safety be expunged from the chart.

Forty miles north-east of the position assigned to Ross’s appearance of land we obtained a sounding of 2,446 fathoms blue mud, and could see no land from the masthead with clear weather. It seems improbable, therefore, that it exists, unless it is south or west of the position given, as Ross appears to have been working on dead reckoning, nor could it have been far in those directions or we should have found indications of it during our drift in Shackleton’s Expedition 1914-16.

At Gough Island we determined the position of Penguin Island (on the east coast) to be 40° 18´ 10´´ S. and 9° 54´ 0´´ W., which is 2´ 22´´ S. and 4´ 6´´ E. of the latest Admiralty Chart, but only 50´´ N. and 2´ 0´´ E. of the Admiralty’s previous position. These positions were taken by a mean of a number of solar and stellar observations on different days by sextant from the ship and bearings and rangefinder distance to Penguin Island, being only able to use the northern and eastern horizons.

Our chronometers were kept correct by W.T. time signals. (It would be interesting to know if this is the first time that the position of an outlying island like this has been verified by W.T. time signals.)

The position of Glen Anchorage was also accurately observed, agreeing with the position by Captain Robertson SS. _Scotia_ of Bruce’s Scottish Expedition.

We determined the position of the anchorage in Lot’s Wife’s Cove, north end of island, by three observations for latitude and one for longitude, surveyed and sounded two new anchorages, and sounded the southern, eastern and part of the northern coast.

A new chart of Gough Island, with large and important corrections, on a scale of 1/36431 was made.

The highest point of the island was ascertained with an aneroid by Captain Douglas to be 2,915 feet in the centre of the island, not 4,380 feet at the northern part, as previously charted. Very good fish were caught in great abundance in the whole group, and crayfish abound, at Gough Island in particular, to such an extent that it is possible a profitable cannery could be started there.

The February-March, 1922, limits and conditions of the pack ice for 2,500 miles from 18° E. to 52° W. between the latitudes of 63°-70° S. were determined. These, compared with Ross’s, Biscoe’s, Bellingshausen’s and Shackleton’s, are very interesting, showing the great difference between one year and another, and even one month and another.

In the Tristan da Cunha—Gough Island group, additional information for the sailing directions was obtained. Materials and directions were given to Robert Glass, at Tristan da Cunha, to erect beacons at Falmouth Bay for convenience of the inhabitants when landing in their boats during darkness, and to act as leading marks for a safe anchorage for visiting ships.

We practically disproved the existence of a reef reported by two whaling captains as having been seen by them on voyages from Cape Town to South Georgia in 35° 40´ S. and 5° 20´ W. (350 miles E. by N. of Tristan da Cunha). We steamed over the position and searched for two and a half days in the vicinity, half the time with a heavy southerly gale, in which a breaking reef would show 6 or 7 miles away. We sounded in 1,940 fathoms 3 miles south-east from the position given, 1,942 fathoms 15 miles east, 1,994 fathoms 15 miles south-east, and 1,989 fathoms 8 miles to the east, besides four soundings of 240 fathoms no bottom and one of 560 fathoms no bottom at varying distances from 15 miles south-west to 5 miles north-west. Although I do not think the reef exists, this instance gives some idea of the time and trouble a survey ship may expend in searching for danger, and then not finding it, through having been given a wrong or doubtful position; but vessels passing this position would be well advised to keep a good look-out for breakers.

DEEP SEA SOUNDINGS

Thirty-two soundings were taken in the southern ocean, practically all in previously sounded areas, and so of great value in adding to our bathymetrical knowledge of the ocean between the Atlantic Ocean and the Antarctic Continent.

They were made with a Lucas machine, driven by a small Brotherhood engine, all kindly lent to Sir Ernest Shackleton by the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company, who also provided the _Endurance’s_ Lucas, with which we sounded the Weddell Sea. Our first line of soundings was run from a position 500 miles east of the Sandwich group to our farthest south point in 69° 18´ S. 17° 11´ E., where we unfortunately were barred from further progress by heavy impenetrable pack to the south, south-west and south-east. The soundings here were of great interest, having shoaled from 2,356 fathoms to 1,089 fathoms in a distance of 100 miles. This, with other indications, made it practically certain that land lay a short distance south, possibly not more than 60 to 70 miles.

An irregular line of soundings for over 2,000 miles was then carried out from 17° E. to 46° W., mainly within and along the Antarctic Circle. The bottom, as usual, was mostly blue mud, droppings from icebergs, but north of “Ross’s Appearance of Land” we dredged up a large haul of angular rocky fragments, to the joy of the geologist.

Very heavy weather unfortunately prevented us sounding the blank area between Elephant Island and South Georgia.

Three soundings were taken between South Georgia and Tristan da Cunha, but heavy weather again prevented our doing more.

Our last series were taken from 50 miles north of Gough Island to 35° 40´ S. and 5° W., the bottom over this area consisting mainly of white clay (globigerina ooze).

Difficulty was experienced at all times in sounding owing to the extraordinary liveliness of the _Quest_, and many more soundings would have been taken but for the slowness of the vessel, lateness of the season, limited time and bad weather.

A number of heights in the Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island group, were ascertained by Captain G. V. Douglas with an aneroid to be marked in excess on the Admiralty charts.

The new heights as determined by him and compared with those in Admiralty charts are:

BY BY ADMIRALTY DOUGLAS CHART 2228 FEET. FEET. Tristan da Cunha 6,400 7,640 Middle Island 200 150 Inaccessible Island 1,508 1,840 Gough Island 2,915 4,380

It will be noted that an increase is to be applied to the Admiralty height of Middle Island only.

APPENDIX V

MEDICAL

By A. H. MACKLIN, M.D.

_The following is intended to give briefly an idea of the special conditions met with in Antarctic regions and the steps taken for the prevention of disease._

The chief work of the surgeon of a polar expedition is done before the ship leaves England, and if it has been properly carried out there should be little to do during the actual journey. In this respect casualties are excepted, for naturally they cannot be foreseen. They are prepared for by providing a good general surgical outfit, the exact composition of which will depend upon the amount of money available for its purchase and on the space at disposal for its storage. Also, as the practice of medicine and surgery is more of an art than an exact science, it will depend largely upon the individual surgeon. Many things can be omitted; for example, splints, which can be improvised as required. There are, however, definite lines upon which the prevention of sickness may be carried out, and the following are important points:—

Ordinary sickness can be largely ruled out by careful examination of personnel and insistence on absolute physical fitness. In making the general examination the following points should be specially looked for: bad teeth, pyorrhœa, septic tonsils, and any chronic disease about the mouth, nasal passages or the accessory sinuses. They are often the cause of latent trouble unsuspected by the applicant, and their importance will be seen later in dealing with scurvy. The ears should be tested for hearing and for any signs of middle ear disease. One should examine for varicose conditions, hæmorrhoids and anal fissure or fistula, rupture, flat feet, and other deformities of the feet and toes, however slight, old-standing corns, bunions, etc. A history of dislocations should be inquired for, especially of the cartilages of the knee. My opinion is that any of these conditions should absolutely rule out all new applicants, for the presence of any one of them will inevitably lead to trouble. Their occurrence in men of previous polar experience must be carefully considered. Venereal disease should be an absolute bar. The wearing of spectacles does not necessarily rule out an applicant, but the necessity for them is a great handicap in cold regions.

There are three main conditions which must be specially considered and prepared against: _Scurvy_ (_and allied conditions_), _frost-bite_ and _snow-blindness_. _Sea-sickness_ is a fourth condition which may cause disability, but as in the prevention and treatment of any disease the main principle is to remove the cause, this cannot be arranged for except by peace offerings to Æolus. The individual must “go through it.” If he gets over it—good; if he shows no signs of ever adapting himself, and much of the work of the expedition is to be done at sea, he must be sent away at the first opportunity, for chronic sea-sickness is a very wearing condition and renders the subject of it useless for work. The _Quest_ was a particularly lively ship, and we lost in this way two otherwise very useful members of the company.

With regard to sea-sickness remedies which depend mainly upon drugs having a depressing influence on the brain, I think they are useful for short journeys of a few hours. For long journeys with continued bad weather I consider them not only useless, but harmful.

_Scurvy_ (_and allied conditions_).—The history of scurvy in war and famine, in the early days of long voyages, and in Arctic and Antarctic exploration shows the important part which this disease has played. Fully developed scurvy is a horrible condition which renders the individual an offence to himself and to those about him. A famous Austrian physician, Kramer, described it as “The most loathsome disease in nature,” so that the demoralizing effect of an outbreak in a small and crowded ship or land base can easily be imagined.

Although a disease which has been recognized for centuries, it is only in recent years that medical science has been brought to bear upon it and the causation fully investigated. The result is that much new knowledge has been brought to light.

For practical purposes it may be regarded as due to two main causes :

(1) The lack in the food of an essential factor or vitamin, which leads to a condition of the body with diminished resistance to deleterious influences.

(2) The addition to the system during this devitalized state of a poison.

Prevention aims, therefore, at the provision of food containing the active vitamin in sufficient quantity and in taking steps to eliminate as far as possible poisons from the system.

With regard to supplying the vitamin, naturally much of the provisions carried must be in the form of preserved foods. Unfortunately, most canning and preserving processes have a detrimental effect upon the vitamin, and it is under conditions where men are compelled to live on them for long periods, with no access to fresh foods, that the danger of scurvy arises.

For many years lime-juice was regarded as a sure preventive and a certain cure, but this has proved fallacious.

There are, however, certain canned and dried foods which contain active anti-scorbutic vitamin, though not in such great amount as fresh vegetables. One should endeavour to rely, therefore, not on any one product, but on the regular provision of all foods which are of value in this way.

With regard to the dietary, there are two sets of conditions to be prepared for: _Life on the ship or at a well-stocked base_, permitting of a full and varied diet for which more or less bulky foods can be used; and _sledging conditions_, including abnormal circumstances arising from accident, which require a close ration.

In making my arrangements I placed reliance on the following foods: For the first set of conditions, lemon-juice concentrated by the method advocated by Surgeon Rear-Admiral Sir P. W. Bassett-Smith; dried milk made by the “roller” process, condensed milk prepared by evaporation in vacuo; canned tomatoes; peas, beans and lentils for being made to germinate, and on prolonging the use of potatoes, carrots and onions as far as conditions should permit.

Under sledging conditions the party is placed on a definite limited allowance. A sledging ration is composed somewhat as follows: Pemmican, nut food, biscuit, tea, sugar and dried or condensed milk, amounting to a total weight of about 2½ lbs. per man per day, and having a food value of about 5,000 calories. Of these, only the milk can be said to contain active vitamin, and not in sufficient quantity to prevent scurvy.

Shackleton added to his _Endurance_ sledging ration capsules of lime-juice prepared without heat. This was in 1913 when the vitamin theory was scarcely evolved, and is an example of his remarkable ability to organize in detail.

For this expedition I added lemon-juice prepared as for use aboard ship, but made into tablets and packed in air-tight containers, and dried milk packed in small air-tight packages, each package containing only one day’s ration, thus avoiding undue exposure to air.

Three different vitamins are described by investigators:

The anti-rachitic fat-soluble A vitamin, The anti-neuritic[24] water-soluble B vitamin, and The anti-scorbutic water-soluble C vitamin.

I have spoken only of the last; the first hardly needs consideration here. The anti-neuritic vitamin is more easily preserved and supplied than the anti-scorbutic, and for the prevention of beri-beri the following foods were added to the ship’s dietary: Rice (containing the germ), wholemeal flour, oatmeal, dried eggs, dried peas, beans and lentils, and marmite, a yeast product, for adding occasionally to soups and stews. For sledging conditions: Marmite, ½ oz. per man per day (to be placed in the “hoosh”).

In preparing the supplies we carried a large variety of foods, for it is of importance to prevent monotony in meals. This Shackleton always realized. The following from the “The Worst Journey in the World” is interesting: “Meanwhile Shackleton’s hut was very pleasant at this time of year ... and the food. Truly Shackleton’s men must have fed like turkey cocks for all the delicacies here....” The addition of a few delicacies adds little to the cost of an expedition, but means a great deal to those engaged in it. I think it would surprise most people to know what can be done in the way of supplying wholesome and attractive foods in a preserved state by modern plants. There should be one standard of quality only: the best, and goods should be obtained only from firms of the highest repute.

The elimination of poisons from the system is aimed at firstly, by thorough preliminary examination, as already indicated, to avoid sources of poisons in the body itself, e.g., the mouth, teeth, throat, and nasal passages with their accessory sinuses, and, secondly, by ensuring that no bad or “high” food shall be eaten.

Constipation in any of the personnel is a factor which must be avoided, and it is necessary that all hands be impressed with the importance of a regular daily movement of the bowels and a complete evacuation at each act. Defæcation is apt to be hurried or neglected in bad weather at sea and in cold and snowy weather ashore. Polar travel does not admit of comfortable latrines, and this often means exposure to wind and drift, for the daily functions are carried out in the ordinary way. This exposure of the body, though exceedingly uncomfortable, leads to no lasting harm, for, as will be shown, it is in the comparatively bloodless extremities that frost-bite usually occurs. Constipation is followed by absorption of poison from the bowel, and so must be especially avoided if the risk of scurvy is imminent. Its correction in bad weather must be carefully carried out, for the cruelty of drastic purgation under these conditions can be imagined.

In future those responsible must make themselves _au fait_ with the steps necessary to prevent the onset of deficiency diseases. Scurvy caused the failure of Lord Anson’s expedition; in Captain Cook’s brilliant voyages it was absent. Compare the bad conditions in the _Alert_ and _Discovery_ in 1875 with the earlier voyages of Sir Robert McClure in the _Investigator_. Always success and failure have depended upon its presence or absence. In more recent times, take the case of Captain Scott and the gallant companions who met their fate so bravely. Mr. Cherry Garrard attributes their failure to return from the Pole to several conditions, one of them a deficiency in the calorific value of their ration. “It is a fact that the polar party failed to make their distance because they became weak, although _they were eating their full ration or more than their full ration of food_, save for a few days when they were short on the way down the Beardmore Glacier....” He goes on to say: “The Summit (S) ration consisted of biscuits 16, pemmican 12, butter 2, cocoa 0.57, sugar 3, and tea 0.86 oz.; total, 34.43 oz. daily per man.”

I do not know the composition of the pemmican, but this ration should yield nearly 5,000 calories. I should consider it to be devoid of anti-scorbutic and anti-neuritic vitamin, and, indeed, the whole medical history of that return journey shows that these men were fighting an unknown enemy greater than all the forces of the Antarctic. In a footnote Mr. Cherry Garrard mentions the possibility of vitamin deficiency, and it is noteworthy that Dr. Atkinson added fresh onions (brought by the ship) to the next year’s ration. I think there can be no doubt that there was vitamin deficiency, and it all goes to emphasize my point of the absolute necessity for careful medical organization to prevent these preventable conditions, for it is my firm belief that the cause of Scott’s death lay not in the Antarctic, but in his preparations in England prior to setting out. The knowledge of the subject necessary to enable him to prepare a sledging ration containing active vitamin was not then available.

As there are two definite causes of fully developed scurvy, viz. the lack of “vitamin” and the addition of a poison, so the symptoms and signs divide themselves into two stages:

(1) A stage of general lassitude with loss of vigour and a diminished resistance to outside influences.

(2) A stage of toxæmia which once started progresses rapidly and produces the symptoms and signs usually associated with scurvy.

One must be constantly on the watch for the first stage, for unless carefully looked for it will probably not be recognized, as the man affected can give little clue to what is wrong with him. I saw many hundreds of such cases during the war in North Russia when scurvy was common, none of them showing any local signs at all. When the better-known signs appear, such as spongy gums, blotches in the skin and lumps in the legs, the disease is in an advanced stage.

My own arrangements for prevention were published in full prior to our start in the _Lancet_, August 13th, 1921. I believe this is the only Antarctic expedition that on setting out has not taken chances with scurvy, though the absence of any signs of the disease from any of Sir Ernest Shackleton’s own parties is remarkable. The reason is that the necessary knowledge had not till that time been available.

Space forbids a full description here, but there are two important points to which I must refer: _Dried cereals_ by themselves do not contain active anti-scorbutic vitamin, but if made to germinate the green shoots which sprout from them are rich in it. This is a point of immense practical value, the application of which is obvious. With regard to _fresh meat_, it has been shown by Stefansson in the North, and by members of the _Endurance_ expedition in the South, that health can be maintained on a purely meat diet, and that fresh meat, if taken in sufficient quantity, is effective to cure scurvy. Stefansson, in the _Friendly Arctic_, says that it must be eaten raw or very much underdone, but our experience in the South showed that this is not necessary. In fact, a certain degree of cooking is advisable. He states also that putrefactive meat is an effective cure for scurvy. This I think is dangerous teaching; in any stage of scurvy anything putrefactive should be avoided if possible unless there is nothing else.

Those general readers who desire to learn more of this most interesting disease are referred to the bibliography at the end of the report.

On this expedition there was no scurvy, and no risk of it, for we were never long enough away from sources of fresh food. Yet I would emphasize the necessity of strong anti-“deficiency disease” measures in polar work, whatever the programme may be, for in the pack ice accidents may at any time occur leading to altogether unforeseen conditions as regards food supply.

_Frost-bite_ is a condition well known to all polar explorers. If neglected it may lead to most crippling results, and, like scurvy, requires careful preventive measures.

The parts of the body most commonly affected are the exposed parts of the face, especially where the skin is drawn tight over underlying bone, e.g. the sides of the nose, the cheekbones and the chin; the ears, the fingers and the toes. In parts other than the fingers and toes the condition is usually not serious, for frost-bite of the face and ears, if neglected, may cause disfigurement, but no real crippling. It is a good practice for men in company to scrutinize each others’ faces, and a valuable piece of equipment is a small mirror in which a man without companions can examine his own face. Frost-bite of the fingers, though more serious, is usually quickly recognized and promptly treated.

Frost-bite of the toes and feet is an extremely dangerous condition and may have far-reaching results. The danger lies in the fact that its incidence is often unknown to the man attacked, and, though he may suspect its onset, he may neglect to examine his feet, for polar footgear is elaborate and cumbersome, examination of toes on the march means a halt, and a certain amount of time is consumed in unfastening and securing the foot-coverings.

Prevention is aimed at generally by maintaining health and a vigorous circulation. Anything which depresses the health and lowers vitality predisposes to frost-bite. In polar work the most important are exhaustion, hunger and vitamin deficiency. During a sledge journey vitamin deficiency, the consequent lack of resistance, and the more easily induced frost-bite create a condition of the gravest danger to the man or the party so affected.

Locally, prevention lies in providing suitable clothing. In whatever form it takes the principle aimed at is the same, viz. _to provide a non-conducting air space round the skin_. The head and ears are protected by woollen and windproof helmets. The face cannot be covered, for masks get so heavily iced up as to make things worse. A cowl can be fitted to the helmet which, when thrown forward, to some extent shields the face from winds. The hands are enclosed in mitts, not gloves, in which the fingers are all together. The finger portion should be large enough to allow inclusion of the thumb when the hand is not in use. Sometimes two or three pairs are worn, the outer pair being of windproof material.

To provide adequate foot protection which shall not at the same time be cumbersome is not an easy matter, for things which are loose about the feet are unwieldy. Woollen socks which enmesh the air in their stitches provide a good insulating air space. In low temperatures two, three or four pairs may be necessary. To prevent constriction of the feet it is of importance that each outer pair of socks should be a size larger than the one inside, and so they should be supplied in series. The cramming of a foot with too many pairs of socks into a boot too small for them is bad, for the circulation of blood to the toes is restricted and the air space is lost. Cold feet have often been cured by telling the wearer to _remove_ a pair of socks.

All possible steps must be taken to see that the air space is not replaced by moisture, i.e. the feet and coverings must be kept dry. This is a difficult problem; coverings which allow of ventilation allow access of damp from the outside, and waterproof coverings retain perspiration. It is usually impossible to ensure absolute dryness, and therefore socks should always be changed before turning in to sleep. This should be made an inviolable rule, yet it is one which is often broken. Damp socks should not be placed in a freezing atmosphere, for the moisture in them will freeze and render difficult the putting of them on in the morning. They should be kept in the sleeping-bag or placed under the jersey. By this means they dry rapidly. Sennegrass may be used for taking up perspiration; it has the property of rapidly giving up its moisture. Some people prefer to use pieces of flannel instead of socks; the pieces are wrapped about the feet, and have the advantage that when taken off they can be spread out and thus dry more rapidly.

All tight fittings and all constrictions which serve to impede the circulation should be avoided. Success in preventing frost-bite is attained only by continued and careful attention to detail.

Precautions which are carried out by men in good condition are liable to be ignored by those who are exhausted or weak from any cause, and under these conditions frost-bite occurs frequently. A frost-bitten part becomes waxy white in appearance. If treated at once no harm results, if neglected death of the part ensues. Treatment on the spot consists not in rubbing the part with snow (men have been killed for less), but in applying dry, gentle warmth. Very light massage may be used, but violent rubbing, especially of the face, is liable to remove the cuticle and leave a weeping sore. Fingers can be thrust inside the affected man’s own clothing next to the warm skin. A frozen toe can be similarly nursed back by a “Good Samaritan” placing the toe against his skin and enfolding the ankle—a most unpleasant job, but most excellent treatment. A hand taken from a warm mitt can be placed on the face, nose or ears. Recovery is accompanied by an intense feeling of “pins and needles.” A part that does not immediately come back to normal must be kept warm and dry, and the application of _a little_ methylated spirit or turpentine is good.

_It is essential to avoid grease and wet._ I have, in the Antarctic, the Italian Alps, and in Russia, made extensive tests of oils, fats and grease, and have come to the conclusion that the application of vaseline or ointment is the worst treatment possible, especially if the part is liable to be again exposed to cold. Too great heat is bad. The circulation must be coaxed back gently. Too sudden a return leads to exudation and choked capillaries, just as theatre passages are choked at the cry of “Fire!”

Non-recovery leads ultimately to gangrene. If superficial, the part may separate of itself, leaving a good new skin underneath which is at first very tender; if deeper, judicious amputation may be required. The gangrene may be _dry_ or _moist_. In the former case the part shrinks and becomes black and scaly, the condition having little effect upon the general health. It is dry and inoffensive. In the case of moist gangrene the part becomes septic, is very offensive, and absorption of poisons leads to impaired health. The amount of the limb that requires amputation depends upon the severity and extent of the frost-bite. It must be emphasized that in examining a part for frost-bite the waxy appearance may not be present. It does not follow that the part has not been frost-bitten or is not seriously affected. There is a more slowly produced condition, due to the action of prolonged cold, in which blood returning into the capillaries which have been damaged by the continued constriction due to the cold sets up inflammation and exudation, which may lead to death of the part. Signs of mottling, at first pinky white, later blue-grey, should be looked for, and if they appear the parts must be treated with the greatest care. If circumstances permit, the limb should be raised, rested, and dry, warm (not hot) dressings applied. For unbroken parts I use cotton wool which has been thoroughly dried, bandaged lightly; for cases when the skin is broken, lint which has been warmed and the surface scorched to render it sterile, covered with warm, dry wool, and again lightly bandaged. This simple treatment can be applied under any conditions in which it is possible to produce a flame. Cases take a long time to recover fully. Ointments, hot wet dressings, and poultices should be avoided. A milder though similarly produced effect leads to an irritable condition resembling chilblains. It affects commonly the tips of the ears. The momentary exposure of bare skin does not lead to immediate frost-bite, but the length of time that it can be exposed depends upon the temperature, the amount of moisture present, and the strength of wind. It is often necessary in carrying out a piece of work to expose the hands, which may require periodical warming up. Much depends upon the circulation, for if a job is attempted after the body has been for some time at rest frost-bite sets in quickly. If, on the other hand, the individual has been working hard, walking or running, and the blood is pulsating actively, the hands and other parts can be exposed for comparatively long periods without harm.

As a result of unrecognized and untreated frost-bite strong men have been crippled for life. Constant watchfulness is required; its danger cannot be over-estimated, nor too much emphasis placed upon measures for its prevention.

_Notes on Oils and Grease_

It is commonly believed that fats, oils and grease are good non-conductors of heat and if placed on the clothes or on the skin help to keep one warm. There was never a greater fallacy, for it is common experience of polar explorers that the reverse is the case. Circumstances do not permit of regular laundrying or even of regular hot baths, and situations are not rare at this work in which men have spent several months without a wash or a change of clothes. After the loss of the _Endurance_ the party had neither for a year. The clothes inevitably became greasy, especially about the elbows and thighs. The cold could be felt “striking through” the greasy parts.

It was often necessary to kill and cut up seals. In the process the left hand grasped the blubber and became very greasy, whilst the right hand, which wielded the knife, very largely escaped. Usually it was possible only to wipe with snow, which had little effect to remove the grease, before replacing the hands in mitts. Subsequently the left hand felt colder and was more liable to frost-bite. Socks which have been worn for some time and become slightly greasy are less warm than clean, dry socks. There are socks of a type manufactured by certain firms which have been deliberately imbued with grease to make them warmer. The wearing of them produced the opposite effect. During the war I made experiments upon myself and with troops, in which two stretcher-bearers massaged the feet of each man, the left foot with whale oil and the right by rubbing only. Both were done at the same time and for the same length of time. The results were greatly in favour of the dry rubbing. I collected also a number of socks which had been worn (and were therefore greasy) and dried them thoroughly. I acquired some absolutely new socks, and issued one dry, greasy sock and one new sock to each man. Evidence in this case was not unanimous, but was numerically in favour of the clean sock.

The conclusion is that oils and grease are of small value for protection against cold and should as far as possible be avoided.

It may be thought that by not washing or having a change of clothes for a long period the skin gets into a bad state. Fortunately, in the Antarctic there are no human parasites, and one does not perspire so freely as in warmer climates. Nevertheless, when working hard in very low temperatures perspiration may be very free, and consequently well-ventilated clothing is necessary. Modern Antarctic equipment consists of warm woollen underclothes and very light windproof overalls made of closely woven material. Furs are not used, though they are favoured still by some Arctic explorers. The theory is often put forward that the best procedure to adopt in the Arctic is to copy as nearly as possible the clothing of the Esquimaux, for, that being their home, naturally they know what is best. This view is strongly urged by Canadians who trade along the Arctic coast. Certainly it has the advantage of cheapness, but I wonder if they went to Central Africa whether they would adopt the loin cloth—also cheap? As a matter of fact, experience has shown that the skin improves in condition and takes on a white, silky softness that some women might envy. It is advisable under the conditions to seize any chance of still air and bright sunshine to remove the clothes, dust from them the flakes of skin which are constantly being shed, and give the body an air bath.

_Snow-blindness_ is a condition of acute and sudden congestion of the eyes, affecting chiefly the conjunctivæ (the delicate membranes which cover the greater part of the front of the eye). The little blood-vessels become dilated, producing a prickly sensation of grit in the eyes, which become painful in strong light. The condition may become worse, leading to a marked congestion with heavy discharge and total blindness. Snow-blindness is produced less frequently by sun-glare on the snow than by a diffuse dull light which casts no shadows and requires continuous strain to pick out hummocks and unevenness of the ice. It is said that people with less pigment, i.e. “blue-eyed” people, suffer more than those with darker, more heavily pigmented eyes, but this is not always the case.

The condition can be prevented by wearing goggles with tinted lenses; e.g. the ordinary dark Crookes lenses are quite effective. The frame is of importance, for it must allow of free ventilation without side glare. The _Rowley_ snow goggle, as used by Amundsen and Shackleton, is a thoroughly effective design. The contour of the face and the depth of the eye sockets differ so much in different individuals that each man should be fitted for goggles prior to starting.

If treated early the condition gives little trouble. Even bad cases are easily treated on board ship, or at a base, by protecting the eye from strong light, and frequent bathing with warm water, boracic lotion, or, better still, very dilute zinc sulphate. If on the march, treatment is more difficult, for lotions will probably not be available. Small, portable and very effective _tabloid_ outfits are obtainable, containing eye drugs in small lamellæ, which, when placed in the eye, are dissolved in the tears and so form lotions. It must be remembered, when selecting the small outfits, that one which may be easily manipulated in the warm showrooms of Messrs. Burroughs and Wellcome may not be so easily handled with fingers benumbed and made clumsy with cold.

For the non-medical man the best treatment is first to place in the eye a cocaine lamella to relieve pain, and follow it in a few minutes by another of zinc sulphate. Pituitary and adrenal extracts have a very rapid effect, but must be used with great care. Untreated snow-blindness in bad cases may lead to permanent results. The condition is preventable and easily treated in its early stage, hence once more the great importance of careful preparation.

_Bacterial affections_ are rare. “Colds in the head” hardly ever occur, and if they do are probably due to germs brought by the party themselves. Wounds, however, readily become septic. Even clean cuts take a long time to heal, and unite with more scarring than usually happens in more temperate regions. This is due to the comparatively bloodless condition of the skin. Steps should always be taken to keep the injured part as warm as possible. When possible it is an economy to rest and carefully look after open wounds however slight, for the reluctance to heal often causes long-continued annoyance.

Every polar surgeon must be prepared to do his own nursing. There is no one else to do it. Conditions for a sick or injured man, even under the best circumstances, are far from being ideal, yet much can be done by improvising and keeping an adaptable mind. Comfort, even for an invalid, is a relative term. The great thing is to keep the patient cheery, and in the ship, at a base hut, in a tent, or even under an upturned boat, one can be continually doing little things to make him feel that he is being well looked after.

The surgeon’s advice is often sought with regard to local food supplies. There is very little in the way of animal flesh that one cannot eat if put to it, and a few precautions in cooking can make almost anything palatable. The meat of whales, seals, sea-elephants, sea-leopards and penguins is all very similar, being composed of a dark red coloured flesh of coarse texture. They have a somewhat strong oily taste, which one learns not to dislike in cold regions. The organs, such as the brains, hearts, livers and kidneys, are edible and are said to be rich in anti-neuritic vitamin. One has to beware of parasites. Fish form the diet of most of these animals, and are a prolific source of tape worm, round worm and small thread worms. Often, also, the liver contains small trematodes. Weddell seals and sea-leopards especially seem to be infested with these parasites; on being cut open they have often an unpleasant toxic smell, the intestines swarm with worms, the heart may have small cysts on its surface, small animalculæ may be detected in the bile which flows from the cut liver, and the spleen and lymph glands are often enlarged, showing that the animal is suffering from a general poisoning. Unless the party is starving, such an animal should naturally be rejected _in toto_, although the meat may appear to be sound.

The crab-eater seals, which live largely on small crustaceæ, are much more healthy animals. Penguins also require careful examination. Seabirds have a rather strong taste of oil and fishiness, which can largely be removed by soaking them in dilute vinegar for twenty-four hours. Young albatross and paddy birds require no special treatment and are delicious. Fish swarm in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions wherever there is shoal water and kelp, as also round the South Atlantic islands, where crayfish also can be obtained. Every effort should be made to vary a diet of preserved provisions by seizing the chance whenever possible of obtaining any of the above.

There is much of interest in the medical side of exploration that space forbids me to touch on, but there is one point which is likely to concern the surgeon of a polar expedition, whose department is an all-embracing one: the health and physical fitness of sledge dogs.[25] Many explorers have found dogs unsatisfactory as a means of transport. This is especially the case with British explorers. Scott found them a failure on his first expedition and put little trust in them on his last. Shackleton, in his own first expedition, as a result of his experience with Scott, used ponies in preference. Careful organization has been put into providing and preparing for various forms of mechanical transport before the expeditions concerned left England, yet Shackleton in getting ready for the _Endurance_ expedition is, so far as I know, the only British explorer who seriously organized and thoroughly prepared for an efficient service of dog transport prior to his start. Sledges, harness, traces and, last, not least, food and sledging rations were worked out in detail. Commander Wild, who associated with him in this work, is a strong advocate of their utility. During the expedition the dogs were rigidly disciplined and carefully “vetted,” and the results were splendid. We were unable to attempt the cross-country journey, yet the work of the dogs day by day was marvellous. There was no ice too rough for them, they crossed broad leads of water at high speed over nothing but rubble, wherever men could take a sledge they could take it faster, and sometimes go where men could not. They required no tents or sleeping-bags—only a _minimum_ of one pound of _good_ food per day.

Dogs are living organisms, like men, and require treatment as such. Their characters must be studied and their health looked after. To begin with, like men, they must be physically fit, they must be kept fit, their coats brushed and combed, their skin and paws kept in good order, they must be freed from parasites, and their fighting wounds made to heal. Like men, they must be well disciplined and trained, and then they are fit to send out on a sledge journey.

The sledging ration must be as carefully worked out as that of the men with a view to calorific value and _vitamin sufficiency_. Dogs are possessed of a high degree of intelligence, are hardy, and can look after themselves. As I have said, they can take a sledge anywhere that men can, therefore they are worth looking after. Yet one of the most pitiable things in the history of polar exploration is the way in which dogs have been neglected, left in miserable condition when probably all that was required was a dose of castor oil and a good vermifuge, made to work to the last ounce on a totally inadequate ration, and finally driven to death.

Amongst the names of non-British explorers which stand out are those of Sverdrup, Amundsen and Peary. They looked after the _health_ of their dogs, and were amply repaid for the care expended.

During the voyage of the _Quest_ there was little sickness. A number of casualties occurred, most of them trivial and easily dealt with, none producing serious results.

There was one death: Sir Ernest Shackleton. The cause was _atheroma of the coronary arteries_. The condition was a long-standing one and in my opinion was due to overstrain during a period of debility. In his history there are many occasions when it may have been produced. The scurvy which he developed during the southern journey of the _Discovery_ expedition may have produced lasting results. It has been stated that his collapse caused the failure of that journey. I must make it plain that the development of scurvy in an individual during a sledge journey is not in any way the fault of the individual, but results from faulty organization. Sir Ernest Shackleton has never had a single case of scurvy, or any condition allied to it, in any party under his charge. His condition may have been produced during his own great pioneer journey towards the South Pole.

What is remarkable is that in such an advanced condition he was able to carry on as he did. It shows, psychologically, a wonderful will power and an unyielding determination to overcome difficulties. In this respect may be noted one of the last things which he wrote (in a final letter to Mr. Rowett):

“Never for me the lowered banner, Never the lost endeavour.”

In other psychological respects he was remarkable, as is seen in the combination of a happy and apparently carefree temperament with an ability for accurate and detailed organization. As a leader he was always “boss.” He was condemnatory of shortcoming and exacting in the service rendered by subordinates, yet he drew from all who worked for him a deep liking and an unfailing loyalty. His physical qualities are well known. As a living organism he was wonderful.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BASSETT-SMITH. “Scurvy; with Special Reference to Prophyllaxis in the Royal Navy.” _Proc. Roy. Soc. Med._ 1920, Vol. xiii (War Section).

CHICK, H., AND DELF, E. M. “The Antiscorbutic Value of Dry and Germinated Seeds.” _Biochem. Jour._, 1919, xiii, 199.

CHICK, H., AND HUME. “The Distribution amongst Foodstuffs ... of the Substances Required for the Prevention of (_a_) Beri-beri and (_b_) Scurvy.” _Trans. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg._ 1917, x, 141.

COUTTS. (Upon an inquiry as to dried milk, etc.). Report to the Local Government Board, 1918. New Series, No. 116, 31.

HESS. _Scurvy Past and Present._ Lippincott, 1920.

—— “Newer Aspects of Some Nutritional Disorders.” _Jour. Amer. Med. Assocn._, March 12, 1921. Vol. 76.

LIND. _Treatise on Scurvy._ London, 1772.

MCCARRISON. “Studies in Deficiency Disease.” Oxford Med. Publication, 1921.

MACKLIN. “A Polar Expedition.” _Lancet_, March, 1921.

MACKLIN AND HUSSEY. “Scurvy: Its Prevention on a Polar Expedition.” _Lancet_, Aug. 13, 1921.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COMMITTEE. “Report on the Present State of Knowledge Concerning Accessory Food Factors (Vitamines), 1919.”

PERSONNEL

SIR ERNEST SHACKLETON, C.V.O. Died in South Georgia.

FRANK WILD, C.B.E. _Commander._ F. A. WORSLEY, D.S.O., O.B.E., _Hydrographer R.D., R.N.R. and Sailing Master._ D. G. JEFFREY, D.S.O., R.N.R. _Navigator._ A. J. KERR _Chief Engineer._ C. E. SMITH _Second Engineer._

A. H. MACKLIN, O.B.E., M.C., M.D. _Surgeon, and in charge of stores and equipment._ J. A. MCILROY, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. _Surgeon and Meteorologist._ L. D. A. HUSSEY, B.Sc. _Meteorologist and Assistant Surgeon._ G. H. WILKINS, M.C. _Naturalist._ G. V. DOUGLAS, M.C., M.Sc. _Geologist._ C. R. CARR, D.F.C. _Aviator._ J. W. S. MARR _Boy._

J. W. DELL _Electrician and Boatswain._ C. J. GREEN _Cook._ HAROLD WATTS _Wireless Operator._ T. F. MCLEOD _A.B._ S. S. YOUNG _Fireman._ G. H. ROSS _Fireman._ H. J. ARGLES _Trimmer._ CHRISTOPHER NAISBITT _Ship’s Clerk._

INDEX

Aarberg, Dr., 180, 186, 190

Aarberg, Mrs., 69, 180, 190, 194

Admiralty, 7, 10, 314, 344, 348

Air Ministry, 7, 13, 340, 343

Albatross, 49, 52, 83, 186-189, 190, 294, 296, 363, _see also_ Appendix iii Island, 186

_Albuera_, 66, 67, 190

_Amphipods_, 101

Andersen, Mr., manager, Husvik, 76

Anenkov Island, 172

Argles, H. J., 48, 49, 83, 92, 118, 139, 141, 145, 148, 186, 197, 272, 327

Ascension Island, 287, 301-309, 327

Atmospheric effects, 116, 126, 156, 290

B

Baden-Powell, Sir Robert, 170, 232

Barlas, Mr., Assistant Magistrate, South Georgia, 67

Barrier, Great Ice, 78, 83

Bay of Biscay, 19, 341 Isles, 185

Beaufort Sea, 2

Becker, Sir Frederick, ix, 3

Begbie, Mr. Harold, viii

Binnie, Mr., Resident Magistrate, South Georgia, 176, 196

Bird life, Elephant Island, 335 Gough Island, 272, 337-338 St. Paul’s Rocks, 329 St. Vincent, 328 at sea, 52, 83, 329, 334-335, 339 South Georgia, 330-333 Tristan da Cunha, 213, 336 Zavodovski Island, 334

Birdwood Bank, 7

Biscoe, John, voyage of, 130

_Blendon Hall_, wreck of, 211

Blubber as fuel, 106, 108, 137, 145, 168

Bostock, Mr., manager, Prince Olaf Harbour, 185, 189

Bouvet Island, 6, 79, 91

Bransfield Strait, 72

Bridgland, Captain F., 17

Buenos Aires, 264

C

Canadian Government, 3, 4

Cape Colony, 205, 292, 345

Cape George, 347 of Good Hope, 205, 290 Lindsay, 348 Lookout, 157, 162 Roca, 29 Valentine, 155 Wild, 156, 158, 162, 165-167

Cape hen, 52, _see also_ Appendix iii pigeon, 52, 83, 159, 190, _see also_ Appendix iii

Cape Town, 6, 13, 46, 72, 73, 75, 137, 148, 214, 216, 237, 243, 254, 256, 262-264, 271, 284, 287-294, 343

Cape Verde Islands, 34

Carr, C. R., 14, 27, 38, 49, 50, 52, 61, 80, 82, 83, 91, 100, 105, 118, 140, 142, 148, 149, 157, 159, 167, 185, 186, 190, 197, 202, 206, 212, 231, 327

Cascaes, 29

Caves, ice, 89 Gough Island, 280, 283 Middle Island, 324 Zavodovski Island, 87, 334, 347

_Challenger_, 206, 321

Christmas celebrations, 50-52

Clarence Island, 154, 155, 156, 317

Clark, Mr. R. S., of _Endurance_, 308, 331 (_notes_), 332 (_notes_), 333

Clerk Rocks, 82, 347

Clothing, 76, 358, 361

Coats Land, 78, 314

Continental Shelf, 120

Cook, Mr. James A., x, 290, 295

Cooper Bay, 80, 82, 316, 347 Island, 346, 347

Cornwallis Island, 155

Cotton, Miss Betty, 241

Crayfish, 274, 278, 280, 349, 363

Crozet Island, 6

Cumberland Bay, 60, 346

D

Deception Island, 91, 137, 140, 168, 182

Dell, J. W., 14, 27, 38, 49, 54, 77, 83, 91-93, 104, 120, 132, 140, 147, 169, 178, 196, 209, 265, 287-289, 327, 343

_Diatoms_, 101

Diego Alvarez Island, _see_ Gough Island

Diet, 353-357

_Discovery_, 14, 68, 308, 365

Dogs, sledge, 364

Dominican gull, 112, 159, _see also_ Appendix iii

Dougherty Island, 7

Douglas, G. V., 15, 22, 27, 38, 49, 59, 77, 80, 82, 83, 94, 100, 124, 134, 139, 142, 146, 148, 149, 157, 163, 179, 197, 206, 231, 287, 292, 304, 309, 343, 348, 351 diary, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214 geological observations, 314-318

Dredging, 149, 296

Drygalski Fiord, 82

E

East India Company, 205, 297, 300

Elephant Island, 81, 91, 137, 145, 153-168, 171, 178, 183, 273, 317-318, 335, 342, 347-348, 350

Enderby Brothers, 5 Land, 73, 314 Quadrant, 7, 292

_Endurance_, 3, 61, 68, 90, 99, 117, 119, 152, 155, 183, 194, 308, 350, 354, 357, 360, 364

Equipment, general, 15, 72, 76 scientific, 10-13, 341, 343

Eriksen, 15, 27, 36, 38, 48

_Euphausiae_, 101, 111

Expedition, Bellingshausen’s, 86 Canadian Arctic, 14, 344 Deutschland, 46, 196 German Transit of Venus, 197 Imperial Trans-Antarctic, 1 Mawson, 87 Shackleton, 1914-16, 348 Shackleton-Rowett, 6

_Expedition Topics_, 93, 97

F

Falkland Islands, 79, 184

Falmouth Bay, Tristan da Cunha, beacons, 349

Foca I, _see Quest_

_France_, 37

Frost-bite, 353, 357-360

G

Garrard, Mr. A. Cherry, 355, 356 _The Worst Journey in the World_, 355

Glaciers, Elephant Island, 158, 161, 317 South Georgia, 197, 198, 316 Zavodovski Island, 86

Glass, Corporal William, 222, 238-239, 248, 259

Gough Island, 6, 215, 265-286, 287, 291, 319-320, 337-340, 343, 348, 350, 351

Gould, Lieut. Comdr., 7

Graham Land, 72, 74, 75

Green, C. J., 20, 24, 26, 36, 49, 51, 54, 81, 83, 97, 190, 191, 194, 197, 202, 294, 296, 302, 309

Gritviken Harbour, 59, 60, 67, 69, 76, 192, 195

Growlers, 132, 152

H

Hansen, Mr., manager, Leith Harbour, 67, 76, 77, 109, 172, 176, 179, 180, 182, 190, 333

Harmsworth, Mr. A. C., 5

Heard Island, 6

Hodson, Mr., of _Discovery_, 308

Hussey, L. D. A., 14, 23, 27, 33, 38, 40, 43, 49-52, 61, 65, 67, 69, 76, 84, 172, 178, 182, 185, 194 account of the burial of Sir E. Shackleton, 173-177

Husvik Harbour, 76, 185

I

Ice, fresh water from sea, 118 pack, 79, 98-100, 102, 104, 107, 112, 118, 129-133, 136, 143, 149, 150, 152, 350 pancake, 135, 136 _see also_ Growlers _and_ the Pack

Icebergs, 58, 83, 85-91, 93, 96, 141, 142, 149, 152, 156, 159, 350

Ice-blink, 98, 136

Illness, prevention of, 352

Inaccessible Island, 6, 203, 205, 206, 211-213, 239, 324-325, 351

J

Jacobsen, Captain, of _Professor Gruvel_, 67, 74

Jacobsen, Mr., manager, Gritviken, 61, 66, 75, 80, 261

Jeffrey, D. G., 14, 23, 27, 38, 43, 48, 49, 52, 77-82, 83, 85, 87, 103, 105, 122, 142, 146, 149, 163, 166, 178, 186, 187, 191, 196, 197, 202, 206, 209, 231, 266, 309, 343

K

Kelp, 82, 191, 209, 214, 274, 346, 348, 363

Kelvin sounding machine, 12, 84, 318, 344

Kerr, A. J., 14, 17, 28, 29, 34, 42, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56, 74, 78, 83, 87, 92, 109, 122, 128, 136, 149, 151, 157, 159, 179, 194, 202, 292, 303, 308

Killer whales, 93, 102, 111-114, 125, 131, 132, 143, 146, 335

L

Larsen Harbour, 82, 331 (_note_ 2), 347

Least, Captain, of _Woodville_, 69, 174

Leith Harbour, 66, 76, 77, 80, 172, 190

Lisbon, 29, 30, 32, 78, 341

Lucas sounding machine, 12, 91, 92, 289, 344, 350

Lysaght, Mr. Gerald, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25

M

McIlroy, J. A., 14, 19, 27, 49, 52, 61, 65, 67, 80, 83, 91, 92, 95, 100, 104, 118, 126, 129, 140, 141, 149, 157, 159, 168, 170, 185, 194, 197, 201, 202, 232, 292

Macklin, A. H., x, 3, 6, 14, 23, 27, 38, 40, 45, 48, 49, 52, 61, 62, 67, 75, 80, 81, 83, 89, 91-95, 98, 103-105, 112, 118, 126, 132, 139, 140, 142, 147-152, 157, 159, 163, 166, 167, 185, 188, 191, 194, 196, 197, 202, 204, 214, 216, 270, 284, 292, 298, 302, 303, 309 diary, 57, 64, 122, 135, 141, 145, 153, 164, 186-188, 191, 199, 275, 294-296, 302, 304-308 medical, 352-365 Tristan da Cunha, 219-264

Macleod, T. F., 14, 19, 27, 49, 52, 77, 83, 92, 100, 123, 140, 152, 163, 169, 178, 187, 194, 201, 290

Macquarie Island, 87, 273

Madeira, 17, 19, 31, 34, 310

Manson, Captain, of _Albuera_, 67, 190

Marion Island, 6

Marr, J. W. S., 15, 21, 23, 30, 32, 36, 38, 49, 52, 77, 80, 81, 83, 84, 91, 118, 132, 140, 146, 150, 163, 169, 178, 186, 197, 202, 206, 212, 232, 304, 327 diary, 33, 94, 144, 207

Mason, J. C. Bee, 14, 23, 27-29, 31, 32

Middle Island, 205, 208, 210, 324, 351

Mill, Dr. H. R. viii, 3

Mollymauk, 213, 245, _see also_ Appendix iii

Moltke Harbour, 197

Monte Video, 67, 69, 173-177

Mooney, N. E., 15, 21, 22, 28-32

Mount Paget, 315

N

Naisbitt, C., 48, 49, 52, 77, 83, 93, 97, 98, 118, 148, 270, 278

Natural History Museum, British, 163, 314 New York, 164

_Neko_, floating factory, 177, 178, 182, 185, 186

New Zealand, 7, 285

Newnes, Sir George, 5

Nightingale Island, 6, 205-210, 211, 212, 322-324

O

_Orwell_, oil transport, 76, 288

P

Pack, the, 73, 101, 110, 113, 117, 122, 146

Paddy birds, 159, 163, 363, _see also_ Appendix iii

Pagoda Rock, 79, 96, 348

Palmer Archipelago, 74, 183

Pediunker, 213, 253

Penguin Island, 286, 348 rookeries, 81, 87, 213, 274, 284

Penguins, 80, 86, 93, 102, 156, 162, 166, 295, 363 Adelie, 115, 143, 145, 148 Emperor, 108-109, 111, 124 Gentoo, 81, 158, 160, 167 King, 87, 108, 334 Ringed, 81, 85, 141, 158, 334 Rockhopper, 213, 274, 284 _see also_ Appendix iii

Personnel, 14-15, 48, 366

_Perth_, oil transport, 184

Petrels, 99 Antarctic, 93, 111, 112, 131, 141, 143 Giant, 83, 129, 131, 186, 187 Mother Carey’s Chickens, 52, 83, 131 Snow, 111, 112, 124, 143, 145 Wilson’s, 111 _see also_ Appendix iii

Plant life, Ascension Island, 305 Gough Island, 268, 272, 285, 338-339 Nightingale Island, 207 St. Helena, 299, 300 South Georgia, 334 Tristan da Cunha, 213, 240, 244, 252, 320

Plymouth, 17, 293, 308 Sound, 18, 312

Ponta del Gada, 310

Portugal, 29

Positions, 20, 21, 22, 50, 79, 98, 104, 108, 110, 116, 117, 120, 128, 131, 136, 141, 143, 144, 147, 288, 342, _see also_ Appendix v

Possession Bay, 346

Prince Olaf Harbour, 185, 188, 189, 346

Prion, _see_ Whale bird

_Professor Gruvel_, 67, 74, 173

Q

Queen Mary’s Land, 114

Query, dog, 17, 20, 26, 62, 100, 107, 122, 143, 145, 148, 153, 196, 201, 265, 278, 284, 289

_Quest_, adaptation and equipment, 8-13; voyage to Rio, 16-37, 42-43; overhauled, 44-47; first visit to South Georgia, 48-63, 72-74, 76-79; pushing South, 80-98; in the ice, 98-144; beset, 145-152; visits Elephant Island, 153-172; second visit to South Georgia, 177-190; visits Tristan da Cunha group, 199-203, 206-209, 213, 224, 231, 233, 235, 243, 252; Gough Island, 265-270, 279-284; Cape Town, 287-293; homeward voyage, 294-296, 301, 308-313; alluded to, vii, 314, 316, 318, 340, 341, 351, 353, 365

R

Raratonga, 7

Reef, sounding for reported, 288, 349

Rio de Janeiro, 43-48, 53, 63, 77, 78, 85, 140, 182, 341, 345

“Roaring Forties,” the, 179, 199, 203

Rogers, Rev. Martin, 214, 217, 227, 232, 235, 236, 243, 248, 263

Rogers, Mrs. Martin, 235-237, 243, 248

Ross, G. H., 83, 142, 197

Ross’s Appearance of Land, 91, 137, 144, 145, 350

Rowett, Mr. J. Q., viii, 3, 5, 9, 15-17, 51, 52, 57, 66, 72, 73, 77, 173, 174, 176, 177, 204, 215, 217, 287, 290, 312, 328, 340, 365

Rowett, Mrs. J. Q., ix, 51, 52, 176

Royal Bay, 197, 316, 347

Royal Geographical Society, 2

S

St. Helena, 287, 296-301, 327

St. Paul Rocks, 6, 38-42, 325-327, 328, 345

St. Vincent, 35, 42, 62, 78, 287, 308, 309, 327, 328, 341

San Miguel Azores, 310, 327

Sapp, Captain, of _Southern Isles_, 185

Scilly Isles, 19, 30

_Scotia_, 267, 348

Scott, Captain, 14, 355, 364

Scurvy, 104-106, 353-357, 365

Sea-elephants, 81, 137, 156, 157, 159, 162-164, 186, 272, 333, 337, 363

Sea hen, _see_ Skua

Sea-leopards, 93, 112, 125, 149, 333, 335, 363

Sea life, St. Paul Rocks, 38-42 Tristan da Cunha, 336 tropical, 36

Seal meat, 103-105, 108, 125, 363

Seal Rocks, 166

Seals, 81, 107, 111-115, 143, 295, 337, 360 Arctic and Antarctic, 125 Crab-eater, 101, 114, 124, 131, 132, 139, 145, 335, 363 Weddell, 118, 333, 363

Sea-sickness, 31, 353

Shackleton, Lady, 8, 66, 67, 69, 173, 174, 176, 194

Shackleton, Sir E. H., vii-ix; plans and finance, 1-10, 14-15; on the _Quest_, 16-38, 41-43, 48-59; at Rio, 44-48; arrival at South Georgia, 60-63; death, 64-67, 365; arrangements for burial, 67-70, 173; memorial service, 174; funeral, 176; memorial cairn and grave, 192-195; alluded to, 71-79, 88, 105, 155, 156, 171, 183, 188, 312, 314, 342, 344, 350, 354-356, 362, 364 diary, 18-23, 58-59 _South_, 1, 155, 333

Sharks, 38-41, 209, 295, 337

Sinclair, Captain, of _Neko_, 182, 183

Skua, 80, 81, 129, 159, 213, 268, 272, _see also_ Appendix iii

Smith, C. E., 15, 49, 83, 84, 92, 292

Snow-blindness, 353, 361-362

Sorlle, Mr., manager, Stromness Harbour, 183, 184

Soundings, 84, 92, 96, 104, 110, 116, 117, 120, 128, 131, 141, 143, 144, 147, 171, 189, 197, 199, 214, 274, 279, 283, 286, 288, 318, 327, _see also_ Appendix v

Southampton, 8, 17, 177

South Georgia, first visit, 60-63, 80-82; second visit, 168-172, 178-198; geology, 315-317; natural history, 329-334; hydrographic work, 345-347; alluded to, 8, 57, 67, 69, 72, 73, 77-79, 91, 94, 137, 138, 173-176, 197, 201, 328, 342, 350 Sandwich Group, 347, 350 Shetlands, 183, 317 Trinidad Island, 6, 43, 287

_Southern Isles_, oil transport, 185

_Southern Sky_, 184

Sperry gyroscopic compass, 11, 344

Stefansson, 2, 14, 105, 357

Stoltenhoff Island, 205, 210, 212, 324

Stromness Harbour, 183-185

Surveys, 38, 87, 279, 285, 286, _see also_ Appendix v

T

Tagus, river, 29, 31

Temperatures, 52, 129, 143, 144, 145, 146, 150, 342

Terns, 131, 268, _see also_ Appendix iii

Traill-Smith, Comdr., 18, 293

Tristan da Cunha, 6, 179, 190, 198, 199, 203-206, 213-264, 266, 274, 291, 320-322, 336, 342, 349-351

U

Uruguay, Republic of, 174, 194

Uruguayan Government, 173-175 Minister for Foreign Affairs, 175, 177

V

Vitamines, 354-358, 363, 364

Volcanic appearances, 82, 86, 347

W

Wallis Island, 60

Water sky, 98, 107, 111, 150

Watts, H., 15, 27, 49, 66, 83, 92, 120, 140, 149, 160, 296

Weddell Sea, 72, 91, 100, 119, 142, 350

Whale birds, 52, 83, 213, _see also_ Appendix iii food, 101-102 hunting, 182-183

Whales, 101, 102, 132, 171, 333, 363

“Wideawake Valley,” 302-303

Wild, Frank, 55, 122, 142, 153, 200, 221, 223, 231-233, 236, 238, 295, 296, 342, 364

Wilkins, G. H., 14, 23, 27, 35, 37, 38, 50, 59, 77, 87, 92, 103, 108, 115, 134, 140, 149, 157, 163, 169, 179, 186, 187, 197, 206, 207, 212, 231, 285, 292, 304, 309, 327, 330, 333, 337, 340

Wind at Gough Island, 281, 283 South Georgia, 184 Tristan da Cunha, 213, 228, 251, _see also_ Appendix iv

Wireless, 10, 19, 22, 66, 140, 344-345, 348

_Woodville_, 69, 174, 175, 178, 189

Worsley, F. A., 14, 23, 27, 42, 49, 52, 54, 57, 60, 65, 76, 77, 82-85, 90-92, 94-96, 98, 103, 110, 117, 120, 122, 123, 128, 131, 133, 136, 141, 143, 144, 147-149, 161, 166, 171, 172, 183, 184, 187, 189, 194, 197, 202, 204, 214, 265, 266, 288, 294, 343

Wounds, treatment of, 362

Y

Young, S. S., 48, 49, 52, 83, 92, 163

Z

Zavodovski Island, 85-87, 318, 334, 347

PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C.4.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Captain and chief purser respectively of the _Aquitania_.

[2] The papers at the time made much of this gale. It was, however, little more than a strong blow and a zephyr compared with what we were to experience before our return to these same latitudes on our homeward run.

[3] On our return to England we learned that this beautiful ship had become a total wreck on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.

[4] An expression of Jeffrey’s.

[5] Referring to a conspicuously placed cross set up by the crew of the _Deutschland_ to one of their members who had died there.

[6] Adaptation from Tennyson’s lines on Franklin.

[7] Clothing stores.

[8] On leaving South Georgia, I had moved into Sir Ernest’s cabin, and McIlroy took my old one. Both cabins opened on to the waist of the ship, and were consequently frequently flooded with the heavy seas which rushed to and fro there.

[9] First officer of the _Endurance_.

[10] Referring to a telegram sent by Sir Robert Baden-Powell to Sir Ernest Shackleton just as we were leaving England to the effect that if the Scouts did not serve him well he would “skin them alive” on their return.

[11] For the substitution of the adjective I apologize to the entrant.

[12] A sea term, meaning that we filled the tanks full to the top.

[13] Dr. Macklin’s account.

[14] Dr. Macklin’s account.

[15] I learn on going to press that H.M.S. _Dublin_ is to visit the island in the near future.

[16] W. T. Gordon, D.Sc., King’s College, London.

[17] Renard (A). Voyage of H.M.S. _Challenger_, Phys. and Chem., Vol. ii, 1889, p. 120.

[18] Berwerth (F). Mikroskopische Structurbilder der Massengesteine, Lief II, No 16 (1897).

[19] Mr. Clark, the biologist of the _Endurance_, found them nesting in burrows in the middle of Moraine Plain, Cumberland Bay.

[20] Mr. Clark found them in numbers at Larsen Harbour in November, 1914.

[21] Mr. Clark, of the _Endurance_, saw a few in West Bay, Cumberland Bay, in November, 1914.

[22] “Three Years on Tristan da Cunha,” by K. M. Barrow.

[23] A complete and interesting report has been received at the last moment from Capt. Wilkins, too late to go to press. It is hoped that this will be published separately at an early date.—AUTHOR.

[24] Anti-beri-beri.

[25] As events turned out, dogs were not used in the _Quest_ expedition, but the writer has decided to include this point in his observations.