CHAPTER XXI
AUTOMATIC DOSING DEVICES
=283. Types.=—Automatic dosing devices are used to apply sewage to contact beds, trickling filters, and intermittent sand filters. These devices can be separated into two classes; those with moving parts and those without moving parts. The latter are better known as air-locked dosing devices. Simple devices without moving parts are less liable to disorders and are nearer “fool-proof” than any device depending on moving parts for its operation.
No one type of moving part device has been used extensively in different sewage treatment plants. Designing engineers have exercised their ingenuity at different plants, resulting in the production of different types.[207] Among the best known forms is the apparatus designed by J. W. Alvord for the intermittent sand filters at Lake Forest, Illinois.[208] In its operation....
A float in the dosing chamber lifts an iron ball in one of a series of wooden columns, and at a certain height the ball rolls through a trough from one column to the next, in its passage striking a catch, which opens an air valve attached to one of ten bell-siphons in the dosing chamber. Each of the siphons discharges on one of the ten sand beds, which are thus dosed in rotation.
Since air-locked dosing devices are in more general use their operation will be explained in greater detail.
=284. Operation.=—The simplest form of these devices is the automatic siphon used for flush-tanks, the operation of which is described in Art. 61.
In the operation of sand filters, sprinkling filters, or other forms of treatment where there are two or more units to be dosed it is desirable that the dosing of the beds be done alternately. A simple arrangement for two siphons operating alternately is shown in Fig. 182. They operate as follows: with the dosing tank empty at the start water will stand at _bb′_ in siphon No. 2 and at _aa′_ in siphon No. 1. As the water enters through the inlet on the left the tank fills. When the water rises sufficiently, air is trapped in the bells, and as the water continues to rise in the tank, surfaces _a_ and _b_ are depressed an equal amount. When _b_ has been depressed to _d_, _a_ has been depressed to _c_. Air is released from siphon No. 2 through the short leg, and siphon No. 2 goes into operation. Surface _c_ rises in siphon No. 1 as the tank empties and when the action of Siphon No. 2 is broken by the admission of air when the bottom of the bell is uncovered the water in siphon No. 1 has assumed the position of _bb′_ and that in No. 2 is at _aa′_. The conditions of the two siphons are now reversed from that at the beginning of the operation and as the tank refills siphon No. 1 will go into operation. It is to be noted that these siphons are made to alternate by weakening the seal of the next one to discharge and by strengthening the seal of the one which has just discharged.
=285. Three Alternating Siphons.=—This principle can be extended to the operation of three alternating siphons as shown in Fig. No. 183. These operate as follows: with the dosing tank empty at the start and water at _aa′_ in siphons 1 and 2, and at _bb′_ in siphon No. 3, the dosing tank will be allowed to fill. As the water rises in the tank air is trapped in all the bells and surfaces _a_ and _b_ are depressed. When surface _b_ has been depressed to _d_, _a_ has been depressed to _c_. Air is released from siphon No. 3 and this siphon goes into action. Surface _c_ rises in siphons 1 and 2 to the position _b_, as the dosing tank is emptied. At the same time a small amount of water is passed from siphon No. 3 to the short leg of siphon No. 1, through the small pipes shown, thus filling this leg so that when siphon No. 3 ceases to operate the water in siphons 1 and 3 stands at _aa′_ and that in No. 2 stands at _bb′_. Siphon No. 2, having the weaker seal, will be the next to operate. During its operation it will fill siphon No. 3, leaving No. 1 weak. When No. 1 operates it will refill No. 2, leaving No. 3 weak, thus completing a cycle for the three siphons. This principle has not been applied to the operation of more than three alternating siphons and is seldom used on recent installations.
=286. Four or More Alternating Siphons.=—An arrangement for the alternation of four or more siphons is illustrated in Fig. 184. At the commencement of the cycle it will be assumed that all starting wells are filled with water except well No. 1, and that all main and all blow-off traps are filled with water. The following description of the operation of the siphons is taken from the catalog of the Pacific Flush Tank Company:
The liquid in the tank gradually rises and finally overflows into the starting well No. 1 and the starting bell being filled with air, pressure is developed which is transmitted, as shown by the arrows, to the blow-off trap connected with siphon No. 2. When the discharge line is reached, sufficient head is obtained on the starting bell to force the seal in blow-off trap No. 2, thus releasing the air confined in siphon No. 2 and bringing it into full operation.
During the time that siphon No. 2 is operating, siphonic action is developed in the draining siphon connected with starting well No. 2 and as soon as the level in the tank is below the top of the well it is drained down to a point below the bottom of starting well No. 2. It can now be seen that after the first discharge starting well No. 2 is empty, whereas the other three are full.... Therefore when the tank is filled the second time, pressure is developed in starting bell No. 2, which forces the seal of blow-off trap No. 3, thus starting siphon No. 3....
This alternation can be continued for any number of siphons. Other arrangements have been devised for the automatic control of alternating siphons, but these principles of the air-locked devices are fundamental.
=287. Timed Siphons.=—In the operation of a number of contact beds not only must the dosing of the tanks be alternated, but some method is needed by which the beds shall be automatically emptied after the proper period of standing full. To fulfill this need the principle of the timed siphon must be employed in conjunction with the alternating siphons. Fig. 185 illustrates the operation of the Miller timed siphon. Its operation is as follows: water is admitted to the contact bed and transmitted to the main siphon chamber through the “opening into bed.” Water flows from the main siphon chamber into the timing chamber at a rate determined by the timing valve. The contact bed is held full during this period. As the timing chamber fills with water air is caught in the starting bell and the pressure is increased until the seal in the main blow-off trap is blown and the main siphon is put into operation. As the water level in the main siphon chamber descends, water flows from the timing chamber into the main siphon through the draining siphon and the timing chamber is emptied, ready to commence another cycle.
=288. Multiple Alternating and Timed Siphons.=[209]—The alternating and timing of a number of beds is more complicated. The arrangement necessary for this is shown in Fig. 186. It will be assumed at the start that all beds are empty and that all feeds are air locked as shown in Section _AB_ except that to bed No. 4 into which sewage is running. As bed No. 4 fills, sewage is transmitted through the opening in the wall into the timed siphon chamber No. 4. When the level of the water in the bed and therefore in this chamber has reached the top of the withdraw siphon leading to the compression dome chamber No. 4, this latter chamber is quickly filled. The air pressure in starting bell No. 4_a_ is transmitted to blow-off trap No. 1_a_. The seal of this trap is blown, releasing the air lock in feed No. 1 and the flow into bed No. 1 is commenced. At the same time the air pressure in compression dome No. 4 is transmitted to feed No. 4, air locking this feed and stopping the flow into bed No. 4. The alternation of the feed into the different beds is continued in this manner.
Bed No. 4 is now standing full and No. 1 is filling. When compression dome chamber No. 4 was filled, water started flowing through timing siphon valve No. 4 into timing chamber No. 4 at a rate determined by the amount of the opening of the timing valve. As this chamber fills compression is transmitted to blow-off trap 4_b_ and when sufficiently great this trap is blown and timed siphon No. 4 is put into operation. Bed No. 4 is emptied by it, and compression dome chamber No. 4 is emptied through the withdraw siphon at the same time. This completes a cycle for the filling and emptying of one bed and the method of passing the dose on to another bed has been explained. The principle can be extended to the operation of any number of beds.
INDEX
A. B. C. process of sewage treatment, 4
Abandonment of contract, 225
Access to work, 228, 229
Accident, contractor’s responsibility, 221, 224
Acetylene, explosive, 347
Acid precipitation. _See_ Miles Acid Process. of sludge, 503
Acids as disinfectants, 489, 490
Activated sludge. Chapter XVIII, 465–479 advantages and disadvantages, 469, 470 aëration tank, 471, 472 air diffusion, 475, 477 air distribution, 473–478 air quantity, 475, 476 area of filtros plates, 478 colloid removal, 358 composition, 465–469 cost, 478, 479 definition, 466 dewatering, 468, 469, 497–505 fertilizing value, 469, 470 historical, 470, 471 how obtained, 478 nitrogen content, 468 patent, 471 process, 465 quantity, 469 reaëration tank, 473 results, 467, 468, 476 sedimentation tank, 472
Advertisement, 214
Aëration, effect on oxygen dissolved, 373–375 of sewage, 371, 376, 465–479
Aërobes, 363
Aërobic decomposition, 366, 367
Aftergrowths, 492
Aggregates, specifications, 172–174
Air, see also ventilation, activated sludge, compressed air, etc. ejectors, 150 lock dosing apparatus. Chap. XXI, 506–512 machinery for activated sludge, 473, 474
Algæ, 363
Alkalinity, 358
Alleys, sewers in, 80
Alum, 407, 408
Alvord tank, 427, 429
Ammonia, 366, 367, 374, 375, 410 explosives, 297
Analyses, bacteriological, 364 chemical, 354, 355 mechanical of sand, 182 physical, 352–354 sewage, 352–364
Anaërobes, 363, 365–367
Anaërobic, action, 410 bacteria, 363 conditions, 367 decomposition, 365–367
Ann Arbor, Michigan, Population, 14
Annual expense, method of financing, 157, 158
Ansonia air ejector, 150, 151
Antibiosis, definition, 363
Appurtenances to sewers. Chap. VI, 99–115
Arch, analyses, 204–208 elastic method, 206–208 vouissoir analysis, 204–206 brick construction, 312, 313 centers for brick sewers, 313 concrete construction, 318–321
Ardern and Lockett, development of activated sludge, 467, 468, 471
Area of cities, 31
Asphyxiation in sewer gas, 336
Assessments, special, 15, 16
Augers, earth, 21
Automatic, regulators, 117–121 siphons, flush-tanks, 110 double alternating, 507 multiple alternating, 508–512 timed, 510 timed and multiple alternating, 510–512 triple alternating, 508
Bacillus, definition and morphology, 362, 363
Backfilling, 328–331
Backfill, puddling, 330 weight of, 199, 201
Backwater curve, 73
Bacteria, definition and morphology, 362, 363 good and bad, 363, 364 nature of, 362, 363 nitrifying, 431, 432 sanitary significance of, 364 in sewage, 362, 363 total count, 364
Bacterial analyses, results in sewage, 364
Baffles, scum, 404, 413, 414, 421 in sedimentation tanks, 404 in septic tanks, 413, 414 in Imhoff tanks, 421
Balls, for cleaning sewers, 338
Band screen, 384
Barring, definition, 263
Bars for screens, 390
Basins, sedimentation, baffling, 404 bottoms, 404 cleaning arrangements, 404 depth, 401 economical dimensions, 401–403 inlets and outlets, 404 scum boards, 404 types, 395
Basket handle sewer section, 67, 69
Bathing beaches, pollution, 381
Bazin’s formula, 54
Bearings, for centrifugal pumps, 131, 137, 138 thrust, 138
Bellmouth, 121, 122
Bends in pipe, loss of head in, 116
Berlin, sewage farm, 460, 461 sewers, date of, 3
Bids, proposal, 217–219
Bidder’s duties, 215–217
Bio-chemical oxygen demand, 359–361
Biolysis of sewage, 366, 367
Black and Phelps dilution formulas, 377–379
Blasting and explosives, 294–304 caps, 297, 299, 300 detonators, 294, 297–300 firing, 302–304 fuses and detonators, 297–300 fuses, delayed action, 291, 300 fuses, electric, 299, 300 splicing, 303 gelatine, 296 loading holes, 303 powder, 295 precautions, 300–302 priming and loading, 303 rock, 269 size of charge, 304, 305 tunneling, 290, 291
Bleach, characteristics of for disinfection, 491
Block sewer, construction, 311–314 hollow tile as underdrains, 126
Blocks, vitrified clay, 189, 190
Boilers, steam, 147–150
Boilers, efficiencies, 149 horse-power, 149
Bond, contractor’s, 213, 214, 232 issues, 14
Bonds, definition and types, 14–16
Boring underground, 20
Bottom, activated sludge aëration tank, 472 Imhoff tanks, 423 sedimentation tanks, 404 trickling filter, 451, 452
Box sheeting, 272
Branch sewer, defined, 7
Breast boards, 288
Brick, arch construction, 312, 313 and block sewer construction, 311–315 invert construction, 311, 312 sewer construction, 311–315 arch centers, 313 invert, 311–312 organization, 314, 315 progress, 314 row lock bond, 312 specifications, 188, 189 sewers, life of, 351
Bricks for sewers, 316
British Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, 4
Broad irrigation. _See_ under Irrigation.
Bucket excavators, 246, 255, 256
Building material, weight of, 201
Burkli-Ziegler formula, 47, 425
Butyrine, 366
Cableway excavators, 246, 250–252
Cage screen, 384, 385
Caisson excavation, 285, 286
Calcium carbide, explosive, 347
Calumet pumping station, 128, 142
Cameron septic patent, 411
Capacity of sewers, diagrams, 57–60
Capital, private invested in sewers, 17
Capitalization, method of financing, 157–160
Caps, blasting. _See_ blasting.
Carbohydrate, 366, 367
Carbon, analysis for, 356 dioxide, 366, 367
Carson Trench machine, 250, 251
Cast-iron pipe, 122, 164, 190, 191 joints, 164 quality, 101, 102, 190
Castings, iron, 101, 102
Catch-basins, 99, 107–108, 217 cleaning, 343, 344 inspection, 337
Catenary sewer section, 69
Cellars, depth of, 88
Cellulose, 367
Cement. _See also_ Concrete, pipe, specifications, manufacture and sizes, 171–179 vs. concrete, 164
Centrifugal pumps. _See_ pumps, centrifugal.
Centrifuge for sludge drying, 501, 502
Cesspool, 411, 416, 417
Champaign, Illinois, septic tank, 415, 416
Changes in plan, 222, 223
Channeling, definition, 263
Character of surface, 44
Chemical analyses, 354–362
Chemical precipitation, 371, 405–409 chemicals used, 405–407 preparation of chemicals, 407, 408 results, 408, 409 at Worcester, 408
Chezy formula, 52, 53
Chicago. _See also_ Sanitary District of Chicago. drainage canal, 374, 375 dilution requirement for sewage, 380 early sewers, 3 method of sewage disposal, 374 population and density, 29, 30 trench excavation in, 248
Chlorine. _See also_ Disinfection. disinfectant, 489–493 in sewage, 358, 374, 375
Chlorine liquid, application, 491, 492
Cholera, transmittable disease, 364
Chromatin, 365
Chutes for concrete, 187
Circular sewer section, hydraulic elements, 65, 66, 69 types, 70, 71
City, growth of area, 31 growth of population, 24–28 legal powers, 219
Clay, life of pipe, 349–351 manufacture of pipe, 165–167 specifications for pipe, 168–170 unglazed for pipe, 165 vitrified blocks, 167, 189, 190 vitrified pipe, 165–171
Cleaning, grit chambers, 398, 400 sedimentation basins, 404 sewers, cost, 341 in N. Y. City, 332 methods, 337–343 tools, 338–340 up after completion of work, 228
Coccus, 362
Coefficient of uniformity of sand, 456
Coffin sewer regulator, 117, 118
Colloid, nature of, 358 treatment for, 358
Color of sewage, 352, 353
Combined sewer system, 78, 79
Commercial districts, characteristics of and sewage from, 32, 34, 35
Compensators for pumps, 142
Compressed air. _See also_ ventilation, tunneling, drilling, etc. activated sludge, 473–475 for drilling, 264–268 in tunnels, 292–294 transporting concrete, 320, 321
Concentration, time of flood flow, 41–43, 96, 97
Concrete, aggregates, 172–174 mixing and placing, 184–188 pipe, details, 175–179 manufacture, 171–179 reinforcement, 177, 178, 209, 210 pipe, steam process, 176 sizes, 175 pressure against forms, 232, 323
Concrete, proportioning, 179–183 qualities, 179, 180 reinforcement, placing, 178, 326, 327 reinforcing steel, quality, 191 sewer construction, 314–328 arch, 318–321 form length, 319 labor costs, 327, 328 in open cut, 314–320 in tunnel, 320, 321 invert, 315–320 organization for, 328 working joints, 319 sewer costs, 327–329 strength, 181 waterproofing, 184
Conduits, special sections, 67, 70, 71
Connections to sewers, ordinances, 344, 345 record of 92, 238
Construction of sewers, Chap. XI, 233–331
Construction, elements of, 233 organizations, 315, 328
Contact bed, 432–437, 506 advantages and disadvantages, 432–434 automatic control, 437, 506 cleaning, 435 clogging, 435 construction, 434–436 control, 437, 506 cycle, 436, 437 depth, 434 description, 432, 433 design, 434–436 dimensions, 434, 435 loss of capacity, 435 material, 435, 436 multiple, 433, 435 operating conditions, 432–437 rate, 435 results, 433, 434 ripening, 432
Continuous bucket excavators, 246–250
Contour interval on maps, 79, 80
Contracts, Chap. X, 211–232 abandonment of, 225 assignment, 228 completion of, 222, 228 bond, 213, 222 content, 213, 230, 231 cost-plus, 212, 213 disputes, 220 divisions of, 213 drawings, 213 engineer as an arbitrator, 220 the instrument, 230, 231 interpretation of, 220, 234, 235 lump sum, 212 nature of, 211, 212 sample, 230, 231 time allowed, 222 types, 212, 213 unit-price, 213
Contractor, absence of, 222 bond, 232 claims against, 228 duties, 221 liability, 224 relations with other contractors, 228, 229
Contractor’s powder, 294
Control devices, automatic, for sewers, 117–121 for filters, 500–512 inspection of, 336, 337
Copper sulphate, disinfectant, 490
Copperas, precipitant, 406–408
Cordeau Bickford, 298, 303
Corrugated iron pipe, 165
Cost. _See_ under item wanted.
Cost, annual. Method of financing, 157–160 capitalized. Method of financing, 157–160 classification of, 235–238 comparisons of. Methods for making, 157–160 collection of data, 10–14, 235–238 estimate. Method of making, 10–14 overhead, 237, 238
Couplings, flexible for shafts, 138
Covers, Imhoff tanks, 424 septic tanks, 415 trickling filters, 451
Crops on sewage farms, 463, 464
Cunette, 67, 70
Cut, depth of excavation, 88, 92
Cycle, contact bed, 436 life and death, 367, 431 nitrogen, 367, 368 trickling filter, 441
Cylinders, stresses in, 194, 202–204
Cytoplasm, 365
Damages, liquidated, 222 material, 221, 224
Darcy’s formula, 52
Day labor, 211
Decomposition of sewage, 365–367
Definitions. _See_ word defined.
Deflagration, definition, 294
Delays in contract work, 228
Delayed action fuses, 291, 300
Densities. _See_ population.
Depreciation, of sewers, 348–351 rate of, financial, 158
Depth of sewers, 88
Design conditions, 88–92 economical, mathematics of, 401–403 preparations for, 17–23
Detention period, grit chamber, 397 Imhoff tank, 419 plain sedimentation, 392–395, 401 septic tank, 415
Detonation, definition, 294
Detonator. _See_ blasting cap.
Diameter of sewers, 57–60, 72, 88–92
Diaphragm pump, 257, 258
Diesel engine, 152, 154
Digestion chamber, Imhoff tank, 422, 423
Digestion of sludge in separate tank, 427–430, 497
Dilution, amount needed, 377–380 conditions for success, 372, 373
Dilution, definition, 372 formulas for quantity, 378–380 governmental control, 380, 381 preliminary studies, 381, 382 in salt water, 376, 377 in streams, 372–376 of sewage, 370 and Chap. XIV, 372–382
Diseases, water-borne, 364
Disinfection, 489–493 action of, 489–491 bleaching powder, 491 chlorine, liquid, 491 amount of, 492 disinfectants, 489, 490 purpose, 489 selective action of disinfectants, 492, 493
Disk screen, 384
Disposal of sewage, _See_ sewage treatment.
Disputes, engineer to settle, 220
Dissolved oxygen. _See_ Oxygen dissolved.
Distribution of sewage, contact beds, 436 irrigation, 461, 462 nozzles, 442–449 sand filter, 450–458 traveling distributor, 442 trickling filters, 441–451
Districts, character of, 29, 30, 32–37 classification of, 34, 35
Domestic sewage, defined, 6, 7, 352
Dorr Thickeners, 472, 504
Dortmund tank, 404
Dosing devices, 506–512 alternating and timed siphons, 500–512 Alvord device at Lake Forest, 506 four or more alternating siphons, 509 operation of automatic siphon, 110 three alternating siphons, 508 timed siphons, 510 two alternating siphons, 507 types, 506
Dosing tank design, for trickling filter, 446–450
Doten tank, 429, 430
Drag line excavators, 255, 256
Drainage areas, 81, 84, 94
Drills, electric, 267 jack hammer, 264, 265 punch, 20 size of cylinder for, 266 tripod, 264, 265
Drilling, methods, 20–23, 264–270 depth, diameter and spacing of holes, 268–270 power for, 267, 268 rate of, in rock, 267 steam and air, 267, 268
Drop manhole, 100, 101
Drop-down curve, 73, 77
Drum screen, 384
Dry weather flow, 24, 38
Drying sludge. _See_ sludge drying.
Dualin, 296
Duty of contractor. _See_ Contractor, duties
Duty of engineer. _See_ Engineer, duties.
Duty of inspector. _See_ Inspector, duties.
Duty of a pump, defined, 135
Dynamite, 296–298, 300–302, 304, 305 cartridge, 268, 296, 302 thawing, 301, 302
Dysentery, 365
Earth pressures, theories, 274, 275
Economical dimensions, mathematics of, 401–403
Effective size of sand, defined, 456
Efficiency of a pump, defined, 135
Effluents, character of activated sludge, 467, 468 chemical precipitation, 408 contact bed, 434 Imhoff tank, 414, 424, 425, 432 lime and electricity, 489 Miles acid process, 484, 485 sand filter, 453
Effluents, sedimentation tank, 401 septic tank, 412–414
Egg-shaped section, 67, 68, 70
Ejectors, air, 150, 151
Elastic arch analysis, 206–208
Electric motors, 150–152
Electrolytic treatment, 487–489
Elevations, method of recording, 92
Emergencies, duties of engineer, 235
Emerson pump, 261
Engines, internal combustion, 152–154 steam, types, 142–144.
Engineer, absence of, 221 defined, 220 disputes settled by, 220, 234 duties of, 9, 10, 220, 233, 234, 238 individuality and personality, 9, 234 qualifications, 9 sanitary, definition, 2
Engineering News pile formula, 125, 126
Entering sewers, precautions, 335, 336
Enzymes, 365
Equipment for construction, 237
Equivalent sections, defined, 72 solution of problems in, 67–72
Estimates, cost and work done, 10–14 when made, 226 data for, 235
Excavation, depth of open cut, 284 drainage, 252, 262 hand, 242–245, 249 economy, 245 laborer’s ability, 243 lay out of tasks, 243
Excavation, hand, opening trench, 243 vs. machine, 245, 249 tools, 242 machine, 244–246 economy, 245 limitations, 246 vs. hand, 245, 249 specifications, 240, 241
Excavating machines, bucket, 246, 255 cableway and trestle, 246, 250–252 Carson machine, 250, 251 continuous belt, 246 bucket, 246, 247 drag line, 255 Potter machine, 251 steam shovel, 252–254 tower cableway, 252 wheel excavators, 246–250
Excavation, machine, organization, 249 pumping and drainage, 256, 257 quicksand, 256 rock, 263, 264 payment for, 230 specifications, 240, 241 trench bottom, 241, 304, 311
Explosions in sewers, 108, 336, 346–348 causes of, 346 historical, 346 prevention, 108, 348
Explosives. _See also_ Blasting.
Explosives, and blasting, 294–304 ammonia compounds, 297 blasting gelatine, 296 contractor’s powder, 294 deflagrating, 294 detonating, 294 detonators, 294, 297–300 “Don’ts,” 300, 301 dynamite, 296–298, 300–302, 304, 305 fuses and detonators, 297–300 gelatine dynamite, 296 gunpowder, 295 handling, 300–302 nitro-glycerine, 295 nitro-substitution compounds, 295 permissible, 297 quantity, 304, 305 requirements, 294 strength of, 297, 298 T.N.T., 295 types, 294–297
Exponential formulas for flow of water, 54, 55
Extra work, compensation, 227
Facultative bacteria, 363
Fanning’s run-off formula, 49
Farms, septic tanks for, 416, 417
Farming with sewage. _See_ irrigation.
Fats in sewage, 357–359, 366, 367 from Miles acid process, 485–487
Feathers, for splitting rock, 264
Ferrous sulphate, precipitant, 406–408
Fertilizer from sludge, 470, 495, 497
Fertilizing value of, activated sludge, 470 sewage, 459, 460
Filter press for sludge, 500, 501
Filters. _See_ under name of filter.
Filtration, of sewage, 370, 371, 431–459 action in, theory of, 431 cost, 458, 459
Filtros plates, 477, 478
Finances, mathematics of, 157–160
Financing, methods of, 14–17
Flamant’s formula, 54, 56
Flies on trickling filters, 438
Flight sewer, 101, 102
Flood, crest velocities, 42, 43 flow computations, 94–98 McMath formula, 94, 96, 97 Rational method, 95–98
Flow, laws of, 52 velocity of, 52, 90, 91
Fluctuations, in rate of sewage flow, 33–38 in quality of sewage, 368–370
Flush-tanks, automatic, 109–113 capacity, 111 details, 110, 112 inspection of, 336, 337 payment for, 217 siphon sizes, 111
Flushing, 109–113, 341–343 amount of water needed, 112 methods, 341–343 manhole, 109 sewer, defined, 8
Foaming of Imhoff tanks, 425, 426
Foot valves, 141
Force main, defined, 8
Forms, design of, 322, 323 length of, 319 materials, 321, 322 oiling, 174, 186, 322 specifications, 322 steel, 325, 326 steel-lined, 325 support for, 316, 318 time in place, 319 wooden, 323, 324
Formulas, hydraulic, methods for solution, 55–61 for flow of water, 52–55 for rainfall. _See_ Rainfall, for run-off. _See_ Run-off.
Foundations, 99, 124–126
Franchises for sewers, 17
Free ammonia, 366, 367, 374, 375, 410
Freezing, catch-basins, 108 concrete, 186, 187 dynamite, 301, 302
Fresh sewage, characteristics, 352–354
Friction losses. _See_ Head losses. flow in pipe, 51, 52
Fuel, consumption by prime movers, 153 costs, 153 heat value, 150
Fungus growth in sewers, 333
Fuses. _See_ blasting fuses.
Ganguillet and Kutter’s formula, 52–65
Gas, chamber in Imhoff tank. _See_ Scum chamber. engines, 152–154 illuminating, explosive, 347 sewer, 335, 336
Gasoline, explosive, 108, 109, 335, 346, 347 engines, 152–154 and oil separator, 109 odors, significance, 335, 353
Gearing, reduction for turbines, 140, 146
Gelatine dynamite, 296
Glycerol, 366
Gothic section, 67
Governmental control, stream pollution, 380, 381
Grade, of sewers. _See also_ Slope. how given, 281–284 selection of, 90 stakes, 221, 281–283
Gravel, specifications, 172
Grease, in sewers, 99, 108, 333, 345 cutter, 340 ordinance concerning, 345 traps, 99, 108
Gregory’s imperviousness formulas, 44, 46
Grit, clogs sewers, 333 chambers, 127, 397–401 description, 395, 398 design, 397, 398 dimensions, 397, 398 existing, 398–400 outlet arrangements, 400 results, 397 retention period, 397 sludge analyses, 397 units, number of, 400, 401 velocity of flow in, 396–398 quantity and character of, 397
Grooves in concrete, working joints, 319
Ground water in sewers, 38, 39, 85, 87, 256, 352
Gun cotton, 296
Gunpowder, 295
Hazen, theory of sedimentation, 392–395 dilution formula, 380
Hazen and William’s formula, 55, 57
Head loss, in bends, 116 entrance, 115 friction in straight pipe, 51, 52, 115
Hercules powder, 296
Hering, Rudolph, dilution recommendations, 380
Hering, Rudolph, introduction of Imhoff tank and hydraulic formulas, 425
Historical résumé of sewerage and sewage treatment, 2–5
Hitch, tunnel frame, 286, 287
Holes, drill. _See_ Drill holes.
Holidays, work on, 221
Hook for lifting pipe, 304, 306
Horse-power, boiler, 149, 150 of pumps, 144–146
Horseshoe sewer section, 71
House, connections, record of, 92, 234 drains, 7, 88, 90 sewer, defined, 7
Hydraulic, elements, 65, 69 formulas, 52–55 jump, 73–74 principles, 51, 52, 72, 73 value of settling particles, 393
Hydraulics of, sewers, Chap. IV, 51–77 circular pipes partly full, 65, 66 equivalent sections, 72 non-uniform flow, 72–77 sections other than circular, 67–72 use of diagrams, 61–65
Hydrocarbon, 367
Hydrogen sulphide, 353, 366, 410
Hydrolytic tank, 427, 428
“Hypo” as a disinfectant, 491
Hytor Turbo blower, 473, 474
Illinois River, self-purification, 374–376
Imhoff tank, and chlorination, costs, 487 cover, 424 description, 417–419 design, 419–424 digestion chamber, 422 inlet and outlet, 421 operation, 426–427 patent, 418 results, 414, 424, 425, 439, 467 sedimentation chamber, 419–422 scum chamber, 424 slot, 422 sludge, 414, 467 sludge pipe, 423, 424 status, 425, 426 and trickling filter, cost, 479
Impeller, for centrifugal pump, 131, 136
Imperviousness, relative, 40, 42, 44–46, 95–97
Industrial, districts, 32–37 wastes, defined, 7, 352 tannery, 491
Information and instructions for bidders, 213, 215–217
Inlets, street, 93, 94, 99, 104–107
Inspection, contract stipulations, 221–224 during construction, 233, 234 for maintenance, 104, 333–337, 348, 349
Inspector, absence of, 221, 222 duties, 233–234 qualifications, 234
Institutional sewage treatment plants, 416, 417
Intercepting sewer, defined, 7
Intermittentsand filter. _See_ Sand filter.
Internal combustion engines, 152–154
Inverted siphon, 113–116
Iron, ferrous sulphate, precipitant, 406–408 cast. _See_ cast iron.
Irrigation. _See also_ Farming and Sewage farming. area required, 463 Berlin sewage farm, 460, 461 crops, 463, 464 description, 459 fertilizing value of sewage, 460, 470, 495, 498 vs. farming, 459 operation, 461–463 preliminary treatment, 462, 463 preparation for, 461–463 process, 459, 460 sanitary aspects 463 status, 460, 461 theory, 432 in the United States, 461
Jack hammer drill, 264, 265
Jetting method, 21–23
Jet pump, 259, 341, 343
Joints, bituminous, 309–311 in cast-iron pipe, 164 cement, 307, 308 inspection of, 234 lead, 164 mortar, 307 open, 307 poured, 309–311 cement, 309, 311 riveted steel, 195, 196 sulphur and sand, 309 types, for pipe, 307 working, in concrete, 319
Junctions, 99
Kuichling, run-off rules, 46, 47, 49 storm intensity formulas, 50
Kutter’s formula, 52–65
Labor, day vs. contract, 211 costs on concrete sewer, 328, 329
Labyrinth packing rings, 136, 137
Lagging, tunnel frames, 287 for forms, 322
Lagooning sludge, 495–497
Laitance, 186, 188
Lakes, self-purification of, 376
Lampé’s formula, 54
Lampholes, 99, 104
Lateral sewer, defined, 7
Lawrence Experiment Station, 4
Leaping weir, 118–121, 337
Legal requirements, construction, 224 dilution, 380, 381 in design, 9
Liernur system, 5
Life, organic in sewage, 363, 364 of sewers, 348–351
Lime as a precipitant, 405–408 with electricity, 488, 489 with iron, 406, 407
Line and grade, 281–284 how given, 281–283
Liquefaction of sludge, 411–413, 496, 497
Liquid chlorine. _See also_ Chlorine, 491
Liquidated damages, 222
Loads on, pipe, 198–202 Marston’s method, 198–202 trench, 199–202
Lock bar pipe, 197
Lock-joint pipe, 177
Long loads, 201
Machine excavation. _See_ Excavation.
Macroscopic organisms, 363, 368
Main sewer, defined, 7
Maintenance of sewers, Chap. XII, 332–351 catch-basin cleaning, 343, 344 cleaning sewers, 337–343 complaints, 333 cost, 341 entering sewers, 335, 336 flushing, 109–113, 341–343 hand cleaning, 341 inspection, 333–337 organization, 332 protection of sewers, 344, 345 repairs, 337 tools, 338–341 troubles, 333 work involved, 332
Man, shoveling ability, 243
Manholes, 81, 99–104 bottom, 100 cover, 102–103 drop, 101 flushing, 109, 342 location and numbering, 81 payment methods, 217, 218 steps, 100, 103, 104
Manning’s formula, 55
Map, preliminary, 17, 79, 80, 82, 83
Marsh gas, 347, 366, 367, 410, 415
Marston’s methods for external loads on buried pipe, 198–202
Materials, for sewers, Chap. VIII, 164–193 measurement of, 236, 237 record of, 237 unit weights, 201, 202
McMath’s formula, 47, 48, 94, 95
Meem’s theory of earth pressure, 274, 275
Mercaptan, 367
Metabolism, 365
Methane, 347, 366, 367, 410, 415
Methylene blue, 360
Microscopic organisms, 363, 364, 368
Miles acid process, costs, 487 amount of acid, 483 analyses of sludge, 485 description, 482 results, 483–487 sludge, 485
Mineral matter in sewage, 357
Mirror, inspecting device, 334
Money retained by city, 227
Mosquitoes in catch-basins, 108
Motors, electric, 150–152
Municipal, bond, 14, 15 corporations, 15
_n_, value of in Kutter’s formula, 53
New York City, density of population, 29, 31 siphons under subway, 114 grease and gasoline trap, 108, 109 aëration of sewage, 377, 470 cleaning sewers, 332 depreciation of sewers, 348–351
Needle beam, 286, 287
Night, soil, 5 work, 221
Nitrates, 355, 356
Nitrites, 355, 356
Nitrifying organisms, 431, 432
Nitrobacter, 431, 432
Nitro explosives, 295, 296
Nitrogen, cycle, 367, 368 organic, 355, 356
Nitro-glycerine, 295
Nitrosomonas, 431, 432
Nomograph, 55, 56
Non-uniform flow, 72–77
Nozzles. _See also_ Trickling filters. coefficients of discharge, 446 types, 445
Numbering, drainage areas, 81, 94 manholes, 81
Nye steam pump, 260, 263
Obstructions to construction, 235
Odor of sewage, 353
Oil in sewage, 108, 344–348
Oiling forms, 174, 186, 322
Olein, 366
Ordinances, for protection of sewers, 344, 345
Organisms in sewage, 363, 364, 368
Organic matter, composition, 366
Organizations for construction, 315, 317, 328
Orders, to whom given, 222
Outfall sewer, defined, 8
Outlets, 99, 122–124, 373
Overflow weir, 118–121 inspection of, 337
Overhead, costs, division of, 10, 237, 238 -track excavators, 246, 250, 251
Oxidation in streams, 373–376
Oxygen, absorption of, 374–377 consumed, 355, 356 demand, 359–361 computation of, 360 bio-chemical, 359–361
Oxygen dissolved exhaustion of, 366 in dilution, 381 solubility, 362 supersaturation, 361 concentration for successful dilution, 377–380 formulas for concentration, 378–380 significance of in sewage, 359–362
Oysters, contamination of, 372, 489
Packing rings, labyrinth type, 136, 137
Palmatin, 366
Parasites, 365
Paris sewage farm, 460
Patents. Protection of City by contractor, 224, 225
Pathogenic bacteria, 364
Pavement, replacing, 329
Payment, final on contract, 228
Payments, methods of making, 217, 218
Periscope inspecting device, 334, 335
Permissible explosives, 297
Phenolphthalein indicator, 408
Photographic records, 238
Piles for foundations, 123–126
Pills for cleaning sewers, 338
Pipe, bedding, 230, 304, 328 cast-iron. _See_ under cast-iron pipe. design of ring, Chap. IX, 194–210 external loads on, 198–202 joints. _See_ Joints. sewer construction, 304–311 laying, line and grade, 282–284 organization, 311 method of laying, 304, 306, 307 steel, design, 195–197 stresses in, external forces, 194, 202–204 stresses due to internal pressure, 194 stresses in buried pipe, 198–204 stresses in circular ring, 202–204 wood design, 197, 198
Plankton, defined, 363 in sewage, 368
Plans, changes in contract, 222, 223
Plug and feathers for splitting rock, 264
Pneumatic, collection system, 5 concreting, 320, 321
Poling boards, in open cut, 271, 272 in tunnel, 287
Pollution, legal features, 380, 381
Population, density, 28–31 predictions, 24–27 served by sewers in the U. S., 3 sources of information, 27, 28 and quantity of sewage, 31, 32
Potter trench machine, 251
Powder. _See_ Blasting.
Power pump, 132, 133
Precautions in entering sewers, 335, 336
Precipitants, chemical, 405–407
Preliminary, map, 17, 79, 80, 82, 83 work, 9, 17–23
Present worth, 158, 160
Pressing sludge, 500, 501
Priming explosives, 302–304
Private, capital, 17 sewers, 17
Privy, 5
Profile, for brick sewers, 312 sewer, 92 surface, 88
Progress, rate of, 222 reports, 238
Promotion (inception of sewers), 9
Proportioning concrete. _See_ Concrete proportioning.
Proposal (contract), 213, 217–219
Protection of sewers (ordinances), 344, 345
Protein, 366
Puddling, backfill, 330
Pulsometer pump, 260, 261
Pumping, in excavations, 256–263 selection of machinery, 154–156 equipment, cost comparison, 162 station, 128, 142 costs, 156–163 equipment, 127, 128
Pumps, air ejector, 150, 151 capacity, 129, 160–163 capacity of units, 160–163 centrifugal, details, 130, 131, 136–138 automatic control, 141, 142 characteristics, 138–140 efficiency, 140 for excavation, 262 motors for driving, 150–152 performance, 138–140 protection of, by screens, 386 selection of, 154–156 setting, 140–142 turbine, 130–132, 154 types, 130, 131
Pumps, centrifugal, volute, 130–132, 154 character of load, 129 costs, 156, 157 description of types, 130–134 for construction work, 256–263 diaphragm, 257, 258 direct-acting, 133 duty of, 135, 136 efficiencies, 135, 136 ejector, 134, 150, 151, 259, 341, 343 jet, 259 need for, 127 number of units, 160–163 packing of, 133, 134 piston, 133 speed, 133, 134 plunger, 133 power, 132, 133 reciprocating, 130, 132–135, 154–156 for excavation, 262 reliability, 127 sizes, 135 steam, 134, 135, 142–146 consumption, 144, 145 vacuum, 259, 262 improvised for trench work, 257 turbine, 130–132, 154 volute, 130–132, 154
Putrescibility, 359, 360
Quantity, of sewage, 24–50, 84–87 variations, 33–38 storm water, 40–50, 94–98
Quicksand, definition, 256 excavation in, 256 safeguards, 235
Quiescent water, self-purification, 374
Racks. _See_ Screens.
Rainfall, 17, 40, 41, 50, 96, 97 data, 17 rate, 96, 97
Rangers, 270–274, 276–279
Rankine’s theory of earth pressure, 275
Rapid sand filtration of sewage, 458
Rational method of run-off determination, 40, 95–98
Reaëration tank in activated sludge, 473
Receiving well, capacity, 129, 130
Reciprocating pumps. _See_ Pumps, reciprocating.
Records, character of, on construction, 238–240
Rectangular sewer section, 67–69
Regulators, 99, 117–121, 337 inspection of, 337
Reinforced concrete sewer design, 209, 210
Reinforcing steel, specifications, 191 placing, 326, 327
Reinsch Wurl screen, 384
Relative stability numbers, 359
Relief sewer, defined, 7
Repairs to sewers, 337
Report, engineer’s preliminary, 10
Reservoir, collecting capacity, 129, 130
Residences, septic tanks for, 416, 417
Residential districts, characteristics, 32–37
Residue on evaporation, 356, 357
Rideal’s dilution formula, 379
Ring, design. Chap. IX, 194–210 stresses in circular, 202–204
River pollution, legal features, 380, 381
Rivers, self-purification of, 373–376
Riveted joints, properties, 196
Rock, blasting, 268, 290, 291 definition, 263 drill, data on, 266, 267 drilling. _See_ also Drilling. by hand, 264 by power, 264–268 rates, 267 excavation. _See also_ Excavation. payment for, 230 measurement of, in place, 235 tunnels, 290, 291
Rods, sewer, 338
Roman ordinance relative to sewers, 2
Roofs. _See_ Covers.
Root cutters, 340
Roots, 333, 340
Row lock bond for bricks, 312
Running water, self-purification, 373–376
Run-off, computations, 17, 40, 46–50, 94–98
Safeguards during construction, 221, 241
Salt water, dilution in, 376, 377
Sand, effective size, 456 uniformity coefficient, 456 filters, 452–459 action in, 431, 432, 452–454 control, 458, 506–510 description, 452 dimensions, 456 distribution systems, 433, 456–458 dosing, 454–456 dosing devices, 506–510 materials, 456 operation, 454, 455 preliminary treatment, 455 rate, 455 results, 452, 453 size of sand for, 456 thickness, 456 in winter, 455
Sanitary District of Chicago, dilution factor, 380 specifications, for manhole covers, 101, 102 tunnel cover, 284 tunnel ventilation, 291
Sanitary engineering, 1, 2
Sanitary sewage, defined, 7, 352
Saph and Schoder’s formula, 54
Saprophytes, 365
Screed, 316
Screens, 383–391 chlorination and fine screens, costs, 487 coarse, 386, 391 data on fine, 388, 389 design of, 389–391 fine, 381, 382, 387–389 fixed, 385, 390 medium, 386 movable, 385, 386, 389–391 moving, 384–386 openings, 386–389 protection to pumps, 127, 141 purpose, 383 results, 386–389 sewage treatment by, 371, 381 size and performance, 386–389 sizes, 386–391 types, 384–386
Screening, vs. sedimentation, 383 purpose, object, 383
Screenings, character of, 386–389
Scum, boards for, septic tanks, 413, 414 Imhoff tanks, 421 chamber in an Imhoff tank, 424 definition, 495
Sediment, velocity of transportation, 396, 397
Sedimentation, 383–405 definition, 383 Hazen’s analysis, 392–395 hydraulic values, 393 a method of treatment, 370 object, 383 Peoria Lakes, 376 protection of siphons, 113, 114 results from plain sedimentation, 401 theory of, 391–395 transportation of debris, 396 velocity of, 392, 393 vs. screening, 383 velocities, limiting, 396, 397
Sedimentation, basins, arrangement, 394 baffling, 404 cleaning, 404 dimensions, 401–403 inlet and outlet, 404 operation, 411 types, 395 chamber, Imhoff tank, 419–422
Self-purification of lakes, 376
Self-purification of streams, 373–376
Separate sewer systems, 78–80
Septic action, 353, 365–368, 371, 410, 411, 496, 497 results, 412, 413 vs. sedimentation, 411
Septic tank, 411 baffling, 413, 414 capacities of small tanks, 417 for country homes, 416, 417 covers for, 415 definition, 411 design, 413–417 explosions in, 415 results, 412, 413 seeding, 413 sludge storage, 414 small, 416, 417 units, 415
Septic sludge analysis, 414
Septicization. Chap. XVI, 410–430 a method of treatment, 371 the process, 410, 411 results, 412, 413
Settling solids, 357
Sewage and water supply, 32 aëration, 371, 376, 465–479 alkalinity of, 358 analyses, chemical, 355, 369, 467 interpretation of, 356–362 physical, 352–354 average, 352–355 bacteria, 362–365 biolysis of, 366, 367 changes in, rate of discharge of, 33–38 characteristics, 368–370 characteristics of, 352–354 chemical constituents, 354–356 classification of, 6, 7, 352 collection, 5 color, 352, 353 components and properties, 352–356 decomposition of, 365–367 definition, 6, 7, 352 disposal. _See also_ Sewage treatment. methods, 6, 370, 371 purposes, 370, 371 domestic, 7, 352 farming. _See_ Irrigation. fertilizing value, 459, 460 flow fluctuations, 33–38 ratio of maximum to average, 36, 37, 85 fresh, 352–354 gas, 335, 336, 353 industrial, defined, 7, 352 life in, 363–365, 368 odor, 353 physical, analyses, 352–354 characteristics, 352–354 quality variations, 368–370 quantity. Chap. III, 24–50, and 84, 87 and population, 31, 32 of sanitary, 24–40 variations, 33–38 sanitary, defined, 7, 352 septic, 353, 365–368, 371, 410, 411, 496, 497 stability, 359, 360 stale, 353 storm, defined, 7, 352 strong, 355 temperature, 353 turbidity, 353 treatment processes, 370, 371 A. B. C., 4 activated sludge, Chap. XVIII, 465–479 biological, 371 chemical, 371 contact bed, 432–437, 506 costs, 459 dilution. Chap. XIV, 372–382 disinfection, 489–493 electrolytic, 487–489 filtration, 431–459 increase of, 3 irrigation, 431, 459–464 mechanical, 471 Miles acid process, 482–487 purpose of, 6, 370 résumé, 6, 370, 371 sand filter, 452–458 screening, 383–391 sedimentation, 391–409, 411 septicization. Chap. XVI, 410–430 trickling filters, 437–452 weak, 355 and water supplies, 31, 32
Sewerage, definition, 7 demand for, 2 design, 78–98 growth of, 2–4 historical, 2–4
Sewers, ancient, 2, 3 capacity, diagrams, 56–60 cost, 10–14 definitions of various types, 7, 8 depth of, 88 diameter, 58–60, 88–92 flat grades, 73, 109 flight, 101, 102 inspection of, 333–337 life of, 348–351 location of, 80, 81, 94 materials. Chap. VIII, 164–193 medieval, 3 pipe, properties of concrete, 175 design. Chap. IX, 194–210 vitrified clay, properties, 169–171 profile, 89, 92 section of different types, 67–72 separate system, 78, 79, 82, 86, 87 slope, 88–92 storm-water system, 78, 79, 83, 93, 94 stresses in, 194, 198–204
Shafts, for tunnels, 284–287
Sheeting, 270–280 alignment, 240, 241 backfilling, 330 box, 272 design, 275–280 driving, 273 length, 273 lumber, 277 moving, 248 poling boards, 271, 272, 287 pulling, 274 skeleton, 270, 271 stay bracing, 270 steel, 252, 280, 281 thickness, 276–278 types, 270 vertical, 270, 272–274 Wakefield piling, 273
Shellfish contamination, 372, 489
Shields, tunnel, 288–290
Short loads on trenches, 202
Shovels, for hand excavation, 242 steam. _See_ Steam shovels.
Shovel vane screen, 384
Shoveling by hand, height raised, 244 performance by one man, 243
Symbiosis, definition, 363 example, 432
Sinking fund, 158
Siphons, automatic. Chap. XXI, 506–512. _See also under_ Dosing devices. in flush-tanks, 109–110 inspection, 337 operation, 109–110, 506–512 for trickling filter, 448–451 true and inverted, 113–117
Skeleton sheeting, 270, 271
Slope, of sewers, 88–92 of tank bottoms, Imhoff, 419, 423 sedimentation tank, 404
Skewback, 204
Sludge. Chap. XX, 495–505 activated. Chap. XVIII, 465–479. _See also under_ Activated sludge. analyses, 414, 467, 468, 485, 496 characteristics, 495 definition, 495 digestion tanks, 427–430, 497 disposal methods, 495 drying, 497–505 acid flotation, 503 beds, 498, 500 centrifuge, 501–502 heat, 502, 503 press, 500–501 thickeners, 504, 505 fertilizing value, 470, 495, 497
Sludge, filters, 498–500 lagooning, 495, 496 measurement, 427 press, 500, 501 sedimentation, 401 septic analysis, 434 treatment methods, 495
Soaps, 357
Soil, bearing value, 125 stack, definition, 7
Solids in sewage, 356–368
Special assessment, 15, 16
Specifications. Chap. X, 211–232 general, 219–229 special, 230 technical, 229, 230
Spiling. _See_ Piles.
Spirillum, 362
Spores, 363
Springing line, 204
Sprinkling filter. _See_ Trickling filter
Square sewer section, 68, 69
Stability, relative, 359–361
Stagnant water, 374
Stakes, contractor to provide, 221 where driven, 281, 282
Stationing, 92
Stay bracing, 270
Steam boilers, 147–150
Steam, consumption by, pumps, 144, 145 turbines, 144, 147 engines, 144, 145 pumping engines, 142–146 pumps. _See_ Pumps, steam. shovels, 246, 252–254 turbines, 146, 147
Stearin, 366
Steel, forms. _See_ Forms, steel. pipe, 164, 191, 192 design, 195–197 specifications, 191 reinforcement for concrete, 191, 326–327 sheet piling, 252, 280, 281
Stench, historic in London, 4
Sterilization. _See_ Disinfection.
Storm, sewage, definition, 7, 352 Storm, sewer system design, 93–98 water, quantity, 40–50
Storms, extent and intensity, 50
Stream pollution, regulation, 380, 381
Streams, self-purification, 373–376
Street, inlet. _See_ Inlets. wash, definition, 352
Stresses, in buried pipe, 198–204 in circular ring, 194, 202–204
Sub-main, defined, 7
Subsurface surveys, 18–20
Suction for centrifugal pump, 141
Sulphur and sand joint compound, 309
Sunday work, 221
Surface, elevation, 92 of ground, character, 44–46 profile, 88 water, 7, 352
Surveys, underground, 18–20
Suspended matter, 357
Talbot’s run-off formula, 49
Tamping, backfilling, 328–331
Tannery wastes, disinfection, 491
Taxation, general, 16, 17
Taylor nozzles, 444, 445
Temperature of sewage, 353
Templates, brick sewers, 312
Thawing dynamite, 301, 302
Tide gate, 122
Timbering tunnels, 286–288
Timber, strength of, 277
Time of concentration, 41–43, 95–97
Tools, for cleaning sewers, 337–341 excavating, 242, 246
Tower cableways, 252
Trade wastes. _See_ Industrial wastes.
Traps, in catch-basins, 107 grease, gasoline, and oil, 108, 109 in street inlets, 104, 105
Travis tank, 427, 428
Tree roots, 333, 340
Tremie, 187, 188
Trench, backfilling, 328–331 blasting in, 244, 269 bottom, shape of, 241, 304, 311 breaking surface, 243, 244 drainage, 256–263 excavating, by hand, 242–245 machine, 244–256 guarding and lighting, 221 layout of tasks, 243 length of open, 241, 248 line and grade, 281–284 location, 243, 281 opening, 243, 244 pumps, 256–263 sheeting, 270–280 width, 240, 241, 246
Trestle excavators, 250, 251
Trickling filter, 437–452 advantages, 438, 439 covers for, 451 depth, 441, 442 description, 437, 438 dimensions, 442 distribution of sewage, 442–451 dosing siphon, 446–451 dosing tank, 446–451 head lost, 438 insects, 438 material, 441 nozzles, 442–451 layout, 447–451 odors, 438, 439 operation, 441 rate, 441 results, 439, 440 siphon size, 449–451 underdrainage, 451, 452 unloading, 431, 437
Tripod drill, 265
Triton, 295
Troubles with sewers, causes, 333
Trumpet arch, 121
Trunk sewer, defined, 7
Tunnels, 283–294 backfilling, 331 breast boards, 288 brick invert, 313 compressed air in, 292–294 concrete construction, 320, 321 depth of cover, 284 line and grade in, 283 machines, 290 rock, 290–292 shafts, 284–286 shield, 288–290 timbering, 284–288 ventilation, 291, 292
Turbidity of sewage, 353
Turbine, for cleaning sewers, 340 pumps, 130, 132 steam, 146, 147
Typhoid fever, 364
U-shaped sewer section, 67, 69, 71
Underdrains for, sewers, 126 trickling filters, 451, 452
Underground surveys, 18–20
Unexpected situations, 235
Uniformity coefficient of sand, 456
Unloading of filters, 431, 437
Urea, 367
Valuation of sewers, 332, 348–351
Velocities, depositing, 395–397 distribution of, 51 flow in sewers, 90 over surface of ground, 42 limiting for sedimentation, 396, 397 limiting in sewers, 396, 397 principles of flow in sewers, 51 transporting, 396
Ventilation, air pressures, 291 compressed air, 292–294 pipes, 291
Ventilation, of sewers, 102, 103, 335 tunnel, 291
Vertical sheeting, 270–274
Vitrified clay. _See_ Clay vitrified.
Volatile matter in sewage, 357
Volute pumps, 130, 132, 154
Vouissoir arch analysis, 204
Wakefield piling, 273
Wales, 288
Waste pipe, defined, 7
Wastes. _See_ Industrial wastes.
Water consumption, 31–33 flow of, 51–77 rate of steam engines, 144, 145 supply and sewage flow, 31–33
Watershed. _See_ Drainage area.
Weight, of backfill, 199 of building material, 201 of moving loads, 200, 202
Well, hole, 101 points, 262, 263
Wheel excavator, 246–250
Wing screen, 384
Wood, forms. _See_ Forms. pipe, materials, 164, 165, 190, 192, 193 design, 197, 198 working strength of, 277
Work, extra, 227 preliminary to design, 9 Sunday, night, and holiday, 221
Workmen, competent, 227 dishonesty, 233, 234
Footnote 1:
Frontinus and the Water Supply of Rome, p. 81, by Clemens Herschel.
Footnote 2:
Estimated by G. W. Fuller, Trans. Am. Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 44, 1905, p. 148. The total population connected with sewerage systems was assumed to be the total population in the United States in cities over 4000 in population.
Footnote 3:
Estimated by Metcalf and Eddy, American Sewerage Practice, Vol. III, p. 240.
Footnote 4:
Computed from report of the United States Census, 1920, on the same basis as Fuller’s estimate for 1905.
Footnote 5:
Cosgrove, History of Sanitation.
Footnote 6:
Sedgwick: Sanitary Science and Public Health.
Footnote 7:
No detrimental effect on the public health was noted as a result of this condition however. It has never been conclusively proven that such nuisances are detrimental to the public health.
Footnote 8:
Moore and Silcock, Sanitary Engineering, p. 67, 1909.
Footnote 9:
Similar to the definition proposed by the Am. Public Health Assn.
Footnote 10:
Definition recommended by Am. Public Health Assn.
Footnote 11:
Ibid.
Footnote 12:
Ibid.
Footnote 13:
Eng. News, Vol. 76, 1916, p. 781. See also Eng. News-Record, Vol. 85, 1920, pp. 22, 1175.
Footnote 14:
For a more extensive treatment of the subject see Principles and Methods of Municipal Administration by W. B. Munro, 1916.
Footnote 15:
Eng. Record, Vol. 74, 1916, p. 263.
Footnote 16:
Professional paper No. 46, United States Geological Survey, 1906, p. 97.
Footnote 17:
United States Geological Survey, Water Supply paper No. 257, 1911.
Footnote 18:
From Eng. Cont., Vol. 41, 1914, p. 698.
Footnote 19:
Max. represents only the average maximum, not the greatest maximum.
Footnote 20:
Eng. News-Record, Vol. 80, page 1233, 1918.
Footnote 21:
Infiltration of Ground Water into Sewers. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 76, 1913, p. 1909.
Footnote 22:
A comprehensive discussion of rainfall formulas will be found in Vol. 54 of the Transactions Am. Society of Civil Engineers, 1905.
Footnote 23:
Formula devised by H. E. Babbitt from Allen’s 25–year curve.
Footnote 24:
See Note under Table 14.
Footnote 25:
Sewerage by A. P. Folwell.
Footnote 26:
From an article by E. Kuichling in Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 65, 1909, p. 399.
Footnote 27:
Trans. Am. Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 58, 1907, p. 483.
Footnote 28:
Trans. American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 58, 1907, p. 498.
Footnote 29:
Ibid.
Footnote 30:
The principles governing the run-off from large areas are explained in Elements of Hydrology, by A. F. Meyer, 1917.
Footnote 31:
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 51, 1903, p. 11.
Footnote 32:
Municipal and County Engineering, Vol. 58. 1920, p. 164.
Footnote 33:
Industrial waste Treated as ground water.
Footnote 34:
For diagrams for the Solution of the Rational Method, see Eng. News-Record, Vol. 83, 1919, p. 868 and Vol. 85, 1920, p. 151.
Footnote 35:
Municipal and County Engineering, October, 1909.
Footnote 36:
“Cleaning and Flushing Sewers.” Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, Vol. 33, 1904, p. 212.
Footnote 37:
Notes on the Design and Principles of Sewage Siphons, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 85, 1920, p. 1041.
Footnote 38:
From A. E. Phillips, Trans. Am. Society of Municipal Improvements, 1898, p. 70.
Footnote 39:
Trans. Am. Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 15, 1886.
Footnote 40:
True Siphon at East Providence, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 85, 1920, p. 862.
Footnote 41:
“The Effect of Mouthpieces on The Flow of Water Through a Submerged Short Pipe,” by F. B. Seely. Bulletin No. 96, 1917, of the Eng’g. Experiment Station of the University of Illinois.
Footnote 42:
Trans. Am. Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 49, 1902.
Footnote 43:
Described by W. L. Stevenson before the Boston Society of Civil Engineers in 1916.
Footnote 44:
Multiple Outlet for Calumet Intercepting Sewer, by S. T. Smetters, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 83, 1919, p. 728.
Footnote 45:
“Direct Acting Steam Pumps,” by F. R. Nickel, 1915.
Footnote 46:
From Heat Engines, by Allen and Bursley.
Footnote 47:
“The Economy Resulting from the Use of Variable Speed Induction Motors for Driving Centrifugal Pumps” by M. L. Enger and W. J. Putnam. Journal Am. Water Works Ass’n., 1920, Vol. 7, p. 536.
Footnote 48:
C. A. Hague in Trans. Am. Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 74, 1911, p. 20.
Footnote 49:
Includes screen chamber, collecting reservoir, and building.
Footnote 50:
Computed on the assumption that the pumps may be operated at 50 per cent overload for short periods, the rated capacity being equal to the loads given in Table 33.
Footnote 51:
For description of type see note under Table 35.
Footnote 52:
Proceedings Illinois Society of Engineers, 1916, page 81.
Footnote 53:
Municipal Engineers’ Journal for April, 1918.
Footnote 54:
Workability involves ease in placing and smoothness of working.
Footnote 55:
Johnson’s Materials of Construction, 5th Edition, 1918, p. 432.
Footnote 56:
Trans. Am. Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 59, 1907, p. 146.
Footnote 57:
L. N. Edwards, Trans. Am. Society Testing Materials, 1918, and R. B. Young, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 82, 1919, p. 33.
Footnote 58:
Bulletin No. 1, Structural Materials Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, Illinois.
Footnote 59:
Proportioning Concrete by Voids in the Mortar, A. N. Talbot, read before Am. Society Testing Materials, June 22, 1921. Abstract in Eng. News-Record, Vol. 87, 1921, p. 147.
Footnote 60:
Trans. Am. Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 81, 1917, p. 1122.
Footnote 61:
See also Tentative Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete submitted by the Joint Committee to its Constituent Organizations, June 4, 1921.
Footnote 62:
Journal Illinois Society of Engineers for 1916, p. 75.
Footnote 63:
See A. S. T. M. Standards for 1918, p. 148.
Footnote 64:
Trans. Am. Society Civil Engrs., Vol. 82, 1918, p. 459.
Footnote 65:
See Trans. Am. Society Civil Eng., Vol. 82, 1918, p. 482.
Footnote 66:
See Trans. Am. Society Civil Engr., Vol. 41, 1899, p. 76, and Vol. 82, 1918, p. 433, Eng. News, Vol. 74, 1915, p. 400, and Vol. 75, 1916, p. 911.
Footnote 67:
Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol. 82, 1918, p. 433.
Footnote 68:
Bulletin No. 31 of the Engineering Experiment Station of the Iowa State College of Agriculture.
Footnote 69:
From bulletin No. 31, Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture.
Footnote 70:
From Bulletin No. 31, Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture.
Footnote 71:
From Bulletin No. 31, Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture.
Footnote 72:
From Vouissoir Arches by Cain.
Footnote 73:
Baker’s Masonry, 10th Edition, p. 676.
Footnote 74:
Business Law for Engineers, C. Frank Allen, McGraw-Hill, 1917; Engineering Contracts and Specifications, J. B. Johnson, McGraw-Hill, 1904; Contracts in Engineering, J. I. Tucker, McGraw-Hill, 1910; The Law Affecting Engineers, W. V. Ball, Archibald Constable, 1909; Law and Business of Engineering and Contracting, C. E. Fowler, McGraw-Hill, 1909; The Economics of Contracting, D. J. Hauer, E. H. Baumgartner, 1915; The Elements of Specification Writing, R. S. Kirby, John Wiley & Son, 1913; Contracts, Specifications and Engineering Relations, D. W. Mead, McGraw-Hill, 1916; Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence, J. C. Wait, John Wiley, 1912.
Footnote 75:
See article by E. W. Bush in Eng. News-Record, Vol. 85, 1920, p. 122.
Footnote 76:
An unbalanced proposal is one in which the bids on some of the items are obviously low and on other items are obviously or suspiciously high. The purpose of submitting unbalanced bids is to keep secret the true or supposed cost of the work to the contractor or to obtain more money by bidding high on those items which are believed to have been underestimated by the Engineer. A low bid is made on other items in order to keep down the total amount of the bid.
Footnote 77:
Taken mainly from specifications of the Sanitary District of Chicago and the Baltimore Sewerage Commission, with miscellaneous selections from other sources.
Footnote 78:
Restrictions are placed on work done outside of ordinary working hours in order that the Contractor may not perform work in the absence of an engineer or inspector.
Footnote 79:
Cost Keeping and Management, by Gillette and Dana. Practical Cost Keeping for Contractors, by F. R. Walker. Cost Keeping in Sewer Work, by K. O. Guthrie in Eng. Contracting, Vol. 28, p. 238, 1905. Sewer Construction Records at Scarsdale, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 83, p. 111, 1919.
Footnote 80:
See Planning and Progress on a Big Construction Job, by Chas. Penrose, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 84, 1920, pp. 554 and 627.
Footnote 81:
See also “Ownership and Operation of Trench Excavators by the Water Department of Baltimore,” by V. B. Seims, presented before Am. Water Works Association, June 9, 1921.
Footnote 82:
Eng. and Contracting, Vol. 48, 1917, p. 492.
Footnote 83:
Earth Excavation by A. B. McDaniel.
Footnote 84:
Courtesy, Sanitary District of Chicago.
Footnote 85:
See article by J. R. Gow, Journal New England Waterworks Ass’n, Sept., 1920, also Public Works, Vol. 50, p. 98.
Footnote 86:
Diameter of diaphragm.
Footnote 87:
Gallons per minute.
Footnote 88:
Eng. News, Vol. 75, 1916 p. 1050.
Footnote 89:
Mun. Engineering, Vol. 53, p. 6.
Footnote 90:
For types of drill bits see article by T. H. Proske, Mining and Scientific Press, March 5, 1910.
Footnote 91:
These intermediate holes are seldom more than 3 feet apart.
Footnote 92:
Earth Pressures, Old Theories and New Test Results, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 85, 1920, p. 632.
Footnote 93:
Trans. Am. Society Civil Eng’rs, Vol. 60, 1908.
Footnote 94:
Adopted by the Am. Ry. and Maintenance of Way Ass’n in 1907.
Footnote 95:
Tunneling Machines Successful on Detroit Sewers, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 84, 1920, p. 329.
Footnote 96:
Rules on Compressed-Air Work of N. Y. State Industrial Commission, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 85, 1920, p. 1225.
Footnote 97:
Taken mainly from the Engineer Field Manual of the U. S. Army; Safety Factors in the Use of Explosives by W. O. Snelling, Technical Paper No. 18, U. S. Bureau of Mines; and an article in Eng’g and Contracting, Vol. 52, 1919, p. 585.
Footnote 98:
See paper by C. T. Hall before Am. Inst. Chemical Engineers.
Footnote 99:
Per cubic yard of material displaced.
Footnote 100:
Eng. News, Vol. 75, 1916, p. 592.
Footnote 101:
Pressure of Concrete on Forms Measured in Tests, by E. B. Smith, before Am. Concrete Institute, Feb. 15, 1920. Abstracted in Eng. News-Record, Vol. 84, 1920, p. 665.
Footnote 102:
See, also, Concrete Form Design, by E. F. Rockwood, Eng. and Contracting, Vol. 55, 1921, p. 528.
Footnote 103:
Includes 6 cents per foot for excavation. Labor for this was 58 per cent of the total labor cost.
Footnote 104:
Cement at $1.25 per barrel.
Footnote 105:
Mun. Journal, Vol. 36, 1914, p. 736.
Footnote 106:
Mun. Journal, Vol. 39, 1915, p. 911.
Footnote 107:
Formerly the Municipal Journal.
Footnote 108:
See Eng. Record, Vol. 75, 1917, p. 463.
Footnote 109:
Eng. Record, Vol. 73, 1916, p. 141, and Eng. News-Record, Vol. 79, 1917, p. 1019.
Footnote 110:
Eng. Record, Vol. 72, 1915, p. 690.
Footnote 111:
Eng. Record, Vol. 71, 1915, p. 256.
Footnote 112:
Eng. and Contr., Vol. 41, 1914, p. 250.
Footnote 113:
H. J. Kellogg in Journal Connecticut Society of Civil Engineers, 1914, and Technical Paper 117, U. S. Bureau of Mines.
Footnote 114:
Eng. News, Vol. 70, 1913, p. 1157.
Footnote 115:
Technical Paper No. 117, U. S. Bureau of Mines.
Footnote 116:
Eng. News, Vol. 71, 1914, p. 84.
Footnote 117:
Eng. News, Vol. 71, 1914, p. 82.
Footnote 118:
Similar to definition proposed by the Am. Public Health Ass’n.
Footnote 119:
Economic Values in Sewage and Sewage Sludge, by Raymond Wells, Proceedings Am. Society Municipal Improvements, Nov. 12, 1919. Eng. News-Record, Vol. 83, 1919, p. 948.
Footnote 120:
Sample boiled for five minutes.
Footnote 121:
Sample immersed in boiling water for 30 minutes.
Footnote 122:
Four months.
Footnote 123:
One week in March, 1914.
Footnote 124:
R represents any chemical element such as K, Na, etc.
Footnote 125:
Standard Methods of Water Analysis, American Public Health Association, 1920.
Footnote 126:
Routine tests are ordinarily incubated for this period only, and if not decolorized in this time are recorded as stable.
Footnote 127:
Determination of the Biochemical Oxygen Demand of Sewage and Industrial Wastes, by E. J. Theriault, Report of the U. S. Public Health Service, Vol. 35, May 7, 1920, No. 19, p. 1087.
Footnote 128:
Standard Methods of Water Analysis, American Public Health Association, 1920.
Footnote 129:
Jordan, General Bacteriology, 1909, p. 91.
Footnote 130:
Ibid.
Footnote 131:
Reprinted in Vol. III of Contributions from the Sanitary Research Laboratory of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Footnote 132:
Formerly Chief Engineer of the Sanitary District of Chicago.
Footnote 133:
From “Sewage,” by Samuel Rideal, 1900, p. 16.
Footnote 134:
See Am. Civil Engineers’ Pocket Book, Second Edition, p. 982.
Footnote 135:
Trans. Am. Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 58, 1907, p. 988.
Footnote 136:
Not defined by the American Public Health Association.
Footnote 137:
Trans. Am. Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 78, 1915, p. 892.
Footnote 138:
Removal of Suspended Matter by Sewage Screens, Cornell Civil Engineer, 1914. Abstracted in Engineering and Contracting, Vol. 41, 1914, p. 451.
Footnote 139:
“The Clarification of Sewage by Fine Screens,” Trans. Am. Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 78, 1915, p. 1000.
Footnote 140:
Langdon Pearse, Trans. Am. Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 78, 1915, p. 1000.
Footnote 141:
Meshes per inch.
Footnote 142:
See article by Henry Ryon in Cornell Civil Engineer, 1910.
Footnote 143:
The hydraulic coefficient is defined as the rate of settling in mm. per second.
Footnote 144:
Definition suggested by the American Public Health Association.
Footnote 145:
Computed from formula by Gilbert in “Transportation of Debris by Running Water,” U. S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper No. 86, 1914. Diameter in mm. = (1.28 (velocity)^{2.7})⁄(Sp. gv. − 1).
Footnote 146:
Computed from Annual Report of the Superintendent of Sewers, Nov. 30, 1919, and 1920.
Footnote 147:
These figures are for 1919.
Footnote 148:
These figures are for 1905.
Footnote 149:
These figures are for 1902.
Footnote 150:
Report of the Ohio State Board of Health, 1908, page 425.
Footnote 151:
Definition proposed by the Am. Public Health Assn.
Footnote 152:
See Eng. News. Vol. 73, 1915, p. 410.
Footnote 153:
Sewage Treatment from Single Houses and Small Communities, by L. C. Frank. U. S. Public Health Service, Bulletin 101, 1920.
Footnote 154:
Eng. News-Record, Vol. 78, 1917, p. 566.
Footnote 155:
Municipal Engineering, Vol. 54, p. 149.
Footnote 156:
Eng. Record, Vol. 68, 1913, p. 452.
Footnote 157:
Am. Sewerage Practice, Vol. III, p. 437.
Footnote 158:
Trans. Am. Society Civil Engineers, Vol. 83, 1920, p. 337.
Footnote 159:
Eng. News-Record, Vol. 83, 1919, p. 510.
Footnote 160:
See Eng. News, Vol. 70, 1913, p. 1112; Eng. Record, Vol. 68, 1913, p. 440, and Eng. News, Vol. 75, 1916, p. 1028.
Footnote 161:
See Eng. Record, Vol. 67, 1913, p. 232.
Footnote 162:
The use of half-spray nozzles is not always advocated as it is considered that their use does not markedly improve the distribution. Where half nozzles are used, a margin of 18 inches to 2 feet should be allowed between the edge of the filter and the nozzle, to prevent the blowing of raw sewage from the filter.
Footnote 163:
From paper by E. G. Bradbury in Proceedings of the Ohio Eng. Society, 1910, p. 79.
Footnote 164:
The effective size of sand is the diameter in millimeters of the largest grain in that 10 per cent, by weight, of the material which contains the smallest grains.
Footnote 165:
The uniformity coefficient is the ratio of the diameter of the largest particle of the smallest 60 per cent, by weight, to the effective size.
Footnote 166:
Interest at 6 per cent.
Footnote 167:
Worcester figures.
Footnote 168:
This method may show a profit from the sale of sludge.
Footnote 169:
Sewage Disposal, 1919, p. 223.
Footnote 170:
See Eng. News, Vol. 9, 1883, p. 203, and Vol. 29, 1893, p. 27.
Footnote 171:
American Sewerage Practice, Vol. III.
Footnote 172:
Reference 11, at end of this chapter.
Footnote 173:
Reference 15.
Footnote 174:
Reference 2.
Footnote 175:
For mechanical methods of drying sludge, see Reference 22, p. 1127, and No. 33, p. 843.
Footnote 176:
Reference 10.
Footnote 177:
Reference 13.
Footnote 178:
University of California, Bulletin 251, 1915.
Footnote 179:
Reference 25.
Footnote 180:
See Report by Black & Phelps of Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, 1911, reprinted as Vol. VII of Contributions from the Sanitary Research Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Footnote 181:
See Reports, Mass. State Board of Health.
Footnote 182:
Reference 47.
Footnote 183:
Reference 10.
Footnote 184:
Reference 10.
Footnote 185:
Reference 10.
Footnote 186:
Hatton, reference 33.
Footnote 187:
Reference 18.
Footnote 188:
Reference 1, at end of this chapter.
Footnote 189:
Reference 2.
Footnote 190:
Reference 6.
Footnote 191:
Reference 5.
Footnote 192:
Reference 6.
Footnote 193:
Reference 6.
Footnote 194:
Reference 8.
Footnote 195:
Reference 20.
Footnote 196:
Reference 17.
Footnote 197:
Reference 19.
Footnote 198:
Reference 21.
Footnote 199:
Reference 24.
Footnote 200:
Inorganic Chemistry, by Alexander Smith.
Footnote 201:
American Public Health Association definition.
Footnote 202:
Sewage Sludge by Allen.
Footnote 203:
Sewage Disposal by Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt.
Footnote 204:
Sewage Disposal by Fuller.
Footnote 205:
Sewage Sludge by Allen.
Footnote 206:
From Eng. News-Record, Vol. 84, 1920, p. 995.
Footnote 207:
A Simple Mechanical Control for Dosing Sewage Beds, by P. Thompson, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 84, 1920, p. 1018.
Footnote 208:
Sewage Disposal by Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt.
Footnote 209:
Design of Siphon by G. H. Bayles, Eng. News-Record, Vol. 84, 1920, p. 974.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. 2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. 4. Enclosed bold font in =equals=. 5. Superscripts are denoted by a caret before a single superscript character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}. 6. Subscripts are denoted by an underscore before a series of subscripted characters enclosed in curly braces, e.g. H_{2}O.