Selling Home Furnishings: A Training Program
Part III, pp. 75-98. United States Government Printing Office.
WHITON, SHERRILL. _Elements of Interior Decoration._ J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 1937.
Period Decoration and Furniture, III, V, VI, VII, pp. 91-233. Taste, Style, and Fashion, XXI, pp. 627-647. Furniture Arrangement, XXIII, pp. 665-681.
WRIGHT, AGNES FOSTER. _Interior Decoration for Modern Needs._ Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York, N. Y. 1917.
VII, pp. 107-165.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] For thousands of years the chair was a symbol of state and dignity, and not an article for ordinary use. Common people were not permitted to sit on chairs, and few of the great lords were permitted to sit on chairs in the presence of the king. The chair did not become common until the sixteenth century; before that, chests, benches, and stools were used.
[5] These hutches, or small chests, held the clothing, personal belongings, and materials for the mass when the baron was en route from one castle to another, and were carried on the backs of pack mules. From this rudimentary beginning all modern forms of case goods have evolved.
[6] The French "qu" or final "que" as in "baroque," is pronounced like "k." The accent is always on the final syllable.
[7] The French "e" and "et" are pronounced like "a."
[8] Pronounced Kănz.
[9] Pronounced fo-tuh-ye, the "uh" having almost an "r" sound as in "burn," the final "e" practically silent.
[10] Pronounced "sehz," practically the English word "says."
[11] Pronounced dē'rĕk-twär.
[12] A Handbook of the American Wing; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, N. Y., 1928. Price $1.
Unit V
FURNITURE WOODS--THEIR ORIGIN AND USE
Value and Price in Relation to Home Furnishings.
Principal Furniture Woods.
Making the Most of Wood Structure and Its Appeal to the Eye.
Importance of Craftsmanship.
Unit V.--FURNITURE WOODS--THEIR ORIGIN AND USE
VALUE AND PRICE IN RELATION TO HOME FURNISHINGS
The materials in a piece of furniture, and the way those materials are put together, affect not only its appearance, but also its durability and behavior in service. Appearance and durability both help to determine value. They are factors which usually influence a customer toward or against a purchase. But the customer, unaided, cannot be expected to see and appreciate these factors at their true importance. Therefore a sound knowledge of materials and construction, plus ability to use that knowledge effectively, is essential to the salesperson who wants to take the road to higher earnings.
Every sale is a process of weighing one satisfaction against another. Those who buy from sheer necessity compare price against price, or price against terms. Those who buy for any other reason weigh price against value.
Do not forget that price and value are by no means the same thing. A low price does not automatically constitute, from the customer's viewpoint, a high value. The _price_ of an article is fixed by the dealer. The _value_ of that article is fixed by the buyer, since it depends, not upon what the article costs to make or what is asked for it, but upon what it is worth to her.
Except for the confirmed bargain hunter, no buyer will buy anything, at any price, unless she believes that it will add to her satisfactions. On the other hand, few persons will buy anything, however satisfactory, unless they believe it to be worth the price. It follows, as a fundamental rule of salesmanship that _price is almost never the first consideration in the mind of the buyer, but that it is almost always the second consideration_. For this reason, few sales can be completed without a demonstration of value.
YOUR OWN BUYING HABITS
Study your own buying habits, and you will see that you seldom make a purchase on the basis of _price_ alone. Always you consider _value_. Consciously or otherwise, you compare the satisfaction you hope to gain against the price you are asked to pay. You like a bargain, but you recognize that low price, by itself, does not constitute a bargain.
TWO STAGES IN SELLING
The buying habits of the great majority of your customers are no different than your own. People generally will not buy a piece of furniture at any price unless they first believe, of their own initiative or as the result of your efforts, that it will afford them satisfaction, for their own use. Having found such a piece, they still will refuse to buy it until they also become convinced that _its value measured in terms of their own satisfactions, equals or exceeds the price_.
Thus the average sale consists of two stages:
First, helping the customer find the merchandise that meets her needs and satisfies her tastes, at the price she can afford to pay (not, necessarily, the price she desires, expects, or has expressed a willingness, to pay).
Second, convincing her that the article is a good value for the price.
A prevalent fault among even experienced furniture salespersons is the failure to deal adequately with the first stage--that of finding out what the customer wants. With interior decorators and many drapery salespersons the second stage--demonstration of value--is more often neglected. Moreover, much business is lost by men who reverse the logical process, and begin their demonstration of the value of an article before their customer has tentatively accepted it as adapted to her own needs and tastes.
On the other hand, innumerable sales are sacrificed through reliance upon mere assertion of value, or upon discounts or marked-down prices, with a consequent failure to deliver, at the end, a convincing demonstration of value. In such a demonstration construction and materials will occupy the spotlight.
CONSTRUCTION LESS INTERESTING TO WOMEN THAN MATERIALS
American women are not too much interested, as a rule, in the construction of the articles they buy. This is not because they regard sound construction as unimportant, but because they have been taught to take it more or less for granted. Their chief concern in any product lies in what it will do for them, and they do not care a great deal about how that result is insured. An analysis of magazine advertising will reveal the fact that construction is rarely used as an advertising appeal; a count of several current issues indicates about 1 case in 20.
There is a much wider interest in materials, including furniture woods and the floor covering, drapery, and upholstery fabrics; though even here the primary concern of the great majority of buyers is with the effect of these materials upon their homes and themselves rather than with the materials as such. According to an industry survey, 6 women out of 100 have no interest in furniture; 61 are interested in it primarily as a means of making their homes more attractive; 16 are chiefly interested in furniture woods; 14 in style or appearance; and 3 in construction.
HOW THIS ATTITUDE OF MIND AFFECTS OUR INTERESTS
The widespread disposition of women to take construction and materials for granted tends to reduce emphasis upon quality, forces prices toward unnecessarily low levels, and cuts down volume and profits. It encourages the production of poor merchandise, thereby undermining public confidence in furniture and furniture dealers.
A sound knowledge both of materials and of construction will help demonstrate the superior value of more costly merchandise when such merchandise lies within the customer's buying power. This knowledge, properly used, will of course enable sales to be speeded up, a larger number of customers to be waited on, and a larger percentage of sales to be made. Even when the salesman is emphasizing woods and fabrics, the materials of which home furnishings are made, he must win the customer's confidence in the quality of construction, the craftsmanship with which these materials are put together, if he would effectively minimize what to him is price resistance.
PRINCIPAL FURNITURE WOODS
In all periods of high civilization men have felt a deep interest in the furniture woods. The sheer beauty of these woods, their association in sentiment and legend with the noble trees of many lands, their never-ending, never-repeating variations of figure and shading, the romantic stories of their journeyings by ship or caravan from the far ends of the earth--these things always have delighted men and women of taste.
Undoubtedly they who sell furniture know too little about the furniture woods, talk too little about them, make far too little use of their powerful appeal to the eye and the emotions. If they can learn to know them intimately, and to regard them, not as merchandise merely, but as something fine and nobly beautiful, they cannot fail to inspire widespread admiration and desire for ownership.
A LIST OF THE LEADING FURNITURE WOODS
In appendix D, page 255, will be found a brief account of leading furniture woods. Most of these woods are used today, and many of them will be found in your stock. Ours is an age which takes great delight in colorful and beautifully figured woods. An astonishing variety of new species has come into comparatively recent use as the result of exploration in Africa, Australia, and the more remote and difficult areas of Central and South America. Salespersons are strongly urged, through this and other sources, to become familiar with the leading furniture woods in order to possess the background necessary to arouse appreciation of the beauty, distinction, and rarity of the woods used in furniture manufacture and to convey an adequate sense of the time, skill, and expense necessary to make these lovely woods available in strong and enduring form for the modern home.
MAKING THE MOST OF WOOD STRUCTURE AND ITS APPEAL TO THE EYE
As is well known, trees grow in diameter by the addition of new layers of wood, one of which forms just under the bark each year during the life of the tree. If growth is rapid, these layers, which are known as _annual rings_, will be relatively thick; if slow, they will be thin. In warm climates the growth of many trees is almost continuous, the fiber relatively uniform, and the annual rings very slightly marked. In cold climates growth is rapid in spring and summer, but almost ceases in winter, and the annual rings are sharply marked. The wood produced first in each year is frequently different from that produced later in the year, so that a distinction is drawn between the early springwood and the later summerwood. In such cases a cross section of the tree trunk will show a number of concentric annual rings whose number is equal to the age of the region of trunk cut. In certain kinds of trees, for instance, species of pines and leaf-shedding oaks, after the wood has attained a certain age, it darkens in color, so that when a crosscut of a 100-year-old part of the trunk is taken, the darker older central wood contrasts as _heartwood_ with the surrounding pale _sapwood_.
All hardwoods contain a multitude of long continuous water-conducting tubes termed _wood vessels_; in cross section they are often visible to the naked eye as _pores_. In woods like oak and ash these pores are easily visible in cross section as minute holes, and in longitudinal section as fine grooves, which are often accentuated by furniture makers through treatment with a dark filler. In woods like maple and gum the pores are too small to be seen without a microscope.
Oak, chestnut, ash, and elm are conspicuous members of the ring-porous group of hardwoods, so called because one or more rows of large pores are formed at the beginning of each annual ring. Walnut and mahogany are diffuse-porous because the pores, though plainly visible, are more nearly uniform in size throughout the annual rings.
In addition to the annual rings and pores, traversing the wood at right angles to the fibers are thin stringlike structures that run from the outside of the wood radially inward toward the pith. In some woods these rays are too minute to play a part in the visible figure of the wood, while in others, notably the oak, they are conspicuous, and in quarter-sawed boards produce the effect known as silver grain or flake. These are the _medullary rays_. For more detailed information about wood structure, consult any reliable encyclopedia.
These variations in structure, plus variations in coloring, constitute the physical basis for the innumerable charming effects which expert wood workers are able to create for the furniture lover. _Some of these effects can be produced in solid wood; others in veneer only._ They result from four general methods of cutting:
Plain sawing, or cutting more or less with the grain at right angles to the rays.
Quarter-sawing, or cutting across the grain, parallel to the rays.
Transverse sawing, or cutting in a direction neither flat nor quarter, but between them.
Rotary slicing, in which the knife or the veneer lathe follows the lines of annual growth, but cuts across them irregularly to yield a striking effect of wavy lines and parabolas.
The interest of furniture buyers lies in the beauty, durability, romantic appeal and prestige value of the various woods, and not in the technical processes by which their individuality and fine qualities are brought out. However, a few facts concerning the various types of figures are here set down for possible emergency use.
VENEER AND PLYWOOD
"The art of producing and using veneers dates back to the earliest days of civilization," says the Encyclopedia Britannica.[13]
Although we do not know when and where the art of veneering was invented, there is no doubt that it had reached a high development in Egypt 3,500 years ago. It was practiced by the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, by the Greeks, and particularly by the Romans, who used it not only in furniture-making but also in door frames and panels. There is a record that Cicero, celebrated Roman orator, paid for a veneered table of citrus wood a sum equivalent to $20,000 in gold.
When the ancient European civilization gave way to the Dark Ages, the art of veneering was temporarily lost, only to be revived in the form of inlays during the Renaissance. True veneering did not become common in Europe until after the middle of the seventeenth century, when a new type of saw was invented which would divide a plank into thin sheets. As an early result of the discovery of the New World and the sea route to India and the East, many rare and exotic woods were carried to Spain, Holland, France, and England and used as veneers and inlays in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--among them mahogany, satinwood, amboyna, kingwood, rosewood, tulipwood, amaranth, harewood, and vermillion. The art of veneering reached the point of technical perfection during the reign of Louis XIV, and ever since that time it has been practiced by most of the great cabinetmakers in all countries; except of course, in the case of the carvers, of whom Chippendale is the outstanding example. Most of the magnificent furniture of France, that of the Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and Adam styles in England, and the really distinguished furniture of the late Colonial and Federal periods in America, made a free use of veneers.
The whole process of making veneers, from the selection of a tree in some far corner of the globe to the finished plywood, is a long and exacting one which demands the technical knowledge of scientists, engineers, and chemists as well as the taste of the artist.
Briefly, we can say that the logs must be transported, studied carefully in order to determine just how to secure the most beautiful effects from the wood, usually soaked or conditioned to soften the fiber, and sliced or sawed into sheets of veneer, which are afterward dried carefully. This is a work for specialists, and is usually done at established veneer mills. At the furniture factory the sheets must again be carefully studied, matched, clipped, taped, glued, and built under a pressure of 200 to 300 pounds into the finished plyboards.
A single tree may yield 500 board feet of lumber or the same number of surface feet 1 inch thick. Cut into thin face veneers this same tree would yield 10,000 square feet or 20 times as much in terms of surface area.[14]
ADVANTAGES OF PLYWOOD
Technically, plywood is the product resulting from three or more layers of veneers joined with glue, and usually laid with the grain of adjoining plies at right angles. Almost always an odd number of plies are used to secure balanced construction. The outside plies are called faces, or face and back. The center ply is called the core, and intervening plies, laid at right angles to the others, are called cross bands. Plywood is a device for combining lightness and great strength with freedom from the tendency to warp and split.
Modern engineering, chemistry, and machinery have brought the production of plywood to a point of perfection where it is as strong, weight for weight, as steel. It is wood engineered for beauty, strength, and economical application. Its peculiar excellence, as contrasted with solid wood, results from equalizing the normal internal stresses of the wood by running alternate layers in different directions. In standard five-ply construction, widely used for good furniture, the two outer and the middle ply, or core, have the grain running in the same direction, while the second and fourth plies, or cross bands, have the grain running at right angles to that of the others. Plywood was produced by the Chinese thousands of years ago, and is found in the furniture of the ancient Egyptians. Yet it has taken modern ingenuity plus engineering and chemical skill to develop a product capable of meeting the large scale but exacting requirements of today--a product now used on land, in the air, and on the seas. Plywood was not produced by machinery, and in commercial quantities, until about 50 years ago, when plywood factories were started in Russia. Ninety percent of all wood furniture manufactured today is of veneer and plywood construction. It is used in the interest of economy, strength, flatness, and beauty, not only in cabinet and furniture making but also in residence and office building, coach-building and various engineering industries, including aviation. Plywood offers maximum strength in all directions combined with minimum weight.
BOTH SOLID AND VENEER AVAILABLE IN WOOD FURNITURE
Some persons adamantly insist that to be truly good quality, furniture must be solid, built wholly of one wood. While many experts insist that this view is untenable, those who insist upon it should, of course, buy solid pieces. To do so will frequently involve denying themselves the full beauty of the fine graining which normally can be had only in veneer. The salesman and the industry should jointly educate the customer that good veneer is not only with us to stay, but is used in some of the best furniture made anywhere in the world and that good American veneer has lasting qualities in addition to its value in bringing to the average home graining and finish that can never be obtained in furniture made from solid wood.
SELLING VENEERS WITHIN PRICE RANGES
The price range of veneer varies directly with the ready availability of the species, its color and figure, and its working and finishing qualities. Some veneers cost 20 times as much as others, and certain of the rarest and most beautifully figured sheets are literally worth their weight in silver. Well known commonly used species may be either high priced or inexpensive, depending upon the desirability and current demands for that figure.
To illustrate, American walnut may vary exceedingly in price. Taking the cost of the finest burl as 100 percent, crotch walnut might cost 57 percent as much; stump wood and figured long wood, 30 percent; and plain long wood approximately 5 percent. These percentages represent only the finest of each of these particular figures.
Therefore, instead of calling a suite "walnut" as if that is all there is to be said, it would be wise to point out that it is made of a particularly desirable piece of walnut, both rare and costly because of its fine figure and color. The same type of reasoning may be used in speaking of mahogany, maple, oak, and other beautifully figured cabinet woods.
IMPORTANCE OF CRAFTSMANSHIP
Furniture making is one of the oldest of human industries. For thousands of years it remained a craft industry. The transition to a machine industry began about 100 years ago. Since then, and especially within recent years, the use of machinery has been developed to a point of extraordinary efficiency. It is this fact alone which makes good furniture so low in price today. Indeed, were it not for the machine, most persons would have little furniture, and that of the crudest kind.
And yet it would be inaccurate to think of furniture as an impersonal, machine-made product; craftsmanship is still basically important in furniture making, and will remain so always. From 50 to 60 different and highly specialized machines are used in a modern factory making desks, chairs, and tables, and these machines perform all purely mechanical operations with amazing speed and more than human accuracy. Yet at every stage, from the selection of the woods to the final touches in the finishing room, the taste and accumulated skill of expert craftsmen are imperative. In the making of upholstered and reed furniture, machinery plays a subordinate part, and the skill of the craftsman is and always will be the dominant factor.
QUALITY OFTEN CONCEALED
Furniture making employs many materials and many processes. In every one of these materials and processes there are wide differences in excellence between the worst and the best. All of these differences are accurately known only to the manufacturer because they are concealed in the finished product. Many of them are known to the expert salesman. Few are known to the consumer who buys furniture too infrequently to become informed on concealed values, and naturally is disposed to base a judgment of value on the two obvious factors--eye appeal and price. As a result sales volume, to say nothing of public appreciation of furniture, is unnecessarily low.
MODERN FACTORIES BUILD CONCEALED VALUES INTO MANY PRODUCTS
It is obvious that all the operations of preparing wood, routing it through the factory, synchronizing the many processes, and eliminating waste can be performed most efficiently and economically in a modern plant and under the control of scientific knowledge and engineering skill. Factories so operated, therefore, may build into their product concealed or special values which are passed to the consumer in the form of lower price, quality for quality. These concealed values actually may take several forms; they may be concerned with materials and processes, or with construction and design. Although their service value is readily understood, their actual presence in any particular piece of furniture is not so easily determined by the inexperienced salesperson or the infrequent purchaser.
USE OF WOOD FREE FROM DEFECTS
When wood reaches the factory from the sawmill in the form of dimension lumber it contains some imperfections, among them rotted or discolored heartwood, stained sapwood, season checks, splits, knots, worm and grub holes, and decayed tissue. The more or less complete rejection of all defective lumber naturally affects production costs, and the use of perfect lumber in the unexposed parts of a piece of furniture constitutes a concealed value.
USE OF WOOD WITH CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT
In wet lumber, wood cells will contain moisture in amounts ranging from 30 to 100 percent of the weight of the woody fiber itself. If a considerable percentage of this moisture is permitted to remain in the pieces which are used for building furniture, a disastrous shrinkage will result. Kiln drying the wood to secure the ideal moisture content and to free it from internal stresses requires time, expense, and great skill. Construction cost can be reduced by slighting the process. Accordingly, perfectly conditioned wood constitutes a highly important concealed value in good furniture.
CHAIRS, TABLES, AND CASE GOODS HAVE CONCEALED VALUES
The points of concealed value in chair and table construction include, among others:
1. Choice of wood.
2. Method of shaping legs.
3. Method of building solid seats and tops (joinery; character of glue; and time spent in the clamps).
4. Character of joints (boring; mortise and tenon; kind, number, and position of dowels).
5. Use of corner blocks, braces, and stretchers.
6. Character of veneers, inlay, carving, or other ornament.
7. Technical skill of the machine operators and assemblers.
8. Care in sanding to ensure fine finishing.
Important points concerning the legs, tops, and end panels of cases are substantially the same as for chairs and tables. Standard five-ply for the tops of cases and standard three-ply for the end panels is the usual but not the universal practice. Other points include:
9. Construction of corner posts--solid wood to the floor, or with the turned legs separately made and doweled to the bottom of the posts, which cheapens but weakens construction.
10. Method of framing--solid framework above, between and below the drawers, with tongue and groove joints and three-ply veneer panel dust bottoms, or some cheaper method; frames "dadoed" (rigidly recessed) into the ends, and end panels dadoed into the legs, or some cheaper construction; shelves dadoed into end panels and also doweled into legs, and back doweled into legs, or some cheaper method, as nails or screws.
11. Drawer construction, including type of plywood; type of joint-dovetailed joints front and back, which is the best construction; lock joint (cheaper, but not nailed); nailed joint, still cheaper; butt joint (also requiring nails, the cheapest and poorest joint); drawer bottom dadoed into sides and ends, and supported by triangular rubbed-in blocks, or some cheaper method; center slides; perfect or less than perfect fitting.
UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE
Here the construction is almost completely concealed. The customer sees only the exposed portion of the frame and the covering and, except in the case of advertised goods, knows no more about the construction and concealed values of a piece than is told her by the salesperson.
Years ago much upholstered furniture was imported from a famous factory in London. It was costly, but vastly comfortable and of great durability. Yet when a piece was "taken down" it was found to contain far fewer springs, tied with fewer knots, than was the case with American goods of the same general price range. This indicates the folly, in the case of upholstered furniture, of setting up measures of excellence based upon exactly standardized practice. What applies to plywood or dowel joints does not necessarily apply to spring construction.
CONCEALED VALUES IN UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE
In general, the points of concealed value in upholstered furniture include:
1. The frame, which in the best construction is of clear, tough, dry hardwood, with properly glued and doweled joints, and necessary reinforcing blocks.
2. The springing, including foundation for the springs; number and character of springs; type of twine and number of knots per coil; skill of operator and speed at which he is compelled to work; presence or absence of spring edge.
3. Spring covering, including weight of burlap; method of attaching it to the frame and to the springs.
4. Stuffing: Double or single method; use of excelsior, tow, fiber, moss, cotton, or curled hair, alone or in combination.
5. Springing of back and arms.
6. Loose cushions; spring or down construction.
7. Skill and care of the workman; inspection standards for materials and labor.
REED FURNITURE
In the book _Tropical Nature_, A. R. Wallace, after describing the great trees of the tropical forest, says: "Next to the trees themselves the most conspicuous feature of the tropical forests is the profusion of woody creepers and climbers that everywhere meet the eye * * *. They twist in great serpentine coils or lie entangled in masses on the ground."
In such a forest grows Calamus, the rattan palm, whose slender stem often attains the enormous length of 600 feet. From Calamus is obtained the basic material employed in making reed furniture. It comes from the tropical forests of the East Indies after it has been passed through several primitive processes by native workers. In this country it is prepared in the forms of cane, rattan, and reed for weaving; maple frames are designed and built; the weaving is done by American craftsmen.
Points of excellence include skillful preparation of the raw materials; sturdy construction of the frames, including bracing; and skill in weaving. Unhurried work means better construction but higher cost, and is thus an element of value.
THE APPEAL OF FINISH
The appeal of finish is so potent as to require little demonstration. Most customers are quite willing to accept wood finish, as they accept dyestuffs or rayon, as one of the mysteries of chemical science. The results speak for themselves. No one thinks the less of an old Cremona violin because the secret of its varnish is known.
The story of modern chemistry is in fact more romantic than all the tales of the Thousand and One Nights, yet people generally speaking cannot be stirred by it. Tell them how the old craftsmen of Gothic Europe, hundreds of years ago, stained oak planks a beautiful rich brown by burying them for weeks or months under manure and you will interest them deeply. Tell them how American craftsmen, a generation ago, got the same results with the fumes of ammonia and a leaden vault and you will barely hold their interest. Tell them how other craftsmen today squirt a preparation of coal tar and water from one spray gun, and a preparation of wood pulp or old rags from another to finish fine furniture, and they will probably cancel the order.
In the late sixteenth century, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and other cabinetmakers employed a process of staining, or rather of softly bleaching fine woods through the action of decomposing salts of chromium, followed by French polishing with oils and waxes. True varnish, a solution of resins in hot oils, was discovered in America in the middle nineteenth century, and achieved an immense popularity. Modern lacquer, which is totally unlike the Oriental lacquer, is a twentieth century discovery which combines gun cotton (nitrocellulose) with butyl alcohol, a byproduct in the manufacture of acetone.
WOOD FINISHING
The salesperson should learn that honest construction and careful finishing of a piece of furniture often count for more than the kind of wood used. Beautiful wood, however desirable it may be, is never the chief source of value. No piece of furniture is really completed until it has been given an appropriate and artistic finish.
What May Be Expected of a Finish.
There are at least three characteristics of a good wood finish.
1. _Appropriateness._--The finish should be adapted to the needs which the piece is meant to serve. The polish of a piece of wood should not hide the beauty of the wood but should enhance it. Furniture should never make itself obtrusive. If furniture is noticeable, its artistic quality is usually to be questioned.
2. _Serviceability._--The finish must protect the surface against the most common difficulties encountered in furniture finishing, such as bleeding, blistering, blooming, blushing, checking, caking, grain raising, bubbling, pitting, livering, and sweating.
3. _Beauty._--Good finish should retain the characteristics of the wood rather than destroy their identity. Usually the natural wood needs to be softened and enriched to produce the most pleasing effects in keeping with its different nature and traits.
Beauty of finish depends to a great extent upon knowledge of how a surface should be prepared and the skill which is used in carrying out approved practices. The workman who understands the structure of wood, its mechanical and chemical properties, and has the right tools and equipment for preparing the surface, is not likely to use poor methods. He will understand that great care is required to produce a smooth surface on a piece of wood; that coarser defects of an improperly finished surface under the microscope reveal undreamed-of roughness on a carelessly scraped or inadequately sanded piece of wood. Also he will know that for permanence of finish and lasting qualities of construction, the wood must be properly seasoned and remain in a proper shop-dry condition during the entire construction and finishing periods.
Reasons for Staining.
Wood in its natural tones does not usually harmonize with textiles and wall colors.
The coloring often brings out unsuspected qualities and beauty in the wood itself, due to--
1. The reaction of the stain upon cells of the medullary rays;
2. Its effect upon the mass of wood fibers; and
3. Its greater absorption by the open pores or broken cell cavities.
Greater durability may be obtained through use of preservative stains.
Classification of Wood Stains.
There are four classes of stains, named according to the solvents used in making them:
1. Those soluble in water, sometimes called the acid stains.
2. Those soluble in spirits.
3. Those soluble in chemicals.
4. Those soluble in oils.
Two other classes of so-called stains are known as varnish stains and wax stains. These stains are not transparent as they obscure the grain and leave a layer of pigment on the surface.
These four classes of stains may be subdivided into two classes, acid and alkaline, depending upon their chemical reaction with other substances. Water-soluble stains, most largely used, are often made of coal tar dyes, which dissolve in water, and can be used in an acid bath. They are obtained from color substances having no body, such as walnut juice, logwood extract, turmeric, the juice of berries, and the bark of trees.
Stains are applied by brushing, wiping, spraying, and dipping, the latter on quantity production of cheaper grades. Because hardwoods absorb stains more slowly than softwoods, the advantages of the first three methods are apparent. Where this strong contrast between sapwood and heartwood exists, the salesperson should know the sapwood requires more stain than the remainder of the wood. A coat of stain may be applied to the light streaks and after it dries, the entire surface may be stained.
Aside from color there are "polished" and "dull" finishes. Varnish is the original finishing medium, serving as a protective agent and as a means of building up a high finish. For wood finishing the varnish is transparent, but for other uses is sometimes colored, as in black varnish or japan, or by the addition of dyestuffs, as in lacquers.
Lacquers permitting a polish finish are replacing gum varnish finishes to a great extent because lacquer dries in about one-tenth the time required for varnishes, and because lacquer finishes wear well under exposure or use. Chemical action ceases in lacquer films after they harden.
Fuming.
Fuming wood means subjecting the wood to the fumes of ammonia of full strength (specific gravity 880). The process really comes under the head of chemical staining. It is particularly well adapted to the treatment of oak for it brings out in varying shades of brown the rugged quality of this wood. It is penetrating; it does not fade. After the oak has been fumed, a coat of raw linseed oil will have a pleasant darkening effect upon the wood. Age only serves to darken and beautify the result.
Enameling.
Enameling differs from ordinary varnishing in that the material used is opaque. For this reason it is folly to use it over expensive woods. Enamel has the brittleness of a piano varnish and the brilliancy that is given by a hard resinous gum. Maple, birch, pine, and poplar are well adapted to this treatment, which if it has been applied carefully and in accordance with approved methods, will yield all the luster and softness of a high grade varnish. Manufacturers have met the demands for several surface effects or types of finish by producing enamels having high gloss, eggshell gloss, and flat or dull effects. The tinting of enamels is accomplished by mixing the proper amounts of colors which are ground either in japan, oil, or special enamel-varnish with the best process zinc-white. More recently other materials, such as lithopone (barium sulphate) and zinc oxide are used in many of the cheaper enamels. The decorative possibilities of stencils and transfers are almost unlimited when used upon common woods and metals finished with good enamel. This accounts for the rising demand for breakfast room furniture, sun parlor furniture, porch furniture, and many steel, plastic, and wooden novelties in bright designs using two or three colors.
BLOND FURNITURE WOODS
The so-called blond woods are of two types--bleached, consisting of normally brunette woods which have been artificially lightened, and the unbleached woods, which have a naturally light color. They run the gamut of shades and colors from white through eggshell, cream, straw, sand, beige, and yellow to tan and light brown.
Among the bleached woods, blond walnut and blond mahogany are probably the most used. This is true partially because of their wide acceptance as desirable cabinet woods, and partially because of a type of beauty of natural grains which is brought out effectively by the blond treatment.
The unbleached blond woods include not only maple, light oak, aspen, and birch, but also a wide variety of such exotic and unusual woods as satinwood, myrtle burl, zebrawood, lacewood, holly, harewood, and avodire, to mention only a few.
The blond treatment employs a transparent rubbed finish which is effective in bringing out the natural pattern of the grain. English harewood, one of the most distinctive, owes its beautiful silver grey to a dye which is used on the light yellow natural color of harewood (sycamore). Maple attains its warm reddish brown color also by staining. Some most striking and beautiful effects in today's furniture are achieved by using blond woods in combination with trimming of dark woods.
The use of blond treatment has resulted in the creation of light, airy effects which tend to brighten the room in which it is used. While the present trend is toward its widest acceptance for bedroom and boudoir use, it is being used for the living room, dining room, and occasional pieces.
Consult Reference Books Freely.
Volumes have been written about the furniture woods and wood-finishing. From the great fund of information available, selection has been made of material describing the most common process of wood finishing. Those who desire to make exhaustive or more searching study of this subject will do well to consult such books as have been listed on page 103 of the Suggested Reading List.
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
_1. What factors determine selection and use of any particular wood for a given purpose?_
_2. If a plain style table having a flat top and four legs were advertised as "Combination Mahogany" from what would you believe that table was made?_
_3. What are the essential differences between the Classic-Modern development and the Functional-Modern development?_
_4. How should you answer a customer who held the view that there was something shoddy and false about veneer?_
_5. What are the "concealed values" in a large upholstered chair? How may they best be discussed with your customer?_
_6. Explain the following:_
_Kiln drying._ _Sapwood._ _Hardwood._ _Burls._ _Quarter-sawing._ _Moisture content._ _Tenon._ _Calamus._ _Heartwood._ _Plywood._
_7. What are points of excellence in finishing?_
_8. Are you familiar with the important facts in connection with the manufacture of your furniture woods?_
_Location of the factories._ _Sources of the principal furniture woods._ _Reasons for use of each wood in certain situations._ _Workmanship employed._ _Inspection and testing methods._ _Standards maintained._
_9. What are the so-called real cabinet woods?_
_10. If your customer determines to use painted furniture for his living room set does it make any difference whether the manufacturer has used an inexpensive furniture wood?_
SUGGESTED READING LIST
BALDWIN, WILLIAM H. _The Shopping Book._ The Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 1929.
Furniture Woods, pp. 56-58.
Britannica, Encyclopedia. 14th Edition, vol. 22, pp. 217-221.
Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia. 1939. vol. 7, pp. 98-107.
Wood Finishes, vol. 5, pp. 219-222. Furniture Manufacture, vol. 9, pp. 948-951.
KOUES, HELEN. _How to Beautify Your Home._ Good Housekeeping, New York, N. Y. 1930.
Finishes for Natural Wood Furniture, XVI, pp. 218-224.
MULLER, JOSEPH L. _American Hardwood Plywood._ Forest Products Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce. 1940. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
NEUBRECH, W. LEROY. _American Hardwood--Dimension, Wall Paneling and Interior Trim._ Forest Products Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce. 1938. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
---- _American Hardwood Flooring and Its Uses._ Forest Products Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce. 1938. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
---- _American Hardwoods and Their Uses._ Forest Products Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce. 1938. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
PALMER, LOIS. _Your House._ Boston Cooking School Magazine Co. 1928.
Outline History of Furniture, pp. 163-204.
TRILLING, MABEL _and_ WILLIAMS, FLORENCE. _Art In Home and Clothing._ J. B. Lippincott Co., New York, N. Y. 1936.
Good Design in Furniture, VIII, pp. 174-199.
United States Department of Commerce, National Committee on Wood Utilization. _Furniture: Its Selection and Use._ Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1931.
Materials and Construction, part II, pp. 21-73.
United States Department of Commerce, Forest Products Division, Foreign and Domestic Commerce, _American Douglas Fir Plywood and Its Uses_. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1937.
Wood Finishing.
PATTON, ALBERT BRACE _and_ VAUGHN, CLARENCE LEE. _Furniture, Furniture Finishing, Decoration, and Patching._ Frederick J. Drake & Co., Inc., Chicago, Ill. 1931. Book II. Furniture Finishing, pp. 121 to 132a.
JEFFREY, HARRY R. _Wood Finishing._ Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill., 1924. pp. 9-154.
NEWELL, ADUAH CLIFTON. _Coloring, Finishing, and Painting Wood._ Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill. 1930.
FOOTNOTES:
[13] Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th edition; vol. 23: Veneer.
[14] American-Hardwood Plywood, p. 2, Forest Products Division, U. S. Department of Commerce.
Unit VI
SELLING SLEEP EQUIPMENT
Sell Equipment To Meet Customer's Needs
Mattresses and Springs
Pillows
Studio Couches and Sofa Beds
Unit VI.--SELLING SLEEP EQUIPMENT
SELL EQUIPMENT TO MEET CUSTOMER'S NEEDS
The retail selling of sleeping equipment, in the opinion of many store executives, calls for more skill and study than almost any other line, but to the man who really knows his merchandise there is no easier line to sell and few which offer greater opportunities for increased earnings and personal satisfaction.
No other line of merchandise needs intelligent selling as much as does sleeping equipment. The consumer, through magazines and newspapers, is learning much about style, decoration, and periods in furniture. When shopping for a living room suite she needs the salesman's help, certainly, but she usually comes into the store with some idea of what she should have. Bedding, however, to most women is too often something to be selected through bargain advertising.
Because the mind of the prospective purchaser has been conditioned to expect bargains in mattresses, springs, pillows, studio couches, and sofa beds, it is necessary for you to use your intelligence and exert sincere effort to sell the sleeping equipment which the customer should have. The average customer is unfamiliar with standards by which bedding may be judged; so the responsibility of guiding her to a proper selection rests with you.
This is all the more important because sleep equipment has an actual effect upon one's health and rest. How well a person sleeps is a natural topic for conversation.
You may shirk this responsibility to the physical welfare of the customer by making quick sales of low-priced merchandise. However, if you want to build a clientele who will recommend you to their friends in an ever-widening circle, you will remember that you are selling sleeping comfort--something that the customer will be able to check every night of the year.
WHAT DOES THE CUSTOMER NEED?
The first step in the successful sale of proper bedding is to discover tactfully the preference of the customer and the type of sleeping equipment that is to be replaced. Find out if a cotton mattress or a curled hair one or an early inner-spring type has been used. This is important for two reasons. First, only through knowing what has been used can you make an honest recommendation of better equipment and, secondly, through this knowledge you will be able to understand better what the customer implies when she asks for a "firm" or a "soft" mattress.
The customer may have been sleeping on a curled hair or cotton felt mattress; for example, which she characterizes as "much too hard," and she is, therefore, asking for a very soft inner spring. Future complaints will be avoided in this instance if you will take the time to point out that after using an unusually firm mattress, the greater flexibility of an inner-spring mattress may be found uncomfortably soft. After a customer has used a very firm mattress, she will view as _soft_ a new one which is actually medium firm.
Customers select their clothes and shoes to fit. They have ideas as to what they want in sleep equipment. But their descriptions of what they want and need may not tally with your trade terms. It is your duty to help them to select exactly the right type of mattress to fit their needs rather than to point out that what they term hard or soft is not what the industry feels about these mattresses. You are the expert. It is your problem to see that your customer finds exactly the right mattress, spring, or pillow for her individual sleeping needs. When a customer is selecting sleeping equipment for another person her attention should be called to the variance of individual taste, and wherever possible the requirements of the individual who is to use the equipment should be ascertained. To equip satisfactorily an entire family with full cognizance of the requirements of individuals indicates proficiency and expertness in the salesman.
STRESS OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND SELL BETTER BEDDING
As you show your merchandise, study your customer, learn as much as possible about her individual needs and preferences and discuss the importance of proper rest.
Unless your store has a definite and effective method of "trading up" you will make more sales of better equipment by starting at the top. There is a wide market for mattresses and springs at $19.75. Too many customers, however, who can afford and who should have better quality equipment, are buying at that price level because no salesperson has tried to sell them better merchandise. If a customer comes in asking to see the promotion mattress on which an advertisement has been run, she must be shown that mattress. However, from the head of your department, from the manufacturer's salesman, and from your own knowledge of the merchandise you should know in advance what additional value and extra service she will receive by buying the $29.50 or $39.50 mattress instead of the $14.95, or the $19.75 one. Because most mattresses look alike, you must build up her confidence in you and your recommendations by telling her and showing her facts. Use the cut-out samples intelligently. Point out in an understandable manner the various features and explain how they produce the comfort and the durability in which she is interested.
Discuss features in terms of what she is looking for in a mattress--springs, for instance, not as coils of 10- or 12-foot wire, but as the means of providing proper resilience and buoyancy. Her interest in the upholstery will not be in so many pounds of cotton linters, staple cotton, or curled hair, but in what these things mean in terms of comfort and restful sleep. Know the technical construction of the bedding offered for sale, but discuss this construction only in language that is easily understood.
VAST REPLACEMENT MARKET
Bedding is, of course, a "must" in every new household as well as in every house and room where people sleep. Without losing sight of the constant and tremendous market that comes from newly created homes, a bedding specialist should always keep in mind the vast replacement possibilities in the countless families where bedding has outlived its useful span. This is a market which may have to be awakened, one in which natural complacency tends to dull the keen edge of spontaneous demand.
According to a survey conducted for the National Association of Bedding Manufacturers, nearly 20 percent of the mattresses owned by the housewives interviewed were over 16 years in use. By statistical reasoning this might indicate that 8 million mattresses in the country have had similar use and it is at least reasonable to presume that after 16 years' service, most mattresses are no longer providing complete comfort and rest.
The investigation also showed that 32 percent of the pillows in use by these families had been slept on for over 25 years. This may indicate that over 25 million pillows in the United States have been similarly used beyond the state of true comfort-giving usefulness. Twenty-seven percent of the bed springs were found to be more than 16 years old.
YOU MUST KNOW YOUR MERCHANDISE
The first step then in becoming an able salesman of sleeping equipment is to learn everything that you can about the mattresses, pillows, springs, studio couches, and sofa beds sold in your store. Because the consumer usually is not well informed, the salesman should know everything about the merchandise which he recommends.
Only after he knows his merchandise, its component parts, the quality of its manufacture, its life expectancy, resiliency, and its other characteristics in use, can he become a successful salesman capable of handling quality merchandise, rather than an order taker who is able to move only "bargain" promotions.
In the following pages you will find much general information about the various types of sleeping equipment. In a field, however, where each manufacturer is stressing individual and patented constructions and units, no one bulletin can provide all the information you need. You must continuously study the literature provided by the manufacturers of the goods on your floor. Furthermore, never lose an opportunity to talk to manufacturers' salesmen. They are specialists and can give you detailed information which will enable you to explain the qualities of their merchandise.
SELL THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD REST
You should also know something about the physiology of sleep. Talk to your store's physician, if there is one, or to your family doctor. The medical profession has in recent years discovered a great many new facts about sleep and it will help you to sell quality bedding to know them.
You should not try to pose as a medical authority, but you certainly should be able to discuss intelligently the effects of sleep on the mind and body, the need for proper rest, and the general results of insomnia. If your store has a book department, read the various volumes on rest and relaxation. Recent books of this type include _You Can Sleep Well_, by Edmund Jacobson, M. D., and _Sleep_, by Ray Giles.
As you learn more about sleep equipment, you will discover that the major improvements in bedding date back only a comparatively few years and that many of your customers do not appreciate how much scientific research and manufacturing care go into the production of the springs and mattresses which are now on your floor.
These and the other interesting facts that you will learn in your reading and conversation with manufacturers' salesmen will convince you that in sleeping equipment you are selling one of the most important items of merchandise the average family ever selects. It is now possible for you to conduct the bedding sale so that you impress on the customer (1) the importance of the purchase and (2) that she should buy the equipment that will give the sleeper the most comfortable rest.
HOW TO OVERCOME PRICE OBJECTIONS
Except in rare instances price will always be a factor in the sale of bedding. Retail advertising in too many communities is daily educating housewives to expect quality at low prices. Your best argument is to prove through your conversation about the importance of sleep and through an actual demonstration of cut-out samples that the customer will receive in bedding, as in everything else, exactly what she pays for. Sell comfort and rest, and show how the equipment you are recommending will provide both comfort and rest. There is no better way to anticipate the objection of price.
In the opinion of the best merchandising experts in the country the average consumer is not looking for cheap bedding as such. Because of the constant price promotion of all types of sleeping equipment--mattresses, springs, pillows, studio couches, and sofa beds--comparative prices, however, are an important factor. You will make more sales, sell better merchandise, and build a permanent clientele quicker if you constantly keep in mind that you are selling sleep and rest, and not merely so many pounds of upholstery and steel to be bought only because the figure on the price tag has been "slashed 50 percent this week only."
Show that the first cost is relatively unimportant--that when measured in years of comfortable service even the best equipment costs but a few cents per night. Impress upon her the tangible benefits of receiving good sleep from proper equipment over a reasonable number of years' service. Whenever possible, use tactfully the experience of customers who are pleased with the quality items selected with your assistance. In no other merchandise or department will customer satisfaction bring you so much additional business.
As a result of conflicting comparative price advertising, women frequently shop in several stores for bedding. Recent studies show that 60 percent of specialty store customers seem to switch from one store to another each time they purchase. Regardless of your enthusiasm for quality equipment--regardless of your sincere desire to recommend only the right equipment--you will still hear that "Blank's have one just as good and $10 cheaper." Your best defense for this is to know what Blank's actually are offering. If it is a promotional item with cheap padding and fancy ticking, show the customer that you, too, have a mattress of similar quality but that the one you are recommending is superior and explain why it is a better value.
If, in spite of your best efforts, the customer walks out to shop in the bedding departments of your competitors, let her go gracefully. She is going to do it anyway in spite of what you say and if you impress upon her the strongest arguments for your goods as she leaves, a surprisingly large percentage will return--particularly if you have shown her you were recommending the equipment that satisfied her particular needs.
MATTRESSES AND SPRINGS
MATTRESSES
The bedding salesman is concerned principally with those articles of bedroom equipment which most directly determine the sleeping comfort of the user. These are mattresses, bedsprings, and pillows. In addition, the bedding department generally includes studio couches and sofa beds into which mattresses and springs have been built.
The mattress may be considered the department's basic item. Not only are more mattresses sold than any other article, but also a properly made mattress sale frequently leads to the sale of other pieces. Consequently, it is of utmost importance for the bedding salesman to be able to talk authoritatively about mattresses.
MATTRESSES AS OLD AS CIVILIZATION
The mattress dates back to early Egyptian civilization. The first mattress consisted of large bags stuffed with reeds, hay, and wool. "Feather beds" were used by the Vikings in northern Europe in the eighth century. Their mattresses, stuffed with feathers, were similar to those favored by our grandparent.
Thus it can be seen that for centuries there was little progress made in increasing mattress comfort. The development of inner springs and the felting of upholstery materials are of recent origin. The modern mattress is a twentieth century innovation.
THE INNER-SPRING MATTRESS
The inner-spring mattress derives most of its resilience and buoyancy from a unit of many coiled springs. Covering this unit on top and bottom are layers of upholstery. In most types there is a thin layer of protective insulation, often of sisal (a tough, white vegetable fiber), between the spring unit and the upholstery. This keeps the padding material from being forced down into and between the springs and prevents the springs from pushing through the upholstery.
In some models the spring unit is padded only lightly and the upholstery is encased in a separate pad for greater ease in handling.
The spring unit, naturally, is the heart of the inner-spring mattress, as it determines the sensitivity with which the mattress conforms to the sleeper's body. How it stands up under use largely determines the wearing age of the mattress. These factors are influenced by the quality, tempering, and size of the steel wire used and the way the coils are designed.
There are so many different types of inner-spring mattresses now manufactured that it is impossible to take up each individually. Mattress and steel companies have devoted a great amount of research to determining such small but important details as the shape of the spirals, the proper number of turns of wire that each spring should be given, how the coils should be fastened together and the temper and gage of the wire.
This experimentation has produced the many different construction designs. These, of course, are protected by patents. The bedding salesman should familiarize himself thoroughly with the distinctive features of the mattresses in his store and be able to show the customer, through the use of cut-out samples, just what purposes they accomplish.
In this connection, it should be remembered that it is the independent action of the individual coils that gives support to the various parts of the body and allows the muscles and nerves to relax completely. The salesman's duty, therefore, is to show how his products give this support.
There are two general types of inner-spring mattresses; those in which the springs are tied together with metal, and those in which the individual springs are encased in cloth pockets.
METAL-TIED UNITS
In the metal-tied units the springs are held together by helical (small spiral) springs or metal clips. As a rule, there are fewer coils in this type of inner-spring unit, but they are usually larger and of heavier wire than the cloth-encased variety. The number of springs in this unit may vary from 180 to 360 or more (one model contains 1,000) in the full-size models. Essentially, however, comfort is determined by the quality of the construction and not necessarily by the number of coils.
The shape of the coil varies, too. Some are like hourglasses, others like cylinders or barrels. Special merits are claimed for each design by its manufacturers. The salesman should be able to explain what these are.
CLOTH-POCKETED UNIT
The cloth-pocketed unit consists of many small, light coils, each of which is encased in muslin or burlap. Full-size units of this type usually contain more than 800 individual coils, although the number may vary. In this general classification are mattresses in which the individual coils are not completely encased but are secured at both ends by flat horizontal pockets. In some mattresses of the pocket type the coils are tied together; in others they are not.
CHARACTERIZATION OF A GOOD INNER SPRING
Regardless of its unit construction, an inner-spring mattress of good quality has certain characteristics which can be easily recognized and described. Chief among these are resilience and buoyancy. A mattress with the proper resiliency will give readily when pressure is applied and spring back to its original shape when this pressure is removed. Resilience may be thought of as "plenty of give." Buoyancy is the power to support and sustain the sleeper's weight. A mattress which is buoyant will cradle the body comfortably without letting it sink too deeply into the mattress.
UPHOLSTERY OF INNER-SPRING MATTRESSES
The upholstery used to pad the inner-spring unit and give it added comfort conforms in general to that used in solid-filled mattresses.
The most widely used upholstery material is felted cotton. In the better grade mattresses the cotton fiber is of good length, permitting easy felting. In those of lesser quality shorter-fibered cotton is used.
Curled hair makes an excellent but more expensive upholstery material. It is used alone, or in combination with cotton or lamb's wool. Lamb's wool alone or in combination with curled hair is used in the most expensive types. Some manufacturers use lamb's wool on one side for winter use and curled hair on the other for summer.
INDEPENDENCE OF ACTION
The purpose of an inner-spring mattress is to supply maximum resilience and buoyancy, plus independence and freedom of action which will enable the mattress to adjust itself immediately to the varying weights of the different parts of the body. Learn why the coils in the springs will not turn, will not push through the upholstery, will not collapse and entangle themselves one with another, and why they will give service for many years. Having learned these things yourself, study the art of making that clear to your customer.
Lasting comfort is dependent upon structural design, the quality of construction, the grade and tempering of the wire, and the strength of the materials used. The manufacturer has made certain service guarantees. Learn what these are. Be sure to make them clear.
THE SOLID MATTRESSES
All-Cotton Mattresses.
Eighty percent of solid mattresses are filled with cotton. These range from inexpensive models to ones which match inner spring styles in cost. Cotton mattresses come in three classifications--felted, loose, and combination felted and loose.
The cheapest cotton mattress is that in which short-fibered cotton is blown into the ticking by air pressure. These "blown" cotton mattresses are an inexpensive product and generally recognized as such. They will give adequate service for a time, but eventually the cotton will pack down unevenly and form lumps. The salesman in fairness to his customer should refrain from making any claims for these mattresses other than that they will be comfortable for a limited period of time.
In the best grade of solid cotton mattresses a longer-fibered cotton is used. These fibers are picked apart and interlaced by a felting process into thin layers, which are placed one upon the other. This felting, plus tufting or quilting, keeps the upholstery in place and retards the tendency toward lumping. A good felted mattress will give service for many years, but constant use eventually will destroy its resilience and produce lumps.
Between the blown cotton and the felted cotton mattresses in price range is found a combination mattress consisting of top and bottom layers of felted cotton, with a center of loose cotton. As the description implies, it is better than an all-blown cotton mattress and inferior to an all-felted one.
Curled Hair Mattresses.
Before the advent of the inner-spring unit, the curled hair mattress was the aristocrat of the mattress field. It is still favored by many persons who prefer to sleep on a comparatively firm foundation.
Animal hair, when permanently curled, has considerable resilience, as each hair is turned into a tiny spring. Four types of hair are used for mattresses. In order of value, they are: Horse-tail hair, cattle-tail hair, horse-mane hair, and hog hair.
These types of hair frequently are mixed to produce mattress fillings of varying degrees of resilience and softness. They vary in price and quality according to the percentage of each type that is used.
An advantage of the curled hair mattress is that it can be opened whenever desired and rebuilt, restoring the original resilience. Some new hair is usually added with each rebuilding. To give satisfactory service a curled hair mattress should be rebuilt every 5 to 7 years.
Kapok Mattresses.
With the exception of cotton, the only vegetable fiber used in making mattresses is kapok, which comes from the pod of a tropical tree. Kapok mattresses are soft, are moisture and vermin proof, and are light and easy to handle. The fibers, however, have a tendency to pulverize and form lumps. This tendency may be retarded by sunning the mattress frequently. Packing the kapok into compartments adds to its durability. Long life, however, should not be emphasized in selling a kapok mattress.
Latex Mattresses.
The latex mattress was introduced to the general public in 1938. Latex is the milk of the rubber tree. It is whipped into a foam-like consistency and then vulcanized or heat cured into a mattress mold. Air is sometimes injected under pressure. The resultant mattress is honeycombed with large cells which add to its resiliency. In its original form it was 3 or 4½ inches thick and more expensive than the better inner-spring models. Because of their comparative thinness, these latex mattresses usually are sold with special higher-than-average box springs. This type of mattress should be referred to as latex, not as rubber.
A later development was the introduction of inner-spring units with layers of latex used in place of the usual upholstering material.
THE COVERING MATERIAL
Most of the features that make a really good mattress are concealed from the customer's eye and must be explained by the salesperson. However, the buyer can actually see and judge the mattress cover. The pattern is important, because superficially it has most to do with attractive appearance. Mattress covers usually are identified either as ticking or damask.
Ticking.
Ticking, usually thought of as a strong, twill weave, may have a plain or sateen finish. The twill is made by weaving diagonal lines from right to left on the face of the fabric. The pattern may range from a traditional blue and white to novelties of many widths. Eight-ounce ticking is considered the standard of quality. It is so named because 2 yards of 32-inch width weigh 1 pound. Ticking also comes in 6-ounce and 4-ounce weights. These lesser weights may be adequate for certain uses but it is obvious that they will give service only in proportion to their strength. Tickings which are moisture and bacteria repellent are now being extensively advertised.
Damask.
Damask is woven on a jacquard loom in many different patterns. Mercerized cotton and rayon often are used to add effectiveness to the patterns. Damask in good grades will give satisfactory service though its wearing quality is not equal to 8-ounce ticking. That part of the mattress which covers the sides and joins the top and bottom mattress covers is known as the border. Borders should be strong and firm enough to keep the sides in shape and the edge straight. To accomplish this, borders are embroidered, quilted, and otherwise reinforced for added strength.
UPHOLSTERING AND TAILORING DETAILS
Prebuilt border is one in which the cover cloth, a layer of cotton felt, and a lining are stitched, embroidered, or otherwise sewed together, with eyelets or ventilators properly placed.
An inner-roll border frequently is used on the better type of mattress. A reinforcing roll of cotton felt is turned in, close against the padding of the inner-spring unit, both top and bottom, to give a neat, well-defined edge.
The outer-roll edge was the original method of finishing a mattress. It has a roll on the outside of the top and bottom of the mattress. This is not extra padding, but results from the outside stitching of the regular upholstery. It strengthens the edge of the mattress without giving it the smooth edge of the inner-roll. One disadvantage is that it is likely to catch more dust.
Tufting is the process of running twine or tape through the mattresses at various points, the outer end being secured with buttons or clips. These tufts serve to keep the inner materials in place and prevent shifting. The tufting material should be strong enough to last the lifetime of the mattress and the buttons should be firmly attached. Fasteners such as rubber, plastics, metal, and the like are usually employed instead of the cotton and leather tufts which were formerly used.
Tuft-less mattresses are those in which the upholstery is held in place by stitching or quilting the layers or by placing it in compartments or between muslin.
Ventilators, which range in size from eyelets to holes ¾ inch in diameter, are necessary to permit the passage of air through the interior of the mattress. The larger openings are screened. The borders in good mattresses are built so that the ventilators are left open.
BEDSPRINGS
The ancient Greeks are said to have been the first to discover that it is more comfortable to sleep on a foundation which "gives" with the sleeper's movements than on solid wood. They ran braided thongs of stout leather from one side of the bed to the other. These were the first bedsprings and were the only type known until about 80 years ago. This type of spring, with rope substituted for leather, was in general use in America until a few generations ago.
The metal bedspring as known today dates back to about the time of the War between the States. It was invented by James Liddy, of Watertown, N. Y., who so enjoyed a nap on a springed buggy seat that he purchased a supply of buggy springs and put them on his bed. The salesperson should remember that the bedspring is the foundation of the bed and shares with the mattress the job of supplying complete sleeping comfort. To function perfectly, springs and mattress should be matched carefully.
There are four general types of bedsprings: Metal-fabric, open-coil, platform-top or convolute-coil, and box springs.
Metal-Fabric Springs.
The least expensive, and the least serviceable, are the fabric springs. They consist of a flat layer of crossed or meshed wires which are fastened to the frame with helical springs. As they are subjected to continuous downward pressure they will soon develop a sag. These should be used only with solid-filled mattresses. Another type of fabric springs consists of steel bands fastened to the ends of the frame by helical springs and to each other by short helical cross ties or wire locks. The higher priced models of this type provide a good foundation for an inner-spring mattress.
Open-Coil Springs.
The open-coil springs are built to provide flexibility and are particularly designed for use with solid-filled mattresses. They consist of spiral coils, larger and stronger than those used in inner-spring mattresses, set into a metal frame. Each coil usually is held to its neighbor by four small helical springs. The coils are supported at the bottom by metal strips running from one side of the frame to the other.
Platform-Top and Convolute-Coil Types.
The convolute-coil or platform-top springs are similar to the open-coil type except that additional features are added to provide a firmer resting surface for the mattress. In the platform type, the open spaces in the top of the spring are partly covered by flexible metal bands running both the length and breadth of the springs. The convolute coils have several extra turns of wire as each coil approaches the top of its spiral. When slightly compressed these turns flatten out in the same plane, providing a broader supporting area. The platform-top and convolute-coil springs are designed specifically as a foundation for inner-spring mattresses. If an inner-spring mattress is used with an ordinary open-coil spring the smaller springs of the mattress are likely to force their way down into or between the larger spring coils, with a resultant premature breakdown of the mattress. The platform-top and convolute-coil types close up the open spaces and eliminate this hazard.
Better grade springs, whether of open-or closed-coil type, usually are of double-deck construction. Between the top and bottom of the frame there is a center wire with supporting bands running both the length and breadth of the springs. This support makes possible the use of a longer coil, which acts as a double spring. The lower half of the coil is more tightly wound and is stiffer for the support of the sleeper's weight. The upper half then contributes the resilience. Another mark of a good spring is the use of two or more steel braces, known as stabilizers, which prevent sidesway and border sagging.
Box Springs.
Box springs consist of spiral springs attached to a foundation, usually of wood, and cushioned with a layer of upholstery. The coils are larger and heavier than the usual open-coil springs. The entire unit is enclosed in a box-like frame and covered with ticking. Box springs originally were designed to give much resiliency so that they could be used with solid-filled mattresses of hair or cotton. Most box springs today, however, are constructed with the firm tops which are necessary for use with inner-spring mattresses.
Each coil in the box spring is set into a slat of wood or steel. The coils are held upright by being tied one to another, to the border, and to the foundation. The borders usually are of wire or rattan. In the better types, the springs are hand-tied with a special twine. A wire-tied-spring unit is used in the cheaper models.
Box springs usually are sold with covers which match certain mattresses in the same price range. This permits the sale of mattress and box springs as a single unit.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SALESPERSON
Let us suppose you have sufficiently impressed the customer with the importance of buying quality sleeping equipment and with your sincerity in recommending what she should have. You have shown her several mattresses and springs and, after eliminating those to which she voiced objections or paid little attention, you are now ready to concentrate on the one or two models in which she expressed interest.
Point out that the mattress will be used 8 hours every night and that for her satisfaction she should buy only the one carefully selected to give the comfort and wear that she desires. She should never consider bedding without having satisfied herself as to its qualities and its ability to serve her and her family correctly. She should be encouraged to make whatever test she likes and should be made aware of the store's policy permitting her to do so.
If she has become convinced that she should purchase one of your mattresses; if for instance you have sold her quality and comfort, you should show her how springs and pillows will complement what she has already bought. If you fail to do this, much of the sales effort which you have invested will have been denied its opportunity to serve you in making a sale of these allied goods. The reason that persuaded your customer to buy a good mattress should lead her to seek complete sleeping equipment. It is almost impossible to sell a good mattress properly without discussing springs because the resiliency of the one depends considerably upon that of the other. A soft mattress on very soft springs may unduly emphasize this quality to the customer's ultimate dissatisfaction. Consequently, in showing various mattresses, you should explain the kind of bed springs to which each is adapted.
When the mattress has been selected, it is time for you to emphasize the importance of the springs. The beauty of matched units with box springs, designed specially to go with the mattress is something you should stress. But if the customer is not box spring conscious and many are not, show her the newer models of coil springs and explain their characteristics, their protection of the mattress against wear, their construction to avoid sidesway, and similar interesting features.
Often you will hear, "Our old springs will be satisfactory." With such a customer, to insure that the new mattress will give satisfaction, you must learn what type of old spring is going to be used. It will usually be a resilient open-coil spring, probably satisfactory when used with an all-cotton or all-hair mattress, but unsuitable as a foundation for an inner spring.
Avoid future complaints of premature mattress breakdown and uncomfortable sleep by showing how the small coils and the upholstery of the inner-spring mattress push down into the larger openings of old coil springs. Demonstrate the increased resiliency of springs designed for cotton mattresses and why inner-spring models need a fuller base.
Thousands of spring sales have been neglected merely because the salesman was satisfied with the mattress order. Many customers, too, have become dissatisfied with their new mattresses solely because the salesman failed to explain the importance of springs. Take advantage of this attitude always to complete the sale by selling the right spring.
PILLOWS
Of all articles of bedding, pillows should be the easiest to present in the light of their distinctive features. They contain no coils or patented mechanism. Yet there is a tremendous difference between a poor pillow and a good one. Certainly many use pillows too old to have retained their resiliency and complete comfort. Good pillows are a part of beautiful and satisfactorily equipped bedding ensembles. Do not diminish your service by failing to speak of this. Many of your customers who are actually in the market for them do not realize that the furniture store sells pillows. Therefore, it is a distinct service to them and an added sale to you if you ask the privilege of showing your stock. Unless you know and can explain the value of quality pillows, many of your customers will surely buy less satisfactory ones.
One reason why pillows generally are used too long can be traced to the unfortunate belief of many housewives that good feathers are an heirloom to be handed down from one generation to another. In reality feathers are delicate and perishable. After years of constant use they lose resiliency and can no longer properly support the neck muscles.
TYPES OF PILLOWS
The best filling for pillows is the down and feathers of waterfowl. Less satisfactory are land-fowl feathers. The quality of the pillow depends upon the percentage of each kind of material that is used in the filling.
Down.
Natural down is a soft undercoating that grows on adult waterfowl. Its fibers are soft and fluffy and emanate from a center point. There is no quill shaft. Down-filled pillows are a luxury item and are the softest and lightest available. They are ideal for persons who prefer an extremely soft pillow.
Goose Feathers.
Goose feathers make the finest feather filling. They are resilient and have a curved quill which itself is buoyant. The feather fibers are full and fluffy. Contrary to common belief, there is no difference in the filling quality of grey and of white goose feathers. The white feathers, however, are in greater demand and are more expensive. Goose feathers vary considerably in quality. Domestic and European goose feathers are generally considered better than those from Eastern countries. A good grade of goose feather pillow is slightly firmer and more buoyant than a down pillow.
Duck Feathers.
Duck feathers rate next in quality to goose feathers. They are more slender and have weaker and less arched quills. They can be distinguished from goose feathers by their pointed tips and by the presence of fewer fluffy fibers at the base. A duck feather pillow is firmer and heavier than a goose feather pillow and is less resilient and buoyant.
Turkey Feathers.
Turkey feathers are inferior to waterfowl feathers but are somewhat more buoyant than chicken feathers. The quills are straight and the feather fibers are not as fluffy as those of the duck and the goose. The shafts must be artificially curled to give them springiness and this curl is lost after a few years' service.
Chicken Feathers.
Chicken feathers are the least expensive and make the poorest filling. Like the turkey feathers, they have straight shafts which must be artificially curled. Chicken and turkey feathers make pillows which are heavier and less resilient than waterfowl pillows. They are used in price merchandise and will not give long service. The salesperson should talk with manufacturers' salesmen and acquire facts necessary to explain convincingly the importance of the arch in the stem of goose and duck feathers as contrasted to the stiff straightness of the chicken or turkey feather.
Kapok.
Kapok, a vegetable fiber, sometimes is used as filling for pillows. When new it is soft and fluffy. It is not durable, as the fibers pulverize into hard lumps with wear. Frequent sunnings and airings will retard this pulverization.
Characteristics of a Good Pillow.
A good pillow can be judged by its lightness in comparison to its bulk. Pillows should be well filled in order to retain their resilience and plump appearance. A down-filled pillow of standard 21- by 27-inch size will weigh approximately 1½ pounds. The same pillow filled with goose feathers will weigh about 2½ pounds. If filled with chicken or turkey feathers this pillow will weigh about a pound more.
To test a pillow for resilience, lay the pillow flat and press down the center with your hand. The quicker and more completely it springs back to its original shape the better is the grade of feathers. Buoyancy also is important. If the pillow is properly buoyant, it will support weight so that the head is held comfortably without sinking too far into the pillow.
A good pillow should contain no dust, stiff feathers, or lumps. The presence of dust can be determined by pounding the pillow. Stiff quills and matted feathers can be detected by pressing the pillow between the hands. The selection of a pillow of the proper firmness depends entirely upon the preference of the user. Always mention the degree of firmness or softness in addition to the type of feather and quality of ticking in each pillow that you show.
Pillow sizes ordinarily refer to the dimensions of the finished product, not the cut size of the ticking. The most common sizes are 20 by 26 and 21 by 27. Increasingly popular is a 20- by 36-inch size.
The pillow case should be of tightly woven cotton which is feather-proof and down-proof. Eight-ounce blue-striped ticking is considered a standard of quality. Eight-ounce warp sateens also give good service. Lightweight, closely woven, linen-finished ticking is another popular fabric.
STUDIO COUCHES AND SOFA BEDS
The modern trend toward small houses and efficiency apartments has created a demand for furniture which can be converted from ordinary daytime uses into beds at night. By far the most popular in this field are studio couches and sofa beds. (See figs. 22A and 22B, page 106.)
THE STUDIO COUCH
The studio couch for many years has been a standard auxiliary bed. In its simplest form it consists of two parts, one on top of the other and each containing upholstered springs. These two parts when placed side by side make a full-sized bed. Modern studio couches are available in many period styles and are used to complement the decoration plan for the living room, library, recreation room, sunroom, bedroom, or even entrance hall.
SOFA BEDS
The sofa bed is a later development. It equals in beauty and quality of workmanship the articles of furniture from which it derives its name. Yet it contains an ingeniously concealed sleeping unit. Good sofa beds are made in authentic styles and are covered in rich satin, leather, and tapestry upholstery that make them as attractive as any piece of single-purpose furniture in the living room. When only occasional sleeping use will be required, the attractive appearance and seating comfort of the sofa bed should be stressed.
QUESTIONS
_1. What is the first step in becoming a better bedding salesman?_
_2. Under what circumstances may cut-out samples be used to the best advantage?_
_3. What information do you need from the customer in order to recommend intelligently the right mattress and bedspring?_
_4. What reasons can you give the customer to convince her that she should buy quality sleeping equipment?_
_5. How do you overcome the customer's objection that competitors' stores are selling mattresses $10 cheaper?_
_6. Why should you stress the purchase of a new spring with each new mattress?_
_7. What are the best selling features of (a) box springs and (b) convolute and platform-top coil springs?_
_8. Why are waterfowl feathers superior to land fowl feathers in pillows?_
_9. How can you prove to a customer that her pillows should be replaced?_
_10. What features do you stress in selling sofa beds and studio couches?_
SUGGESTED READING LIST
_Furniture Record_, Bedding Articles, January 15, 1940.
GILES, RAY. _Sleep._ Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, Ind. 1938.
Bulletin 26, Basic Selling Facts for Bedding, Mattresses, Bed Springs, and Pillows--Good Housekeeping, Department of Merchandise Education, Fifty-seventh Street at Eighth Avenue, New York, N. Y.
Bulletin entitled--"Consumer Investigation," issued for the National Association of Bedding Manufacturers by the Lawrence H. Selz Organization, Merchandise Mart, Chicago, Ill.
Bulletin 10, Feathers and Down--Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, Harrisburg, Pa.
JACOBSON, EDMUND, M. D. _You Can Sleep Well._ McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.
---- _You Must Relax._
MCCOLLISTER, FRIER. Selling Sleep, _National Retail Dry Goods Association_, _The Bulletin_, November 1939.
_National Furniture Review_, 666 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Ill. March 1940. Bedding Section.
PALMER, LOIS. _Your House._ Boston Cooking School Magazine Co. 1928. The Bedrooms, pp. 78-91.
SEAL, ETHEL DAVIS. Furnishing the Little House--Century Co., New York, N. Y. The Bedrooms, pp. 155-168.
Magazine Articles.
American Home, November 1939, We're Campaigning for Better Sleep. Good Housekeeping, November 1939, Buy the Mattress That Suits You. House and Garden, October 1939, When You Select Bedding. House and Garden, April 1941, How to Buy Bedding. House Beautiful, April 15, 1940, Good Nights. McCall's, April 1939, How to Buy a Mattress. Parents', October 1939, Bed for the Baby. Parents', September 1940, A Sound Bedtime Story. Practical Home Economics, April 1941, An Outline of Sleeping Equipment. The Bride's Magazine, Spring Issue, 1940, To Sleep. The Bride's Magazine, Spring Issue, 1941, Choosing Your Bedding. Woman's Home Companion, April 1941, How About Your Guest Room?
Unit VII
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF INTERIOR DECORATION
Interior Decoration as a Selling Method
Emotional Values of Light, Color, Line, and Proportions
Color Management in Decoration
Principles of Furniture Arrangement
Unit VII.--AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF INTERIOR DECORATION
INTERIOR DECORATION AS A SELLING METHOD
The art of interior decoration is the skillful use of furnishings in keeping with the architectural factors of a room to create a harmonious setting adaptable to the social, economic, and personal use of the occupants.
A room may be said to be beautiful if it gracefully, effectively, and adequately fills the purpose for which it is intended and takes into consideration the habits of all members of the family using it.
The salesman who creates a room which adequately and harmoniously fills the purpose for which it is intended--taking into consideration all of the personal and architectural factors--may be satisfied that he has done a good job of interior decorating.
_Comfort and beauty._--Comfort can be created through proper exercise of care and common sense. Everyone knows what comfort means, and is able to recognize it. But in the case of beauty, no one knows precisely what it means and many people are unable to recognize it.
The facts are that, although beauty is beyond definition, _it will appear in the presence of certain conditions_; that these conditions may be defined and controlled and discussed intelligently and convincingly with customers. What these conditions are, and how their presence may be insured by means of the merchandise, will be set forth in this unit and in the four units which follow. For our present purpose it is enough to say that one of the conditions of beauty is harmony, and that any room will have a considerable measure of beauty if its furnishings are harmonious.
A well-furnished and decorated room will have colors, contours, and groupings that fit into the architectural background as though all were conceived and executed simultaneously. The salesperson should guard against the customer's rather natural feeling that there is inequity between cost and the characteristics and qualities which give harmony and beauty to home furnishings. In handling a sale at this point, the salesman will develop convincingly the idea that home decoration, although it is the distinguishing mark of all lovely homes, actually is not dependent on lavish expenditure. Personal comfort, reflection of individuality, dominant unity, and harmonious groupings result from careful planning and educated tastes rather than from loosening the strings of a heavy purse. After all, the basic consideration is suitability, not decoration.
The salesman who will assemble a harmonious grouping quickly and keep it within the customer's price range will accomplish two important things:
1. Focus attention upon beauty and satisfaction of harmonized groups instead of directing worry toward price and minor details.
2. Increase respect for his judgment and understanding of her problem.
_Suitability means comfort first._--Every well planned sale of home furnishing materials starts with the assumption that _the buyer is always thinking in terms of her own interests_. She has little or no concern with the construction, design, style, prestige value, or price of any article unless she believes that her own interests will in some way be affected by it.
Suppose for instance she has read several of many articles which appear from month to month in magazines covering the home-furnishings field, and that she has attended lectures on home decoration. She may even have discussed particular problems intimately with several interior decorators. She understands that she should never buy just for the present with the idea of making replacements later. She long since has given over the idea of wondering what the neighbors will think of her selections. Before she faces the bewildering walk down aisles flanked with sofa beds, lighting fixtures, tables, chairs, beds, draperies, consoles, carpets, rugs, and chaise lounges, she has planned her room on paper and has visualized the picture in terms of color and often has decided on a color scheme. Furniture has been given a diagram placement on paper to conform to wall spaces and windows. Rugs, draperies, and accessories have been subjected to tests of suitability for the purposes for which they are to be used.
When the salesman finally faces her in the first vital moments of this sales effort he quickly will realize that she knows what things she wants to see, their styles, shapes, sizes, and even their colors. Without knowledge of at least elementary principles in the art of interior decoration he is certain to feel a sense of inadequacy, even of humiliation. Even with the requisite basic information, normally it will be a sheer waste of time to assure her that any article is handsome, finely made, fashionable, or even that it is a wonderful value until he is sure that she considers this piece adapted to her own situation and needs. Innumerable sales go on the rocks at this point.
Interior decoration as a selling method begins right here with the revelation of the customer's situation and needs. If she has ideas which are in the hazy, sketchy, and by no means certain stages, then the salesman must proceed to secure the information he must have in advance of any intelligent selling he may hope to do. Usually these customer situations and needs will depend on two factors, the one _personal_ and the other _architectural_.
_The personal factor_ involves such considerations as the age, sex, size, tastes, and habits of the members of the family; the amount and character of entertaining for which provision must be made; and the amount of money or credit available for new furnishings.
_The architectural factor_ includes such details as the use, size, style, and situation of the room; its woodwork, floor, walls, ceiling, and lighting; its relationships with connecting rooms; and the size, style, and coloring of the furnishings already in use.
In employing this method, even in the simple sale involving the purchase of a single piece, the competent salesman will have three purposes in mind. The first is to insure that this new piece will fit the people who are to use it; the second, to insure that it will fit the room in which it is to be used; and the third, to insure that it will combine with everything else in the same room to form an agreeable harmony. In other words, he must use his merchandise to secure comfort through fitness or suitability to purpose and use, and to create beauty through harmony. Correct room arrangement is essential to both.
EMOTIONAL VALUES OF LIGHT, COLOR, LINE, AND PROPORTIONS
Everything used in furnishing a room may be resolved into its elements of light, color, line, and proportion. Psychologists have shown that colors influence the mood of an individual, and create emotional values which may be stated as follows:
LIGHT AND SHADE
To understand and correctly use light and shade, one must have a basic understanding of values and know how by using these values different effects may be achieved. Using as a key a scale of nine values (bearing in mind that the term _value_ means degree of lightness or darkness without regard to any particular color) ranging from black to white, one finds that the grey tones toward the white end of the scale are _light values_ and shade toward white; those toward the black end of the scale are _dark values_ and shade toward black; in the center is a medium grey tone.
Using these values in terms of room colors, it has been established that _light values_ are cheerful and gay because they reflect light. When used in pastel tones they are feminine and friendly. On the other hand, _dark values_ are sombre, heavy, and masculine in feeling since they absorb light and have a darkening effect. The middle tones are a happy balance and combine essentials of both values. Thus, kitchens, breakfast rooms, nurseries, playrooms, and boudoirs should be done in _light values_; libraries, men's rooms, or lounges in _dark values_ and living rooms and dining rooms in _medium values_, using both dark and light.
COLOR TERMS
Although there are many technical color terms used by advanced colorists to distinguish variations in colors, there are just a few basic facts to remember to help you understand and use color to the best advantage in interior decoration. _Hue_ is the pure color neither mixed with white, black, nor a complementary color. A hue may be a primary color, secondary color, or tertiary color in its true value. When you mix a hue with white it becomes a _tint_; when mixed with black it becomes a _shade_; and when greyed with a complement it becomes a tone. Since walls should be lighter than the floor covering, walls are usually done in a tint; floor coverings in a shade or tone or a particular hue, and furnishings either in the pure hues in adjacent or complementary colors or in tones, tints, or shades of these hues.
_Primary, secondary, and tertiary colors._--Primary colors are the three basic colors known to man which cannot be produced by combining any other colors, but which, when combined in proper proportion, can produce every color known to man. These colors are red, blue, and yellow.
Secondary colors are hues obtained by admixture of the primaries and consist of violet (red and blue); green (yellow and blue); and orange (red and yellow).
_Tertiary colors._--These are hues obtained by admixture of the secondary colors with the primary colors and consist of red-violet or plum; blue-violet or a deep, marine-type blue; blue-green or aqua-marine; yellow-green or chartreuse; yellow-orange or tangerine, and red-yellow or a warm red or vermilion color.
_Complementary and adjacent colors._--Complementary colors are the colors directly opposite each other on a color chart made up of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors, and when used in pairs they intensify each other.
Adjacent colors are the colors which follow each other in a color chart made up of the primary, secondary, and tertiary colors and they may be used together with an accent of a complementary color.
_Elementary color chart._--To properly understand these terms and imprint these color combinations in your mind make this simple color chart in color using the three primary colors. This chart also may be worked out in pencil in a few minutes time and referred to when making color suggestions:
Draw a circle 4 inches in diameter. Divide the circle into three equal parts by lines radiating from the center. Label these three lines, red, blue, and yellow; they are your primary colors. These lines represent the admixture of the primary colors and represent violet, green, and orange. (See chart.) Now fill in the tertiary colors. (See chart.) When doing these in colors you will see the colors change and blend into each other as they are applied.
From the above color chart you can make any harmonious room combination. For any true harmony all three of the primary colors should be present. It is not necessary, however, to have three colors; a secondary color (made by blending two primary colors) would use the third primary as a complement. Look at the chart; you will note that green (made by mixing blue and yellow) has red as its complement. A third color in the room might be yellow or blue, yellowish-green, or blue-green. This is termed a complementary color scheme.
When using an adjacent, or monochromatic color scheme, any series on the color chart may be followed; for example, green, blue-green, blue, blue-violet, and violet. The complement or accent to this color scheme would be the complementary colors, orange, yellow-orange, red-orange, etc.
Before applying these principles to room schemes, there is one more rule to bear in mind. All colors in which red or yellow predominate are known as _warm_ colors and colors in which blue and green predominate are known as _cool colors_. Since warm colors are more intense and tend to be exciting, they must be offset by cool colors, usually in the ratio of two to one, since it often takes two cool colors to balance one warm color. It is also well to remember that deep colors "advance" and light colors "recede." An oblong room can be made to look more square by doing the short walls in a deep green, the long walls in a light green. Primary and secondary colors are more intense than tertiary colors--colors receding and lightening with the admixture of additional hues.
_Building a room scheme._--Taking all of the above facts into consideration, it may be interesting to work out a few simple color schemes for a living room. Assume that one wishes to do a "blue" room. The predominating color in the room will, of course, be blue. However, let us suppose we do not particularly care for a blue rug. Since the second largest piece in the room is the sofa, we have decided to use a blue sofa. We have two definite choices for a rug; it may be a greyed tone of red or wine color, or a greyed tone of yellow (beige or light brown). If we select the red-tone rug, we must think about our yellow tone for the complementary chair. Let us suppose we decide upon a tint of yellow or beige. A third chair now may be a secondary, or tertiary, of these three colors, and since our room is predominantly blue, we select a blue-red or violet color. Violet, you will notice, is a perfect complement to yellow. We might have used a shade of red or wine color as a complement but it would have given a red tone to the room.
For draperies we have several colors from which to choose but we must take into consideration the wallpaper. We may use a tint of the floor covering, or the sofa, or may bring in the third primary color. Let us suppose we had decided to use a tint of the floor covering or a soft pink tone. Our draperies now may be blue, blue-violet, or red-violet. Accents necessarily would then be red or orange. If wine-colored draperies were used, we would have practically an equal balance between red and blue, and our accessories would be yellow.
Another popular method of color coordination is to repeat the colors found in one piece with plain colors or novelty weaves emphasizing the colors of the figured fabric; for example, a room may have a blue sofa with a tiny pink figure worked into the tapestry. One of the chairs, then, could be pink in the same tone as the small figure; the other chair would then be one of the yellow tones, and could be either beige, or brown.
Some decorators repeat the floral colors of printed draperies in the room setting. Some combine the plain colors of the sofa and chair in a figured third chair which has a neutral background and picks up the colors of the other two pieces. It is well to mix the patterns in a room, a stripe combining nicely with a plain color, and a small figured mixture carrying out the third color and blending the striped and plain tones.
By referring to your chart you will discover many interesting color combinations. Just remember that adjacent colors take the opposite complement as accent. Complementary colors may be used with adjacent or with a third primary color, or with a combination of two primaries on a neutral background of the third color.
LINE AND FORM
Straight lines create an effect of strength, virility, and seriousness, and, if exclusively employed, of austerity or hardness; while curved lines create an effect of flexibility and joyousness, and, if, exclusively employed, the effect is one of weakness.
Horizontal lines and shapes arouse a sense of calmness and repose; vertical lines and shapes, of activity and life; diagonal lines and shapes, of movement. Long straight lines create an effect of dignity. When two colors are used together a line is created and these lines have a distinct effect upon the room in which they are used.
PROPORTION
Proportion, which is simply the relation of one dimension to another, applies throughout the house to walls, floors, ceilings, doors, windows, chairs, bookcases, tables, and other furnishings. Good proportions are never top-heavy, squatty, or uninteresting. Large size and thick proportions suggest strength, weight, permanence, and dignity; small size and slender proportions arouse the idea of delicacy, lightness, and grace.
It is well for the furniture salesman to understand a few simple facts which every good interior decorator knows.
Walls and floors, plus ceilings, determine the proportions of a room as a whole. Suppose a badly proportioned room is too narrow for its length and height--something common, for instance, to halls and dining rooms.
The apparent width of this too narrow room may be increased by--
1. Hanging a mirror, or using a picture in which the perspective is such that the eye follows a stream or broad expanse into the distance.
2. Using scenery wallpapers.
In well-proportioned rooms the wall decorations are lighter than the floor and the ceiling decorations are lighter than those of the walls.
SOURCES OF INSPIRATION
There are many avenues of study available to anyone who seeks the real enjoyment which comes with planning his own environment. Fashion ever has been a keynote in the purchase of home furnishings. The key, however, still remains in the custody of the owner. When she intends to buy a new gown, coat, or hat, she reads magazines and newspapers, shops around, studies styles and trends, thinks of uses and requirements for the gowns or coats under consideration. Probably she needs to understand that she may use as much conscious discrimination with furniture as with coats if only she will use the same sources of inspiration and information. She should try any one or all of these:
1. Monthly magazines with their superb color features, illustrating articles of great diversity.
2. Books from the public or from a rental library.
3. Model rooms set up in department and furniture stores, and in furniture shows.
4. Museums containing replica rooms done in the historical periods.
5. Paintings, as guiding one's thoughts for color schemes.
6. Newspapers which record style trends in attractive merchandise priced to meet the family budget.
If these studies are good for the prospective customer, how much more valuable they are for the progressive salesman who seeks to understand customer needs and desires in terms of human satisfactions.
SUMMARY
The results of studies of emotional values may be summarized as follows:
1. Variations in light, color, line, shape, and size affect the mind in certain fairly definite ways. When these variations are understood and controlled a group or a room may be given atmosphere which not only adds to its beauty, but also greatly helps in arranging it to meet the needs of the people who use it.
2. These emotional values of light, color, line, shape, proportion, and texture must be employed in such a way that the effect of each is increased by the effects of all:
_Effects of restfulness and tranquillity result when_--
_a._ The amount and intensity of illumination are reduced.
_b._ The tone of all colors is lowered.
_c._ Horizontal lines are predominant.
_d._ Large size is emphasized.
_Effects of animation and activity result when_--
_a._ The amount and brilliance of illumination are increased.
_b._ The tone of all colors is raised.
_c._ Vertical lines are predominant.
_d._ Small size is emphasized.
COLOR MANAGEMENT IN DECORATION
The moment anyone undertakes to furnish a home, that moment he begins to use color. Ross Crane, when conducting experiments in which color schemes for complete rooms were planned and executed step and step, determined that there are only four steps to take in building a color scheme.[15] These four steps are:
1. Decide on a dominant or controlling color.
2. Decide on the colors to go with it.
3. Bring these colors into the room in everything.
4. Accent the scheme by means of small objects (flower bowl and flowers, lamps, pictures, smoking trays) in high intensities of the leading color. These are the high lights that produce life and sparkle.
Another writer puts it this way:
In deciding on a color scheme for a whole room, fix on some foundation color, and then introduce relief and contrast.[16]
PLANNED PROCEDURE FOR THE SALESPERSON
With this information well in mind the home furnishings salesman will do well to leave learned and scientific discussion of color management to the scientists and concentrate on a few principal facts which will be dominant throughout the sales procedure.
He may be assured that his customer's decisions to buy furnishings for a complete room, a few pieces only, or none at all, will be conditioned by her likes, by the family budget, by the size and use to be made of the room, and by the necessity to use "left-overs."
He certainly will profit by having a rather definite knowledge of chromatic scales, complementary colors, adjacent colors, nuances, and concentric circles as devices which he may use to show how we get the many varied colors. It is the opinion of leading experts that the average salesman will find it far easier and more satisfactory to talk convincingly of color management for any given room or combination of rooms by using a simple color story which starts with the six basic colors, and which may be understood easily by the customer. If a simple color chart is close at hand and ready for use at any time, the sales talk will deal with facts, not generalities.
He must be able to take an inventory, by personal inspection or through questions, of the color possibilities in the decoration problem presented by the customer. Such facts as room exposure, size and type, wall color, floor covering, furniture already in the room; use to be made of the room, number, sex, and characteristic traits of those who will live, eat, work, or sleep in the room; and approximate price ranges must be known if real help is to be given.
He must know the stock so thoroughly that within the given price range, the designation of the proper color schemes will be comparatively easy. He must use his knowledge of color through the furnishings, to interpret, as needed, two different sets of ideas:
1. One in which the color scheme is daring, with unusual combinations, startling, gay, and sophisticated.
2. The other, with a color scheme recognized as gentle, restful, and never monotonous.
If he has a feeling of intimacy with both and will use his knowledge consciously to produce definite emotional effects, in a progressive series, he will see sales come as a reward for his effort.
THE SALESPERSON AS INTERPRETER OF APPRECIATIONS
When next you find a room in the home of a friend, in a model house, or illustrated in a magazine that awakens a response of pleasure when you first see it, stay with it long enough to find out why. Study the handling of color in curtains, rugs, chair upholstery, lamps, and bits of pottery; ask yourself where the abiding interest of the room is centered. Seek to uncover the secret of the spell this room casts over your senses. Unconsciously, you thrill to the thought that you, yourself, would never tire of such a room. It is the ultimate in color management.
This glorious adventure must be experienced by you, yourself. To you is given a power to enrich your appreciation of lovely things, and in turn to convey similar appreciations to your customers.
The salesman who has learned to exercise this power is far from being an order taker or even an order solicitor. Literally, he is counselor and guide--an interpreter of the store services which exist to help the customer, and the one to show the store management the need for expert customer guidance in color management.
If once, you, the salesman, have experienced the personal satisfactions of studying a room which has unmistakable distinction, which literally glows with the light of a personality reflected against a background of culture, understanding, and sympathy, you in turn will seek eagerly to share your adventures in color management with those who come to you seeking to express their desires and aspirations in terms of usable, lovely surroundings.
Difficult? The difficulty is in deciding to make the effort.
PRINCIPLES OF FURNITURE ARRANGEMENT
"Next in importance to the actual selection of furniture and accessories is a skillful and sensible arrangement of it all in a room. Every salesman should understand that in the placing of the furniture you may make a small room appear more spacious; a large barn-like one seem more cozy; express the idea of formality or informality; quiet restfulness or agitated confusion, sedateness or gayety, order or disorder."[17]
One secret of getting a homelike quality in the arrangement of furniture is to assemble it in small groups or units which suggest specific uses, as for instance a reading group, a writing or business nook, a rest corner, or a music section.
GET A CENTER OF INTEREST FIRST
If you are arranging furniture in the living room, decide on a central interest. Often this is called a built-up composition--table, be grouped. A fireplace with its cheerful fire-glow may well be a natural center of interest. (See fig. 31.) A window or group of windows opening upon a lovely vista may serve equally well. If the family is musical, the grand piano may be so placed as to become the pivotal point of interest.
_Secondary centers of interest_ naturally are created once the fireplace, a window, or the grand piano is assigned to the major role. There may well be more than one of these secondary centers, i. e., a writing corner, and a reading group.
_Objects of central interest._--Every wall should have an object of central interest. Often this is called a built-up composition--table, desk, cabinet, or couch standing against the wall--with, in each case, a picture, mirror, hanging bookcase, or tapestry above. The focal point may be a single tall piece of furniture such as a secretary or highboy. The pictures, mirrors, or tapestry hangings tend to build up a kind of "skyline" and the furniture is united with these wall decorations to create the necessary feeling of orderly stability which proper balance and color harmony can give.
BALANCE AND COLOR HARMONY
An effect of balance in the arrangement of the furniture is as essential to the comfort of the occupants of the room as proper lighting, easy chairs, or unobtrusive orderliness. In fact, it is a species of order. It gives a feeling of repose.
A room, or a group, is in balance when it appears to be at rest; that is when the total imaginary weight, or pull, on the attention, of everything on one side of a center appears to the mind to equal the total weight of everything on the other side. An accurate feeling for balance can be acquired easily by experiment and practice. There are two kinds of balance: Even or formal, known as _bisymmetric_ balance; and uneven or "off center" known as _occult_ balance.
_Formal or bisymmetric balance._--The simplest form of balance is produced by placing two things exactly alike on either side of a center and at exactly the same distance from it. This is called either bisymmetric (double symmetrical) or formal balance--usually the latter because such an arrangement is somewhat stiff and precise in its effect upon the mind. To test it, exactly in the center of a piece of paper draw a rectangle 1 inch long and one-half inch wide. Imagine this to be a console table. Equidistant from this rectangle, in a straight line, draw two small squares (one on each side of the rectangle) to represent a pair of chairs. If you successively place a circle over the rectangle to represent a mirror, you will clearly see the bisymmetric balance. The effect of formality becomes more marked as you add more units to the group. While too many formal groupings will make the room seem stiff and unlivable, at least one formal grouping may be desirable in every room since formal balance affects the mind with a sense of stability and repose.
If the motive of formality is to be emphasized, the number and importance of formal groupings should be emphasized; if informality is desired, the use of formal balance should be limited.
"_Off center_" or "_Occult balance_."--There is another kind of balance, usually called "occult" because it is less easy to see or to create. It is produced by arranging a number of unlike things with reference to a center on the basis of the mechanical formula that the "weight" of each will increase directly with its distance from the center.
As an experiment in occult balance, draw a rectangle 2 inches long and 1 inch wide to represent an imaginary fireplace. One-fourth inch to the left of the exact center, and at right angles to the "fireplace," draw a small rectangle 1 inch long and one-fourth inch wide to represent a love seat. Now, one-fourth inch to the right of the center, and at right angles to the "fireplace" draw two ½-inch squares to represent two chairs. Together the chairs will seem to the mind to "weigh" about the same as the love seat, and the whole group will be substantially in occult balance. Now erase the "love seat" and exactly in the same position draw a rectangle three-fourths inch in length to represent a sofa. You will notice the balance has been destroyed. It may be improved either by moving the "sofa" closer to the center, which will make it weigh less; or by moving the chairs farther away from the center, which will make them weigh more. In order to create a perfect balance, however, the chairs should be separated and a small rectangle placed between them to represent a table and lamp.
The salesman, if he is wise, will suggest pieces which, after suitable arrangement, meet the real needs and tastes of the family whether those needs be musical groupings, game-corner groupings, or conversational groupings. It may mean the sacrifice of some rule of decoration to make or keep a place for a favorite rocker, a grandfather's clock, or a treasured piece, but careful planning can make such a piece either a featured asset, or an unobtrusive addition if appropriately arranged in a proper setting.
_The master rule for furniture grouping._--There is one all-inclusive rule for grouping furniture: "Bring together in a convenient place, those objects which will be used together."[18]
So many rooms become mere collections of furniture that along with this master rule for furniture grouping is placed William Morris' little rule, "Have nothing in your home that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful."
If a reading chair is placed in a room, make sure adequate lighting provisions are made, either by the addition of a small table lamp or a standing lamp. If possible, a table should be provided for smoking accessories, candy, or a bowl of fruit. If a "quiet" corner is desired, select one away from general room traffic. If the radio is a feature of the room, and the occupant likes to lounge in an easy chair while listening, place a comfortable chair near the radio. Remember that the chair also may be used for reading, so be certain to provide adequate light. Conversational groupings require two or more chairs placed close together with a table for refreshments.
PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL HARMONY
Speaking in general terms, it may be said that things harmonize, or go well together when they are more or less alike, and that they may be alike either because they look alike or because they affect the mind in the same way.
For example, if you cover a Sheraton satinwood bed with a fine silk taffeta spread in apricot, the two units will be harmonious because both wood and taffeta are in colors which contain a large admixture of the same hue, namely yellow. Moreover, they also will be harmonious because the fine lines and slender proportions of the bed affect the mind with a sense of delicacy and daintiness, and the fine texture, silken luster, and pale coloring of the taffeta affect it in precisely the same way. We can call the first type of harmony _physical_, and the second type _emotional_. Both are basically important in the art of interior decoration, and make surprisingly powerful sales levers in dealing with that 60 percent of potential buyers whose primary interest in furniture lies in what it will do to make their homes more attractive.
_Tests for physical harmony._--There are numerous tests which might be made by a salesman on the floor such as placing a square white handkerchief on a mahogany gate-leg table and placing under it a pearl grey rug to illustrate inharmonious effect resulting from the fact that the three elements are unlike in hue, tone (degree of light and dark), defining lines, shape, and texture.
A much simpler method is to compare room harmony with ladies wearing apparel. Let us suppose a woman put on a brown dress, white belt, and pearl-grey shoes. Of course, the effect would be most inharmonious. On the other hand, suppose she substituted a gold belt and brown shoes. A harmonious effect would be achieved as was done in the instance previously referred to, in which a dull gold velvet or satin, folded to the same width as the table, was laid on the table and a deep warm taupe or mahogany-colored rug substituted for the pearl-grey carpet.
Good rules to follow for harmonious physical harmony are:
1. All elements of a grouping should be united by a common strain of color regardless of whether that common strain is a warm or cool color.
2. All elements of a grouping should resemble each other in a textural effect.
3. Accessories should resemble the piece with which they are used in correct proportion to the whole.
_Tests for emotional harmony._--Important points to remember when making tests for emotional harmony are:
1. Low illumination with areas of shadow is restful, but high illumination is stimulating.
2. Horizontal lines and long, low shapes arouse a sense of repose, but vertical lines and tall narrow shapes have the opposite effect.
3. Dark colors (like low illumination and horizontal extension) affect the mind with a sense of repose, but pale colors (like brilliant light and vertical extension) affect it with a sense of animation and activity.
4. Large, heavy objects give a sense of repose, but anything small and light produces the opposite effect.
Bearing in mind these facts, turn on the ceiling lights in a room and notice the stimulating effect. Now turn off the ceiling lights and light the lamps in the room. Study the effect and you will see that the lamp-lighted room is more inviting.
In like manner, tests may be made to illustrate each of these points, such as substituting two high-back chairs in a room for the sofa. You will notice immediately that the room is less restful.
SUGGESTIONS FOR ROOM COMPOSITION
Consideration of use will guide one to desirable groupings of various pieces. Consideration of balance will prevent placement of the pieces of heavy furniture on one side or one end of the room. Groupings of chairs and their accessories of lamps and stands should be made so as to foster social amenities.
The following suggestions for room composition have been offered by one specialist in the field of interior decoration:[20]
1. Furniture should always be arranged with the purpose of the room uppermost in thought.
2. Each individual piece should be placed so that it is convenient, so that its use is obvious, and so that it is not interfered with by other pieces nearby.
3. Pieces should be distributed so that circulation is not interfered with. Keep furniture away from door openings or passageways.
4. Furniture should be practically placed in its relation to the architectural or mechanical features, so that there is no interference with the use of such features. Particular attention should be given to the swing of doors, the opening of windows, and the operation of electrical or heating devices.
5. The location of movable pieces of furniture should be carefully studied for their compositional relationship to the fixed architectural features--doors, windows, built-in furniture, alcoves, niches, mantels, paneling, etc.
6. An agreeable balance of high and low pieces of furniture should be introduced. High curtained windows and doors may be substituted for high pieces of furniture in a composition.
7. The quantity of furniture used should not give the effect of either under-furnishing or overcrowding.
8. The distribution of the pieces should be relatively even. In a long room, one end should not appear crowded and the other end bare, nor should one wall appear more crowded than the one opposite.
9. Opposite walls should have similar groupings, or, if this is not possible, they should appear evenly balanced in quantity and arrangement.
10. Pictorial wall surfaces (scenic papers, mural decoration, tapestries, and large hanging pictures) should not be hidden by furniture or other objects to such a point that their visibility is marred.
11. Furniture should be related in scale to the size of the room. Large pieces of furniture creating heavy shadows or dark spots are inadvisable except in large rooms.
12. Furniture placed with lines parallel to the walls gives a greater effect of unity in a room than when placed in diagonal positions.
QUESTIONS
_1. A customer asks: "Is it absolutely necessary to have a pair of these tables? Or can I get a balanced effect without having everything just like soldiers lined up precisely?" How would you demonstrate an answer?_
_2. What phrases or words have you found which seem to make a favorable impression on a "typical" customer, without overdoing the decorative approach?_
_3. How would you employ color to make a small room seem larger?_
_4. Explain the emotional appeal of color. Under what conditions would you employ violet? Yellow? Gray?_
_5. What color scheme would you suggest for painting or papering the walls of a room which has a northern exposure?_
_6. "In the living room, family life should center, * * * and guests find friendly greeting." To the interior decorator as to the furniture salesman, this means grouping. What groups should a living room have?_
_7. How many of the common color names are important in selling goods in your store at this time and how may you learn and apply them to your merchandise?_
_8. Discuss the proposition that you are not properly equipped to meet special color demands when stock merchandise cannot be sold._
_9. Discuss the principles involved in getting the proper color treatments for connecting rooms._
_10. To what extent should a furniture salesman attempt to understand the art of interior decoration?_
SUGGESTED READING LIST
BURROWS, THELMA M. _Successful Home Furnishing._ The Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill. 1938.
Color Radiation, Color Harmony, and Color Schemes, V, pp. 85-95. Balance in Furniture Arrangement, VIII, pp. 103-123. Art Objects, VII, pp. 101-103.
CRANE, ROSS. _Interior Decoration._ The Seng Co., 1430 North Dayton Street, Chicago, Ill. 1928.
FALES, WINNIFRED. _What's New In Home Decorating._ Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, N. Y. 1936.
Color, IV, pp. 71-85. Furniture Arrangement, VI, pp. 120-138.
GILLIES, MARY DAVIS. _Popular Home Decorations._ Wm. H. Wise & Co., New York, N. Y. 1941.
GOLDSTEIN, HARRIET _and_ VETTA. _Art In Every Day Life._ Macmillan Co. 1925.
How To Know Color, VIII, pp. 184-204.
JACKSON, ALICE _and_ BETTINA. _The Study of Interior Decoration._ Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y.
Color Harmony in Interior Decoration, pp. 56-100.
KNAUFF, CARL G. B. _Refurnishing The Home._ McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N. Y. 1938.
Color In the Home, pp. 59, 118, 122, 203-223, 300.
KOUES, HELEN. _How To Be Your Own Decorator._ Tudor Publishing Co., New York, N. Y. 1939.
How To Use Color, VI, pp. 61-73. Lighting, pp. 73-85.
MCDONALD, STERLING. _Color--How To Use It._ American Colortype Co., Chicago, Ill. 1940.
MILLER, DUNCAN. _Interior Decorating._ The Studio Publications, Inc., 381 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 1937.
PALMER, L. _Using Color in Decoration._ Ladies Home Journal, Curtis Publishing Co., New York, N. Y. 1930 Reprint.
PARSONS, FRANK ALVAH. _Interior Decoration._ Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y. 1915.
POWELL, LYDIA. _The Attractive Home._ The Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 1939.
Secrets of Color, pp. 39-51.
SARGENT, WALTER. _Enjoyment and Use of Color._ Scribners. 1924.
STEWART, ROSS _and_ GERALD, JOHN. _Home Decoration._ Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y. 1938.
Color, IV, pp. 44-77. Room Composition, V, pp. 77-96. Lighting, IX, pp. 145-154.
WHITON, SHERRILL. _Elements of Interior Decoration._ The J. B. Lippincott Co., New York, N. Y. 1937.
Color, XXIV, pp. 681-705.
WILLIAMS, FLORENCE _and_ TRILLING, MABEL. _Art In Home and Clothing._ The J. B. Lippincott Co., New York, N. Y. 1936.
The Proper Use of Decoration, IV, pp. 77-90. Lamps and Lighting, XI, pp. 242-253.
FOOTNOTES:
[15] The Ross Crane Book of Home Furnishing and Decoration, p. 39. Frederick J. Drake & Co., Chicago, Ill. 1933.
[16] Jane White Lonsdale in The American Home, March 1940, p. 22.
[17] The Ross Crane Book of Home Furnishing and Decoration, Frederick J. Drake & Co., Chicago, Ill., p. 109. 1933.
[18] Winnifred Fales: What's New in Home Decorating, p. 124, Dodd Mead & Co., New York, N. Y.
[19] Reproduced from "The Seng Handbook," The Seng Co., Chicago, Ill., p. 52. 1939.
[20] Sherrill Whiton: _Elements of Interior Decoration_, pp. 665-6. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 1937.
Unit VIII
FLOOR COVERINGS AND FABRICS
Drapery and Upholstery Fibers and Fabrics
Floor Coverings
Selling Coverings for Other Floors
Use of Ensembles in Selling
Unit VIII.--FLOOR COVERINGS AND FABRICS
DRAPERY AND UPHOLSTERY FIBERS AND FABRICS
FIBERS AND THEIR ORIGINS
Fibers used in the manufacture of home furnishing materials are both of animal and of vegetable origin. The former include the true and "wild" silks; wool, or sheep's hair; mohair, the hair of the Angora goat; horsehair, chiefly from the tail and mane; and in limited quantities the hair of the cow, pig, camel, and rabbit. Vegetable fibers include cotton, rayon, flax hemp, jute, ramie, kapok, palm fibers, moss, coir, and paper made from wood pulp. Their general characteristics are discussed here.
Animal Fibers.
_Silk._--True silk is produced by the mulberry silk moth of China. Just how ancient the art of sericulture and the spinning and weaving of silk may be we do not know; but there is no doubt that it had reached a state of considerable development 4,500 years ago. It reached Japan about 1,600 years ago, and India somewhat later. About the year A. D. 550 two Persian monks brought eggs of the silk worm from China to Constantinople in a hollow cane, and the western silk industry was started.
The "wild" silks are produced by other worms, feeding for the most part on other leaves than mulberry. Most of the so-called _tussah_ silk comes from the oak-feeding tussah worm, a native of Mongolia. The fiber is coarser than that of true silk, and so difficult to dye effectively that fabrics woven from it are usually left in the natural ecru or pale brown color.
_Wool._--The many varieties of sheep yield wools which differ markedly in fineness, length of staple (2 to 16 inches for use in textiles), strength, resilience, and spinning quality. Accordingly, wools are sorted and "blended" before spinning, to suit the requirements of the particular fabric to be woven. Carpetings require the fairly long staple and fairly coarse fiber found in wools from Scotland, Russia, Iceland, Australia, New Zealand, Egypt, China, India, and the East Indies. The unsurpassable carpet wools of Persia and Asia Minor are largely consumed locally. Carpet wools naturally differ widely in desirability and cost, as do the many processes necessary to prepare wool for the loom. These differences require emphasis from the salesman in the demonstration of concealed values.
Most carpet wools arrive at the factory in the fleece, matted, dirty, and greasy. They are blended according to formula; passed first through a machine which separates the tangled masses and beats out free dirt; then to the scouring baths, which remove all grease and other impurities; then, after passing through a series of powerful wringers, to the dryer; and finally to the picker, from which they emerge ready for spinning.
_Worsted yarns_, used in making fine Wiltons, body Brussels, Wilton velvets and some chenilles, result from a succession of processes in which the fibers are placed parallel, the short ones eliminated, and the long fibers combed and drawn out into a fine, even "roving," which is spun into a thread, two such threads then being tightly twisted together to form a single-ply worsted yarn. These single-ply yarns are then twisted together to form two-ply, three-ply, or four-ply yarns according to the specifications for a particular weave.
_Woolen yarns_ are made from short staple wool, and depend for their strength upon the minute serrations or scales on the surfaces of the wool fibers, which cause them to adhere, or felt, when held tightly together. The carding machine used in preparing these wools for spinning thoroughly intermixes the fibers instead of drawing them into parallel formations, as for worsteds. The loose roving is then spun into single strands, which are twisted into two-, three-, or four-ply yarns as in the case of worsteds.
_Mohair._--The hair of the Angora goat is closely allied to wool, typically 7 to 8 inches long. It is lustrous, resilient, and enduring, but harder to spin than wool because the hair scales are not fully developed. Mohair fabrics have been used in the Orient since time immemorial, and they were popular in England in the early eighteenth century.
There are wide differences in mohair upholstery fabrics, based upon the quality of wool, number of points per square inch, and height of pile.
_Horsehair._--The hair of the horse's mane and tail is used as a single filament without spinning in the production of upholstery chair cloths, and for floor coverings. In the form of curled hair it is the most resilient and costly upholstery stuffer.
Pig's bristles and cow hair are used for the same purpose. The soft hair of the camel is used in weaving certain oriental rugs, and rabbit hair in certain felts.
Vegetable Fibers.
_Cotton._--This textile is in universal use and requires no comment. The silky appearance of some damasks and other cotton fabrics is caused by mercerizing, a process of treating cotton in either fiber or fabric form with caustic alkali.
_Rayon._--This term, which in French means ray or beam, has lately been applied to artificial silks produced by any of four different industrial processes. Viscose silk, made chiefly from sulfite pulp cellulose, constitutes the great bulk of the rayon production today. It is now often combined with natural fibers, particularly wool and cotton, in drapery and upholstery fabrics which afford the luster of rayon plus the strength of wool or cotton.
_Flax._--This plant has been cultivated since the stone age, and was regarded as the most important plant of commerce until near the end of the eighteenth century, when it was superseded by cotton. Flax fiber yields linen; also from it is obtained the tow used as a stuffer in upholstering.
_Hemp._--The fiber of this plant closely approaches flax in strength but not in luster. It is used to a very limited extent in drapery textiles and cheap carpets. The waste fibers are also known as tow, and sometimes used in place of flax tow.
_Jute._--A plant, grown chiefly in India, the lustrous fiber of which is used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of cretonnes, damasks, and other decorative textiles.
_Ramie._--This plant, also known as rhea and China grass and cultivated chiefly in China, yields a fiber of great strength and a luster about like that of mercerized cotton. It is used in the manufacture of grass cloth, and also of ramie velvets, which are firm but less lustrous than linen velvets.
_Kapok._--A tree cultivated in Java for the production of down; called in commerce kapok or "silk-cotton." Before the commercial development of rayon it made considerable headway as a textile fiber, but now is used chiefly as a stuffer for mattresses and pillows. Kapok has great resiliency and resistance to water.
_Palm fiber._--Shredded leaves of the palmetto, used as a stuffer in upholstering.
_Moss._--The hairlike filament left after the soft outer tissue of southern moss has been removed; used as a stuffer.
_Coir._--Fiber prepared from the husk of the cocoanut; used in making porch rugs and brush mats.
_Paper._--Spun into coarse threads and used in the manufacture of so-called fiber rugs.
DRAPERY AND UPHOLSTERY FABRICS
Tapestries.
Hand-made tapestries are woven on a loom harnessed with thin warps, by passing a shuttle containing a colored yarn over and under the warp thread where the color is required to form the pattern. In every line of weft or filling, the shuttle must be changed every time a change of color is required by the cartoon, or colored drawing of the design from which the weaver works. He sees the face of the tapestry, if at all, only in a mirror placed in front of the loom. Tapestry weaving requires a high degree of artistic and technical skill; hand-made tapestries are costly.
Machine-made tapestries are produced on a Jacquard loom, of wool, cotton, silk, or rayon, or in mixtures of these fibers. They vary enormously in appearance and durability.
Velvets, Velours.
Although the term velvet and its French equivalent (velours) may be used interchangeably, the general custom is to call drapery fabrics velours, and upholstery fabrics velvets. Both are made in a great variety of plain, stripe, and brocaded effects, and with the pile all cut, all uncut (looped) or else partially cut. Machine-made velvets and velours are made from silk, rayon, cotton, linen, ramie and wool, usually 50 inches wide and in a range of prices and qualities practically unlimited. In some of the cheaper upholstery velours the design is embossed, or depressed by a stamping machine, but in others it is placed in relief by cutting away the pile of the ground.
Plushes.
Plushes are long-pile velvets, formerly of silk or wool but now mostly of mohair. Properly their pile is less close and firm than that of velvets, but some of the finest quality mohair plushes have a very close, erect pile. In ordinary qualities the pile leans sharply, and in the panne type it is so flat as to have somewhat the same effect as lustrous satin.
Frisés, Friezes.
These terms are now loosely used. "Frieze" in French means curled or frizzed, and the word properly refers to a class of plushes in which the pile has been completely or partially frizzled. It is now applied to a variety of texture effects in velvet and plush, among them uncut patterns on a cut-pile ground; cut patterns on an uncut ground; plain velvets with alternating lines of cut and uncut pile; and uncut velvets.
Satins and Sateens.
Satins and sateens are made in the same way; the former of silk and the latter of cotton, plain or mercerized. The weave is technically a twill, but so modified that the diagonal lines are not visible, and the whole surface is smooth and lustrous.
Damasks, Armorers, Brocades, Brocateles.
It is difficult to define these weaves in a few words, and quite impossible to describe the extraordinary variety of textile effects produced by modern manufacturers, both in the basic weaves and in combination of two or more techniques.
_Damasks_ are pileless figured fabrics in which the pattern is produced by exposing the warp threads, and the ground by exposing the weft threads; or the reverse. They may be made with both warp and weft in the satin weave, in which case the only contrast between pattern and ground is that caused by the direction of the lines; or with warp satin figures on a weft ground of taffeta or twill weave; or with weft satin figures on a ground of contrasting weave. Warp and weft may be of exactly the same color; or of two tones of one hue; or of two different hues. More than two colors are possible only through the device of striping, where warp threads of additional hues are introduced to form stripes which necessarily run the whole length of the piece. Damasks are made of silk, rayon, wool, cotton, mohair, linen, or jute, or in mixtures of two or more of these fibers.
_Armures_ look like twilled weave damasks, except that they have small raised patterns produced by floating warp threads.
_Brocades_ are embroidery effects produced by floating wefts on the surface of damask, satin, taffeta, and other weaves. Gold or silver metal threads are sometimes introduced in the figures.
_Brocateles_ were originally somewhat coarse fabrics of silk and wool or silk and cotton with designs produced by the brocade weave. The term is now also applied to a type of heavy satin damask in which the satin figure is on a lustrous ground of the same or contrasting color.
_Printed fabrics._--Both hand-and machine-made printed fabrics are produced in an enormous variety; on linen, cotton, silk, rayon, mohair, wool, and jute grounds; and on plain twill, rep, damask, velvet, and other grounds.
1. _Printed linens_ are made on grounds which vary in fineness and smoothness according to the scale and decorative character of the design. Hand-blocked linens vary in price with the quality of materials and craftsmanship, and also with the number of blockings required to form the design. In recent years both linen and cotton grounds have to some extent been machine-printed with wooden rollers instead of copper or brass, and against a padded backing, which has resulted in improving both line and coloring, and in giving them much the appearance of hand-blocked fabrics.
2. _Cretonnes_ are made both by hand-and by roller-printing processes on unglazed cotton ground of widely varying texture and decorative effect, and at prices ranging from a few cents per yard for the cheapest roller-printed fabrics up to $15 or more for the elaborately hand-blocked effects. Thick and heavy cretonnes are made for wall panels and furniture coverings, and a few splendid figure panels are available in Gothic, heraldic, and _mille fleur_ designs which resemble the old painted tapestries of fifteenth century France.
3. _Chintzes_ are printed on a fine cotton holland. Glazed chintzes have a varnish-like glow and considerable stiffness; semi-glazed are less glossy and more soft and pliable; unglazed closely resemble good cretonne, but the texture is finer.
4. _Warp-prints_ or _shadow prints_ are made by a process similar to that employed in drum-painting velvet carpets. Designs produced by this technique necessarily lack definition, and have a soft and shadowy appearance which cannot be produced by hand or roller printing. The most effective warp prints are of plain or mercerized cotton.
_Embroideries._--Embroideries are justly considered important today. The art of the needle worker ranks close to that of the weaver of fine rugs and tapestries. Two only of its many forms are mentioned here.
1. _Crewel work_ is customarily worked with colored worsted yarns on a plain linen ground, sometimes completely covered, but usually left open to form a background for the pattern. The stitches are varied in direction and character in order to give interest and richness to the texture. Most of the crewel work sold in the stores today is made with the bonnaz embroidery machine, which closely simulates the decorative effect of needlework.
2. _Needlepoint_ embroidery is worked on open canvas. The fine or "petit point" (little point) is formed by stitches taken diagonally from one opening in the canvas to the next. The coarse or "gros (big) point" is made by similar stitches twice the length, and with thicker yarns.
Practically everything written about upholstery fabrics stresses their decorative value or their appropriateness to other furnishings in the room. Little is reported about their physical structure or durability. Those desiring to make a comparison of fabrics for breaking strength, weight per square yard, fabric balance, and resistance to abrasion will do well to secure a copy of Circular No. 483, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The title is "Proposed Minimum Requirements of Three Types of Upholstery Fabrics Based on Analysis of 62 Materials." Copy may be secured from Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., price 5 cents.
FLOOR COVERINGS
It is well to remember that the foundation of every decorating scheme rightly should be the floor-covering. One's rugs or carpetings may contrast with the wall treatment, or they may complement it, but next to the room itself they are the largest color expanse. A good deal of thought needs to be given to the floor covering's selection. One can well afford to invest slightly more in this decorative accessory and obtain the soft new colors which lend so much charm to furniture groupings.
Floor coverings of proper texture and pattern can lend much sparkle and life to a room or they can ruin one's most carefully selected ensemble if they are drab and listless.
Floor coverings are divided into two groups: The soft-surface fabrics are made from a variety of textile fibers including wool which is the one most widely used; and the hard surface fabrics, including linoleum and the felt-base prints.
Soft-surface floor coverings are made both by hand and by machinery. The first class includes all Oriental rugs; European hand-knotted rugs; floor tapestries; and a few hooked, braided, and woven hand-craft rugs of limited production. The second class includes a wide range, of fabrics, nearly all of which are produced by the chenille, Wilton, Axminster, drum print, roller print, or ingrain processes.
ORIENTAL RUGS[21]
Rugs are woven in quantity in Persia, Turkey, India, and China, with a smaller production in Turkestan, Greece, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan. With few exceptions, the finer rugs come from Persia. Small rugs, woven primarily for individual or family use, are made throughout the rug-weaving countries. Small rugs made primarily for export, and the larger room-size rugs, usually called carpets, are woven chiefly in a few great production districts of the four countries first named.
In all oriental rugs the pile is knotted by hand, and in most weaves the wool is also scoured, carded, spun, and dyed by hand. Aniline dyes are used in many of the cheaper rugs--particularly in those woven outside of Persia--and either a superior quality of chemical dyes or the old vegetable dyes in the better rugs. All rugs except the poorest and cheapest are fast in color, unless they have been "painted."
Most oriental rugs are carefully made of good wool, and their durability under reasonable conditions of service is guaranteed by responsible dealers. The widespread notion that any oriental rug, however cheap and however abused in service, will wear indefinitely is of course absurd. Rugs are made of wool, not of concrete. Even in the Orient they wear out in time, notwithstanding the fact that they are not touched by heavy shoes. In the matter of durability oriental rugs have no inherent advantage over domestics. Everything depends upon the choice of wools and skill in handling.
The term "antique" is applied by collectors to pieces 100 years or more in age. Few such rugs are now in the hands of dealers.
Prices are based on the age or rarity of the individual specimen rather than on intrinsic excellence, as is the case with antique furniture or rare books. Only the expert is competent to recognize an antique rug or to judge of its quality or value.
Many rug merchants, department stores, and furniture stores advertise and sell as antiques any unwashed rugs which have been more or less aged and softened by use in the Orient, and which conform measurably in technique and character of design to antique standards. It is also a common practice to sell as antiques purely modern unwashed pieces reproduced in the old designs, particularly if such pieces have been aged artificially by some such method as exposure to bazaar traffic for a few weeks or months. Both practices are discountenanced by dealers of the highest standing, who apply to rugs of these kinds the term "semi-antique."
_"Washing" and "Painting" of orientals._--Oriental rugs are usually woven in relatively bright, strong colors. In order to soften these colors to a point where they can be used effectively in the decoration of modern American homes, most rugs upon arrival in this country are given a treatment known to the trade as "washing" before they are offered for sale. (This is the same treatment given to "sheen type" domestics.) The mild reagents employed soften all the colors of good rugs without bleaching them or impairing their fastness to light. Poor wool is sometimes injured, and poor dyes bleached by the washing process; but the statement frequently encountered in books and magazines that any washed rug is undesirable is utter nonsense. The fact is, that, genuine antique rugs aside, most of the fine oriental rugs in this country are washed rugs, and innumerable fine homes use them. The high luster imparted to the wool as a part of the washing process is not permanent, and tends to disappear under the hard service requirements of small American homes.
Many rugs are retouched with dyestuffs, or "painted," after they have been washed; that is, parts of the design are treated with dyes applied with the brush by hand in order to alter certain colors, usually by deepening their tone. The dyes cannot be boiled into the wool or "fixed," and will fade under strong light.
_Most oriental rug names do not show quality._--The name borne by an oriental rug ordinarily indicates the city or district of its origin, and throws little or no light on the excellence of the individual specimen. There is a widespread but totally erroneous idea that all rugs having the same name are alike in quality. The fact is that except for a few Turkish, Indian, and Chinese weaves, oriental rugs are not standardized, and that two Kerman rugs, for example, may differ as widely in quality as two Detroit automobiles. In buying oriental rugs, as in most other commodities, the consumer gets only that which he pays for.
Other things being equal, the cost of a rug per square foot increases directly with fineness of knotting. Other variable factors include the character of the wool and dyes; artistic and technical skill of designer and weaver; local conditions in the production district; and the interplay of supply and demand in the American wholesale market.
EUROPEAN HAND-KNOTTED PILE CARPETS
Carpet weaving was introduced to Europe by the Moors after their conquest of Granada, and established in Holland in the sixteenth century, and at Wilton and Axminster in England, and Paris in France, in the seventeenth century. Machine-spun yarns are now used in making these fabrics, but aside from this the processes are essentially the same as those employed in the Orient. Pile carpets are made in commercial quantities in Great Britain, Holland, Germany, France, and Spain and can be produced in any desired size, shape, pattern, coloring, or height of pile. Qualities vary widely in wool, knotting, and weavers' skill, and sell in the United States for anywhere from $20 to $200 or more per square yard. The time required for delivery varies from 3 to 12 months or more, depending upon size, character of design, and fineness of knotting.
Spanish rugs, like many of those made in China, are often embossed or chiseled, in order to add interest to the texture and to soften the relationship of strong juxtaposed colors.
FLOOR TAPESTRIES
See discussion of tapestries, under "Drapery and Upholstery Fabrics," page 155.
CHENILLE CARPETS AND RUGS[22]
As applied to floor coverings the term chenille (from the French _chenille_, a fuzzy worm, or caterpillar) designates a power-loom fabric capable of producing rugs in any desired size, shape, design, or coloring. This makes it the most practical weave for special order work. This technique, which is completely different from that used in the production of Wilton or Axminster carpetings, was developed in Great Britain during the first half of the nineteenth century, and until a comparatively recent date the great bulk of the chenille rugs used in this country was imported. Under pressure of war conditions a large number of looms were set up here in 1915 and 1916, and we are now the leading manufacturers of practically all grades of chenille carpetings.
Chenilles without seams can be made here in any width up to 30 feet, and in any length or shape. There are many qualities, varying in character and quantity of wool, fineness of tufting, and height of pile, which may be anywhere from ¼ to 1 inch or more. In hand-tufted carpets the character of the design makes little difference in production costs, and the only limitations on the pattern are those imposed by fineness of knotting. In chenille, on the contrary, production cost increases rapidly with increasing intricacy of design, so that the square yard price for any given quality might be half again as much, or even two or three times as much, for a rug of elaborate design as for a plain rug of the same size. Special order rugs require from 1 to 5 months for delivery, according to size and character of design.
WILTON CARPETINGS AND RUGS[23]
Wiltons are woven of either worsted or woolen yarns on a jacquard Wilton loom. The essential facts concerning this weave from the consumer's viewpoint are: _(a)_ the jacquard device makes possible the production of patterns revealing very intricate and perfectly clean detail, equal to that found in fine Persian carpets. _(b)_ The pile is erect, with maximum wear at the point of maximum resistance, thus ensuring great durability. _(c)_ Beneath the pile there is an elastic cushion of firm yarns, which adds greatly to the durability of the fabric. This cushion results from the unique Wilton technique, which carries from three to six differently colored yarns between each pair of warp threads throughout the entire length of the carpet, bringing one only to the surface for each tuft, while the others remain in the back.
All carpets of this weave are by no means equal in quality, durability, and value. In fact, Wiltons vary widely in all respects save that of the type of loom on which they are woven. They differ in the cost, fineness, manner of blending, and spinning, and in quantity of wool, which is the physical basis of excellence; in the use of worsted and woolen yarns; in height of pile; and in the number of points or tufts, per square inch (ranging from about 60 to 128 points per square inch); in quality and cost of dyestuffs; in perfection of finish; and in rigidity of inspection standards.
Customers cannot be stirred to enthusiasm by such statements as that a given rug is a 2-sheet, 131-2 pick, 256 pitch, 6-frame Wilton. Many women can, however, be interested in a picture of a harnessed loom at work, with a brief explanation, or caught by casual mention of the fact that in the standard 5-frame Wiltons there are 1,280 separate worsted yarns in the 27-inch width, and 5,120 in a 9-foot seamless rug. Most women are interested in the sources and treatment of wools, care in dyeing, weaving, and inspection.
BODY BRUSSELS CARPETS AND RUGS
The body Brussels was an immensely popular weave from the invention of the power loom to the beginning of the present century. Its sale is now only slight although we may see a come-back of the Brussels in streamlined texture effects. It is woven of worsted yarns only, on the same kind of loom as the Wilton, and with substantially the same structure. They differ in that the pile loops of the Brussels carpet are not cut. They are woven with three, four, or five frames of worsted yarns, their cost and value depending upon the number of frames, number of loops or points per square inch, quality of wool, and certain other technical variants. They are not produced on broad looms.
AXMINSTER CARPETS AND RUGS
Axminster rugs are in great demand in this country because of the unlimited possibilities of pattern and coloring. An additional feature is their moderate price which is a result of mass production techniques. This quality offers the consumer a seamless rug up to 18 feet wide.
The Axminster weave is produced by an ingenious process which beggars description but is explained and illustrated in the Britannica and other standard works on carpet manufacture. The technique permits production of rugs with a great variety of color effects in each pattern. The tufts, in the Axminster, are mechanically inserted in the fabric and bound down into the back, essentially in the manner of oriental rugs, except that the entire process is one of machine technique instead of the customary oriental hand-knotting. None of the yarn is buried in the back of the fabric, as it is in the Wilton weave, other than that which is required for attachment. Yarn preparation for Axminster weaving is a long process involving weeks of work, while actual weaving time requires but one-tenth of the entire time of manufacturing.
The commercial qualities of Axminster vary widely in wool, type of yarn, number of tufts per square inch, and height of pile.
TAPESTRY BRUSSELS, VELVETS, AND WILTON VELVETS
Tapestry Brussels have a looped pile like that of body Brussels and are woven of worsted yarns; Wilton velvets are also made of worsted yarns, and have a close upright pile resembling Wilton. Velvets (formerly called tapestry velvets), have a short upright pile and are made of woolen yarns. These weaves, which are not yarn-dyed, are made both by the drum printing and the roller printing methods.
In _drum printing_, the yarn is wound on a huge drum; the color applied by means of a carriage and color roller in narrow lines; the yarn removed and steamed to fix the color; the separate yarns wound on bobbins and then "set" in such a way that when fed into the loom over the wires that form the pile loops each line of color comes up where it is required to form the pattern. This technique is economical of wool, but naturally is incapable of yielding the definite exactness of pattern produced by the other weaves.
In _roller printing_ the carpet is first woven in white, and then printed on rollers by a process substantially like that of a perfecting press printing a newspaper in color.
_Broadloom carpetings._--Any carpet woven on a wide loom. The term is applied particularly to Wiltons, Axminsters, and plain chenilles.
_"Sheen-type" rugs; also known as American orientals._--Any machine-made pile rug which has been chemically washed to soften the colors and give it sheen and luster; made in the Wilton, Axminster and chenille weaves.
LINOLEUM
Because of consistent and attractive advertising by manufacturers, the quality and desirability of linoleum and felt-base floor covering are now taken for granted by consumers, and these floor coverings, once regarded purely as a utility product, are sold chiefly on the basis of their decorative appeal. In order to be well informed on their construction you must get the facts from the manufacturers whose products you handle, as both the materials and processes employed have been somewhat widely changed in recent years.
The old method of making linoleum involved the production of solidified linseed oil and its reduction by heat and the admixture of resinous gums to a rubberlike mass known as cement, which was then ground up with cork dust, wood flour, whiting, and pigment to form the "linoleum material." In plain and printed linoleums this material was then calendered on the canvas by heavy heated rollers and seasoned in the drying rooms from 2 to 60 days in temperatures of from 90° to 170°. Granites, jaspes, and cork carpets were made by almost the same process. In making inlays the colored linoleum materials were formed into patterns by one of several hand or machine processes.
In recent years progress has been made toward the partial substitution of linseed oil by a nitrocellulose base in the preparation of the cement. In addition, much linoleum now has a surface coat of nitrocellulose composition, which gives it a glossy surface practically non-markable and highly resistant to strong soaps and soda.
Felt-base floor covering has a printed pattern on a base of felt impregnated with a base of bituminous composition.
CARE OF LINOLEUM
Most linoleum used in homes is manufactured with a lustrous surface which can be maintained with little effort.
_Washing._--The basis of all linoleum maintenance is the same--a thorough cleaning with a mild soap, followed by waxing. Soaps which contain excessive alkali destroy the linseed oil content of linoleum. Cleaning compounds of the type ordinarily used for scouring porcelain sinks and tubs, contain abrasive material and are not suitable for use on linoleum, because they scratch the surface of the material. These slight scratches soon fill with dirt and make subsequent cleaning more difficult; also, they shorten the life of the linoleum. Be sure that only pure soaps are used and wash with lukewarm water. Use very little water and remove all traces of the soap. The floor should then be allowed to dry thoroughly.
_Waxing._--After the floor is cleaned and dried, apply a very thin coat of liquid or paste wax manufactured for the purpose of maintaining linoleum.
FIBERS AND RELATED RUG TYPES
The striking improvements in weave, in colors and in styling made within the past few years have brought a new conception of the uses to which fiber and related rugs may be put appropriately. Originally thought of primarily as summer rugs, and then principally for porch use, today these rugs enjoy a greatly increased use.
_Process of manufacture._--The materials employed and the processes of production in the making of fiber, grass, and other rugs of this type are so different that they deserve special mention and description. They are known as flat-weave fabrics to differentiate them from the pile fabric rugs.
_Fiber rugs._--When a new type of yarn made from wood fibers became available as a filler to take the place of wire grass, it widely increased the range of utility and beauty in this type of floor covering.
Wood fiber is made from fir or white spruce in great paper mills, where the logs are first reduced to pulp, then made into an extremely tough and continuous roll of a special type of kraft paper designed for twisting. These great rolls of kraft are cut into long strips of varying widths, then tightly twisted into strands of twine or yarn, the size of the strands depending upon _(a)_ the width of the strips and _(b)_ the tightness of the twist.
The better grades of fiber yarns are extremely tough and long wearing, giving the finished rug a tough, long-wearing surface. Also they are finer than the grass fibers, giving a thinner, less heavy feel, but increasing the cost because of the additional labor involved and the increased number of picks. Three basic weaves are used to give variety:
_The basket weave._--In this 2-, 3-, and 4-weft or filler, yarns are shuttled across the loom between each raising and lowering of the warp. This produces a weave resembling the broad, flat weave of a market basket.
_The twill weave._--More complicated because it requires additional loom equipment or "harnesses." While the basket weave requires only two such "harnesses" (one to go up while the other goes down) in twill, the addition of more "harnesses," and chains to operate them, produces interesting variations. In the twill weave, three harnesses are used. Each warp strand passes over two filler strands and under the next two, producing a diagonal, ribbed effect, giving a heavier feel to the rug, and resulting in maximum yardage.
_Jacquard weave._--This type requires a different loom, equipped with the jacquard mechanism described in connection with the Wilton process, but constructed to carry the much heavier fiber yarns. In this process each warp yarn has its own "harness" which is raised and lowered by the operation of the cards, punched like the rolls of a player piano, to produce the desired pattern. (See fig. 35.)
Color is introduced into fiber rugs both in the kraft as it is made, and by stenciling.
The ingenious use of contrasting fibers, such as sisal, cellophane, and fibers varying in color from dark to light and back again, are often employed to develop interesting weaves and patterns.
_Wool fiber types._--Still another variation is achieved by combining wool yarns with fiber. This type is woven with fiber warp tightly bound together with a cotton warp that appears on the surface. Filler yarns are of alternating fiber and wool carpet yarns, so woven that the fabric is reversible. Pattern is achieved by the coloring of the yarns and by stenciling. The amount of wool varies to secure the result desired. It gives to the fabric a softer feel underfoot.
Wide ranges of colors, weaves, and patterns are now available in fiber rugs to meet all decorative needs. For custom, room-size rugs larger than 9 × 12, many of the most popular patterns are offered in broadlooms, in widths up to 12 feet.
_Grass rugs._--Only in three localities in the world is produced the grass from which these useful rugs are constructed. It is the wire-like grass which grows wild in the marshes which dot the great prairies in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the vicinity of Winnipeg, Canada. It grows to a height of 2 feet without a joint, and in the spring is covered with water which gives it the waterproof characteristic. When dry it is cut and, after curing, bound into continuous strands.
Grass rugs employ the simplest of all weaves, the "over-and-under," the warp yarns being raised and lowered alternately as the weft or grass yarns are shot across the loom in the shuttle, to bind the fabric together.
Design usually is applied upon one side of grass rugs by painting by hand or sprays, through stencils, although introduction of different colored warp yarns achieve interesting pattern effects. The natural color of the grass is always a part of the design. Most rugs then are varnished to brighten colors and preserve the surface. The better qualities are bound on four sides. Grass rugs are reversible, usually plain on one side, patterned on the other.
_Sisal rugs._--From Yucatan, Central America, and the West Indies comes a tough, heavy, long-wearing fiber called sisal. Its largest use is in the making of twine and rope, but its great durability makes it an important fiber for floor coverings.
Sisal fiber is derived from the leaf of a plant, much as linen is made from the stem of the flax plant. Fibers remain after the pulp of the leaf is pressed out. They are twisted into strands of the desired thickness, then woven into floor coverings, as are the fiber rugs. Colors are introduced by dyeing the strands, by stenciling the woven fabric, or both.
Sisal fiber is often used with other fibers to widen the range of color and utility.
_Varied uses._--While the different types of grass and fiber rugs developed out of a demand for cool, colorful floor coverings that primarily could be used during the summer, their usefulness has been greatly widened as new methods evolved and new materials became available. They now comprise an essential part of every well-rounded showing of floor coverings. Their wide acceptance is an illustration of the way in which new types of fabrics are developed to meet new conditions. Insofar as their basic materials differ, the care of fiber rugs differs from those of other fabrics, as set forth in the discussion "Proper Care of Floor Coverings," page 169.
PROPER CARE OF FLOOR COVERINGS[24]
Frequent cleaning prevents the dirt from accumulating in the surface of pile fabrics. Unless it is removed, fine particles of grit become buried at the base of the pile. Sharp edges of this grit, grinding against the pile as the rug or carpet is walked upon, tend to sever the wool fibers. Cleanliness becomes the most important factor in care.
Use of a vacuum cleaner is recommended for cleaning, both of new and old fabrics. Surface dirt may be removed daily with a carpet sweeper or soft-bristled broom, the former being preferred. After cleaning, the nap should be gently brushed so that the pile is all left lying in the same direction. Vigorous beating or shaking of rugs or carpets tends to loosen the pile tufts, and is condemned. Small rugs should never by cleaned by "snapping" them as this causes threads to break.
The bulletin of the Institute of Carpet Manufacturers states:
Under no consideration should an attempt be made to shampoo a rug or carpet while on the floor. There is no shampoo method or device which, while the carpet is on the floor, adequately cleans the fabric to the base of the pile or effectively removes the soap and detergent material. This residual soap and detergent material cause rapid resoiling, development of crushed appearance, and may cause the development of rancid odor or a gradual color change in the dyestuff.
_Axminster, chenilles, velvets, and Wiltons._--These should not be swept hard at first and never against the nap. Sheared when finished, a little light woof or loose wool will come out for a time. Long ends should be cut even with the surface of the rug and never pulled out. Unequal crushing of the surface will produce light and dark patches on any cut-pile rug. Application of a hot iron on a damp cloth will allow pile to be brushed to normal position.
In a marked degree, carpets do not fade. Manufacturers employ strong, fast dyes and carpets will not fade except when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The simple preventative solution for sunlight fading is to use window blinds judiciously. But carpets do discolor or change in hue, because of infiltrated dust which is basically gray in color. It is not the dirt that may be swept away, but fine dust in the atmosphere that settles permanently in carpet, adding gray to the tone of the carpet, whatever its original color may have been. Therefore it is advisable when purchasing carpet to choose a shade a trifle stronger than the final floor color desired. In matching wall coloring, draperies, or upholstery fabrics, at the time of purchase, it is a wise expedient deliberately to soil a small cutting of the carpet so as to judge what its appearance will be for most of its life.
When subjected to severe wear, use of rug cushions beneath rug or carpet is advised. The plain or smooth surface of the cushion should be placed next to the rug.
SELLING COVERINGS FOR OTHER FLOORS[25]
Information gained in the discussion of the problems, plans, and thinking of the customer as to color likes and dislikes, and harmony in color and design, opens the way for discussion and possible sales of floor coverings for other rooms.
It may be accepted that every purchaser of a rug or carpet has definitely in mind plans for other rooms. She has cherished, if unexpressed, schemes for changes, improvements in all her rooms. The merchandise she has seen, rest assured, has stimulated interest anew in her other favorite decorative schemes. It is all very tempting and alluring. Importantly, also, she is in the buying mood. The occasion is made to order for following through with presentation of fabrics for additional rooms, preferably for an immediate, but, if not, for a future sale as soon as budget or circumstances permit.
Such a purchase may concern:
1. Rooms which adjoin, the rugs and carpets of which must be harmonious in color and design to achieve most pleasing results. Such are hall and living room; living room and sunroom; or
2. Those which essentially are units in themselves, in which great expression of individuality in color and design is permissible. Such are library, bedrooms, and nursery.
_The adjoining room._--The most common of house plans provide a central entrance hall, with rooms opening on either side, and stairway rising from it. This plan gives an air of spaciousness and, obviously, because two or more rooms are visible at once, calls for most harmonious floor treatment throughout. Rugs and carpets are extremely important in such a scheme. Properly chosen, they create a feeling of unity and pleasing color harmony. Lacking that unity and harmony, the result is far from pleasing, and may be a decidedly disturbing feature.
_Use of identical fabrics._--Adjoining rooms may be covered with the same fabric, alike in color and pattern. Wall-to-wall carpeting or identical rugs of correct size achieve the pleasing result of unity and harmony secured by alikeness.
_Use of fabrics harmonious but not identical in color._--Variation is pleasing as well as likeness; covering hall, for instance, in a strong color, and adjoining rooms in colors which harmonize through likeness or in the complementary ranges. This is, of course, more complicated, but an effect not difficult to achieve.
_Combining plain and figured fabrics._--The use of a figured pattern in one room, and in the adjoining room a plain fabric which picks up and repeats the dominant color in the ground color or in the figures of the pattern produces a lively result, pleasing and effective.
Stair carpeting is important in the decorative picture. Stairs properly carpeted are soft under foot, safer, quiet, more comfortable. They supply a fine note in the decorative scheme. The stair carpet should repeat the dominant color of the hall or room from which they ascend.
_For other rooms._--Rooms which may be considered as units in themselves permit of more individual treatment, an expression of the likes of the occupant or occupants. This group includes bedrooms which, statistics show, are the most sparely and poorly carpeted of rooms. Suggestions that consideration be given to bedroom floor coverings will appeal to a large percentage of customers.
During the showing of merchandise and discussion of the problems involved in the selection of the specific floor covering the customer comes to buy, remarks will often indicate the need for rugs or carpet for other rooms.
USE OF ENSEMBLES IN SELLING[26]
Into selling in recent years has come a most efficient method of proving just how a specific rug or carpet will look in combination with other furnishing elements. This is the ensemble or group method, for the word "ensemble" means an assembling or grouping.
Whether it be the simplest kind of ensemble, displaying only the rug or carpet, with lengths of drapery and upholstery fabrics, and built by the salesman before the eyes of the customer; or the most complete and elaborate form, the model room, the ensemble method has these outstanding advantages:
1. _It develops interest._--The mere physical operation of building the simpler display before the customer, arouses interest because it involves action. Selection of items and addition of each element in the group adds to the interest.
2. _It carries conviction._--Conversation as to combinations of colors and designs, and resulting effects are interesting, but an ensemble display of actual merchandise in the colors and designs actually available, visualizes the accomplished effect for those who cannot visualize them mentally. And few can.
3. _It concentrates attention_ upon the specific rug or carpet, narrows down the possibilities of choice and tends to hasten decisions.
4. _It stimulates action_ and tends to close the sale by spot-lighting the specific fabrics favorably as the basis for achieving the desired beauty of color, design, and harmony which is the objective of the customer. It presents the solution to a specific problem in terms of actual merchandise. The same factors operate in pointing out the pleasing effects achieved in model rooms.
Ensemble selling presupposes a knowledge of the way in which available materials may be used effectively. Various pleasing schemes should be worked out with the basic rug and carpet stock colors and designs as the foundation of the schemes. Lengths of drapery and upholstery fabrics and wall coverings suitable for use with each basic rug or carpet color may be selected to provide effective and pleasing results.
Ensemble units may be built over an easel which displays a standard-sized carpet sample; or may use a sample rug with a chair, table, or lamp, the drapery and other fabrics being thrown over the chair. The object is to bring the various elements together effectively so the customer may see them. The ensemble is to prove that these other factors will harmonize satisfactorily with the floor covering.
In the selection of elements for ensemble units, whether temporary or permanent, the advice of the decorating department of the store, if one exists, will be invaluable. Many manufacturers of rugs and carpets have established decorating services, the benefit of which is available to store as well as to consumer. Such services are much publicized, extremely popular, and influential with the public and widely used by consumers. Store and sales force alike will be wise to know what such potent sales influences are advising.
Another source of such data is the editorial pages of magazines, many of which publish decorative schemes in color. These influence the thinking and buying of many readers.
Let it be emphasized again that the ensemble, potent as is its influence should be employed only when the sale is not possible otherwise. And only after the possibilities of one grouping have been exhausted should another one be built. The customer must not be confused by much, but rather enlightened by a little.
QUESTIONS
_1. Under what conditions would it be good salesmanship to change arrangement of a suite on the display floor, or to bring in rug, draperies, table runner, glass, or silver as a means to closing a sale?_
_2. What technical information does a good salesman need to use in demonstrating concealed values in upholstered furniture?_
_3. How do you demonstrate values in floor coverings?_
_4. What procedure do you follow in seeking to produce the largest volume of sales from paid-up, inactive accounts?_
_5. What ideas or procedures are said to be most irritating to those who examine your stock as potential customers?_
_6. The high school graduating class this year is furnishing a faculty room as a gift to the school. Exactly what would you do to make the sale for your company?_
_7. What tests would you apply to demonstrate that a given new home reflects harmony in the home furnishings?_
_8. What are profitable uses for floor plans?_
_9. If a well-dressed woman, not known to you, asked to be shown an oriental rug, how would you go about it to make a sale?_
_10. Suppose you were showing inlaid linoleum to an elderly woman, that finally you found a pattern to please her, and that upon learning your price she stated positively that she could buy the same pattern much cheaper at Blank's. What would you say or do?_
SUGGESTED READING LIST
Americana, Encyclopedia, Textiles and Textile Manufacture.
Rugs, vol. 23, pp. 757-761. Tapestries, vol. 26, pp. 252-254. Many others in volumes 5, 6, 11, 17, 19.
BALDWIN, WILLIAM H. _The Shopping Book._ The Macmillan Co., New York, N. Y. 1929.
Floor Coverings, II, pp. 35-54.
Britannica, Encyclopedia.
Carpet Manufacture, vol. 4, pp. 917-923. Linoleum, vol. 14, pp. 165-166. Interior Decoration, vol. 14.
BURROWS, THELMA M. _Successful Home Furnishing._ Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill. 1938.
Rugs, II, pp. 45-55. Upholstery Fabrics, IV, pp. 65-85.
DAVIS, M. J. "Principles of Window Curtaining." _Farmers Bulletin No. 1516_, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
FALES, WINNIFRED. _What's New in Home Decorating._ Dodd, Mead & Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. 1936.
Textiles and Fabrics, III, pp. 42-71. Beauty Under Foot, II, pp. 24-42. Every Window Has Its Problem, V, pp. 85-120.
FARADAY, CORNELIA BATEMAN. The Dean Hicks Co., Grand Rapids, Mich. 1929.
History of Carpets and Rugs and Decorative Floor Coverings of all Nations.
HEMPSTEAD, L. _The Selling Points of Drapery and Upholstery Fabrics._ Fairchild Publications Co., New York, N. Y. 1931.
Institute of Carpet Manufacturers of America, Inc., New York, N. Y. 1937.
Carpet and Rug Industry, Survey, Style, and Color Trends.
JACKSON, ALICE _and_ BETTINA. _The Study of Interior Decoration._ Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y.
KELSEY, CLARK. _Furniture: Its Selection and Use._ National Committee on Wood Utilization, United States Department of Commerce. Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1931.
Upholstered Furniture, II, 10, pp. 61-75.
KNAUFF, CARL G. B. _Refreshing the Home._ McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N. Y., 1938.
Rugs and Carpets, pp. 100-132. Fabrics, pp. 242-269. Curtains and Draperies, pp. 269-289. Linoleum, pp. 53, 73, 80, 126-129. Tapestries, pp. 254-255, 302. Upholstering, pp. 223-226. Lamps, pp. 290-299. Glass Curtains, pp. 276, 282.
KOUES, HELEN. _How to Beautify Your Home._ Good Housekeeping, New York, N. Y. 1930.
How to Make Curtains and Draperies, XII, pp. 147-167. New Fashions in Draperies, XI, pp. 131-147.
National Retail Dry Goods Association, New York, N. Y.
Manual for Selling Curtains and Draperies, October 1936.
PRIESTMAN, MABEL TUKE. _Art and Economy in Home Decoration._ John Lane (The Bodley Head, Ltd., London).
When Buying Carpets and Rugs, V, pp. 49-86.
REYBURN, SAMUEL W. _Selling Draperies and Upholstery Successfully._ Prentice Hall, Inc., New York, N. Y.
SEAL, ETHEL DAVIS. _Furnishing the Little House._ Century Co., New York, N. Y., 1924.
Floors of Dignity and Beauty, II, pp. 23-41.
STEWART, ROSS _and_ GERALD, JOHN. _Home Decoration._ Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y. 1938.
Floor Covering, VI, pp. 96-113. Fabrics and Their Uses, VII, pp. 113-127.
WHITON, SHERILL. _Elements of Interior Decoration._ J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
Decorative Textiles and Tapestries, X, pp. 337-393. Floor Coverings, XII, pp. 409-441.
FOOTNOTES:
[21] Stipulation 2851 of the Federal Trade Commission, Washington, released June 24, 1940, requires a respondent firm to agree to cease using the words "Persian," "Chinese," "oriental," "Kashmir," "Mandalay," "Baghdad," "Baristan," "Persiatana," "India," or other distinctively oriental appellation in connection with any rug which does not contain all the inherent qualities and properties of an oriental rug; unless, if properly used to describe the design or pattern only, such words of oriental appellation shall be immediately accompanied by a word such as "design" or "pattern" printed in equally conspicuous type, so as to indicate clearly that only the form delineated on the surface of the rug is a likeness of the type named; for example, "Persian design," "Chinese pattern."
The respondent corporation also agreed to discontinue use of the word "guaranteed" unless clear disclosure is made of exactly what is offered by way of security; as for example, refund of purchase price.
[22] For an illustrated technical account of chenille manufacture, see Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th edition; vol. 4: Carpet manufacture.
[23] For an illustrated explanation of the Wilton and other techniques, see the Encyclopedia Britannica, place cited. The name Wilton comes from the old English town, an early seat of carpet making.
[24] Ideas reproduced from "Rugs and Carpets of America," pp. 41-42, The Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y.
[25] Rugs and Carpets of America, pp. 57-58, Floor Covering Advertising Club, New York, N. Y. (1940.)
[26] Reproduced by permission of Floor Covering Advertising Club, Institute of Carpet Manufacturers: Rugs and Carpets of America, p. 55.
Unit IX
FURNISHING THE LIVING ROOM, HALL, AND DINING ROOM
Furnishing the Living Room
Distinctive Hall Furniture
Securing Hospitable Dining Room Atmosphere
Ensemble Selling
Unit IX.--FURNISHING THE LIVING ROOM, HALL, AND DINING ROOM
FURNISHING THE LIVING ROOM
The living room is the heart of the home. It is here that members of the family meet and spend a great part of their time; here that friends and guests are entertained; here that "memories are made." The woman is rare who does not recognize the importance of her living room both as a factor in family life and as an index of her own position, taste, and skill. Since the family living room is the show window of the home it is well to convey to the customers' mind that the personality of herself and her family should be reflected in this room. (See fig. 31, page 142.)
OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT EVERYWHERE
Comparatively few living rooms are genuinely attractive. It is safe to say that 9 living rooms out of every 10 could be improved enormously, and often at little cost. Some are merely shabby or out of date. Many are colorless, depressing, uncomfortable, commonplace, and unlovely. Nearly all lack important elements, and are in some respect underfurnished. In innumerable cases their owners are more or less clearly aware of these defects, deplore them, and would like to correct them.
This means that always there are possibilities for new and replacement sales of living room merchandise. Moreover, it means that any woman who today asks for any article for living-room use, however unimportant or inexpensive, may be at the point where she can be influenced to consider the purchase of additional articles. A systematic effort to explore and develop these latent possibilities infallibly will result in larger sales.
ARCHITECTURAL AND DECORATIVE STYLE
Comparatively few houses are designed throughout in an architectural style so well defined as to demand adherence to the same or closely related styles in furniture. Even in the case of many houses so designed we find that the owners prefer to equip their rooms with furniture of styles more pleasing to their fancy. Often this practice results in bad decoration, but after all there is little that can be done about it. Your job is to equip yourself to be a competent adviser and to give sound advice when it is wanted.
Under ordinary circumstances, do not ask your customer the style of her living room. If she doesn't know, or if the room has no style, she may be embarrassed or vaguely displeased by the question. On the other hand, if she regards the style of the room as in any way important she will in all likelihood volunteer the information.
LIVING-ROOM WALL TREATMENTS
The walls of the living room constitute its largest and most important single element, and form the background against which all other elements must be seen. The lighter the tone of the walls, and the smoother their texture, the greater will be the reflection and diffusion of light throughout the room and the larger its apparent size.
Painted or Plastered Walls.
Calcimine and water paint are effective in simple and unpretentious living rooms of any size, but should not be used in rooms intended to be sumptuous, elegant, or formal in effect. They are most pleasant in colors, belonging to the yellow-to-orange family, such as buff, maize, putty, or in light pastels.
Walls covered with canvas and painted in oil, without paneling, and with or without effects of stippled modeling or glazing, can be used in living rooms of any type, and with furniture of any style.
Paneling, because of the severely balanced distribution of wall spaces and the effect of dignity produced by long, straight lines, tends to give a room a quality of formality and dignity which is reflected in the style and distribution of the furniture and relieved by a free use of color and ornament in the other elements of the room.
Rough plaster and compo walls, varying in unevenness of texture and depth of tone according to the scale and style of the room itself and the furniture to be used in it, are effective with houses of the cottage, Early English, and Mediterranean types and with Early Spanish, Italian, and English furniture and the cruder and heavier examples of French Provincial, Early American, and unstyled furniture.
Patterns in Papered Walls.
Wallpapers are made in an extremely wide range of variation in texture, coloring, and pattern. Properly chosen, wallpaper is a suitable wall finish for practically any style of room, and a suitable background for practically any style of furniture.
Since personal preference has a great deal to do with the selection of wallpaper, the salesman's job should be merely to assist the customer on color and appropriateness of design. Studying the papers you will note that some have formalized motifs, others simple, repeated patterns. When in doubt, stay to the simpler patterns. However, there is no set rule on the types of wallpaper to be used, good taste and personal preference being the main factors.
FLOOR COVERINGS FOR THE LIVING ROOM
The floor may be treated with a single, room-size rug, several small rugs, or linoleum.
A room-size rug usually is preferred where practicable in a small room because it causes the room to appear a little larger than when small rugs are used.
Linoleum when used in a living room may carry an inlaid design in keeping with the room or may be used as the basic floor covering with small, soft-surface rugs.
Rug Must Dominate Floor Area.
There is no rule to govern the proper width of margins, other than the general requirement for a dominant element in every composition, which means that in the case of a single large rug the effect will be unpleasant if the rug is so small that it seems to the mind less important than the total uncarpeted space. Ordinarily the side margin should not exceed one fourth of its length.
Several small rugs used together should be sufficiently alike in coloring, type of pattern, tone, and texture to ensure the unity of the floor treatment, but not identical, which would make the effect monotonous. This requirement would forbid the use together, for example, of characteristic Persian and Chinese designs, because of too sharp differences in pattern; or of pile and pileless rugs, because of too sharp differences in texture; or of light and dark rugs, because of great differences in tone.
It is never necessary, and rarely desirable, to have all of the rugs closely alike in color; but there must be pronounced elements of likeness. In general it is best to have at least one, and preferably two or three colors appear in varying degrees of importance in each rug.
Small rugs should be placed so as to be closely related to the fireplace, door, and principal pieces or groups of furniture. They are distracting and meaningless when scattered with no reference to this relationship.
Don't Place Rugs at Angle.
Small rugs should be placed straight in the room; that is, so that their edges parallel either the side or end walls. To scatter them at angles destroys the organic unity of the room.
The floor coverings should be darker in tone than the walls, but not so much darker as to contrast harshly, and so impair the harmony and restfulness of the room.
In general the scale of the floor covering design should vary directly with the size of the room. Small rugs appear inartistic with large scale designs which might seem perfectly appropriate on larger rugs. The vigor of drawing and coloring in the floor covering also should increase with the size, or rather the effect of weight and massiveness, of the furniture.
LIVING ROOM WINDOW TREATMENTS
Venetian blinds have become increasingly important as a treatment for windows in all parts of the house. Venetian blinds permit the user to control the light and add a decorative note to a room regardless of its period. Tapes of the blind should match the floor covering, the walls, or harmonize with the color scheme of the room. Although the off-white, cream, and buff blinds are most popular, colored blinds in keeping with the color scheme of the room also are in good taste. Other window treatments are roller window shades, glass curtains, and draperies.
_Venetian blinds._--Most blinds are custom made and ordered to the customer's specific window size. Measurements should be taken within the molding. Venetian blinds may be used alone, with draperies, or with glass curtains and draperies. Venetian blinds harmonize with any period or setting and may be used on hall doors, kitchen, and bathroom windows as well as all other rooms of the house. Waxing maintains the slats most of which may be kept clean by washing with a bland soap and dusting regularly.
_Roller window shades._--Roller window shades offer an inexpensive and easy means of controlling light and vary widely in quality, appearance, and price. Roller shades should be fairly close in hue and tone to the walls. It is necessary that the shades harmonize pleasantly with the house as seen from the outside.
_Glass curtains_, or the thin transparent curtains which in ordinary houses hang next to the windows, are necessary to soften the light by day; to cover what would otherwise be the bleak bare rectangle presented by an uncurtained window by night; and to provide the decorative interest of soft texture, flowing line, and soft color.
When desirable, glass curtains can be stiffened at the top and mounted on small movable rings to permit pushing back in the interest of morning sunshine or a fine view. They never should be made conspicuous by reason of striking pattern or sharp contrast with the walls. Pure white curtains can be used only in living rooms of the most delicate type, having light walls and woodwork. In most rooms use cream or light or dark ecru. Glass curtains require ample fullness of material (from 1½ to 2½ times the width of the window, depending upon fineness of mesh), and in ordinary houses should be hung either to the sill or to the bottom of the apron.
_Outer hangings_, or draperies, serve to subdue or control the lighting of the living room; to ensure a subtle sense of privacy and intimacy to its occupants; to soften while emphasizing the structural lines of its openings; and to add the charm of color, texture, and pattern.
The draperies should be plain if used with strikingly figured walls; figured, if used with plain walls; and either plain or figured if used with walls covered with a pattern of simple and inconspicuous design and coloring, according to personal taste or the amount of ornament in the other surfaces of the room. Figured draperies may be used with figured rugs when (1) both patterns are in the same style of design, as Chinese chintz with Chinese rugs; or (2) both patterns make a free use of the same type of line, as in an Italian damask with a Persian rug; or (3) one pattern is of marked individuality while the other is small, simple, or lacking in individuality.
In general the draperies, whether plain or figured, will repeat one of the colors important in the rug. When used with a plain neutral floor covering (as warm gray, fawn, or rose-taupe) the draperies may be unrelated to the rug in color. In this case some of the color of the draperies should appear on or near the floor, in the form of upholstery or pottery in order to ensure the repetitions essential to harmony. The tone of the draperies may be and generally should be somewhat darker than that of the walls; but never so much so as to overemphasize the draperies at the cost of the other decorative elements of the room.
The draperies usually will be run to the floor in the more formal and more sumptuously furnished rooms; and to the apron in the more informal and simply furnished rooms. The heavy materials, like silk and cotton reps, damasks, brocades, brocatelles, satins, velvets, thick taffetas, and richly colored printed linens and hand-blocked cretonnes should be hung to the floor; the very light and thin materials, like silk or rayon gauze, silk tissues and small-figured prints, voiles, organdies, thin casement cloths, whether plain, striped, or broché, should be hung to the sill or apron; while the medium-weight fabrics, like broché silks, poplins, chintzes, and the thinner taffetas, cretonnes, and linens, may be hung either way, according to decorative requirements or personal preference.
Some architectural defects may be covered up by the clever use of draperies. Oftentimes windows may be made to look larger by extended draperies across the wall.
FURNITURE AND FURNITURE GROUPINGS
Every living room is made up of groups of furniture. What these groups are depend on the size of the family, the size of the home, the number of guests who may be expected under normal conditions, and the interests of the family. The architecture will determine placement of furniture to a considerable extent. There are several possible "centers of interest." A fireplace is one of these. A long wall, with windows, may be the logical spot for the sofa. In a musical family, the piano or radio may be a focal point.
Every grouping opens the possibility of selling "add-on" items. The _conversational_ group--sofa and at least two chairs requires at least two tables and two lamps. The _reading_ group implies a chair--or two chairs--at least one lamp, and a piece to hold books and magazines. Usually this would be a table, but it easily could include a bookcase. (See figs. 37 and 38.) The _writing_ group takes in desk, chair, and lamp. A well-arranged "business corner" for the living room (see fig. 36), or an attractive alcove off this room, or for the "den," may become the center of interest of the home. There, for efficient operation, may be grouped the telephone, writing desk, and typewriter, with drawers and cupboards for stationery supplies and budget records, bookshelves for reference books, and a floor lamp. From this one place all the business of the home can be carried out efficiently: Ordering, corresponding, telephoning, and check writing.
In combination, whatever the style, the seeming "weight" of each end and each side of the room must balance the opposing side, and the corners joining sides and ends must "flow" together naturally. The reading group and the conversational group may include some of the same pieces, and the desk chair may be used as an auxiliary conversation piece.
In the arrangement of furniture it must be remembered that:
1. Furniture should be so arranged as to make the most of the light (as in placing desks, reading tables, and chairs), and also to satisfy the personal habits and tastes of the members of the family.
2. In general, the center of the room should be kept clear, which gives an effect of spaciousness, facilitates easy movements and regrouping when the room is full of persons, and affords a better view of its interesting features.
In the interest of beauty and distinction, it is important to avoid:
1. Too exclusive employment of large and heavy pieces, which make a room stiff, spotty, and uninteresting when used without small tables, chairs, and cabinets.
2. Monotony in the height, color, and texture of the furniture.
AVOID REPETITION OF UPHOLSTERY PATTERNS
Living-room furniture should not be covered throughout in the same material, or even in the same pattern, coloring, or texture, because the effect would be tiresome. On the other hand, the degree of diversity must not be so great as to make the room inharmonious and confusing. Coverings of large and important pieces should fit closely into the general color scheme, while those of small chair seats, benches, or stools may serve as piquant contrasting elements. Coverings should not contrast so strongly with the floor covering as to cause the pieces to stand out like spots, and thus to mar the repose and harmony of the room. In general, plain or self-toned coverings will be used with highly figured walls or floor coverings in the case of the larger pieces, while marked emphasis upon pattern is desirable when both walls and floor covering, or hangings and floor covering are plain.
DISTINCTIVE HALL FURNITURE
The hall really sounds the keynote for the whole house, and does much to make or mar its beauty; it is the place in which strangers and guests form their first and last impressions of the home and the ideals and tastes of the household.
In most houses the decorative importance of the hall is undervalued and the room itself is underfurnished and far less inviting and attractive than it could and should be. In order to expand sales of hall furniture by the suggestion and sale of related merchandise, or by influencing home owners to refurnish, you will require some knowledge of the individual rooms and their present furnishings, and a fair knowledge of the principles, processes, and materials involved in hall decoration.
Just how much information you consider essential, and when and how to ask for it, will of course depend upon your judgment of your customer's taste, intelligence, and disposition. Taking retail practice as a whole, it is certain that more time is wasted and more potential sales lost by failure to secure adequate preliminary information than by unnecessary or unsuccessful attempts to do so.
HALL DECORATIONS: PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES, AND MATERIALS
The hall should have an atmosphere of warmth and hospitable welcome, a note of rich but quiet dignity, and a real quality of interest and charm. Its hospitableness can be insured by emphasis upon warm color and properly shaded light. Richness of effect is produced by emphasis upon ornamented as opposed to plain surfaces, particularly in the floor covering, walls, furniture, and accessories. Dignity results from the use of long lines in the interior trim, border lines of the rugs, and length or height in the furniture where practicable, and also of formal balance in furniture arrangement. Interest and charm are secured by a free use of color and texture, and a measure of distinction in the design of furniture and accessories.
Relation of the Hall to Adjoining Rooms.
The hall must announce or suggest some of the decorative elements of connecting rooms, and accordingly must have many points of resemblance and harmony in coloring, line, and texture. In choice of the "key" pieces of furniture, which give distinction and smartness to the hall, there should be similarity in outline and proportion to the "key" living room pieces, but identity in period style is wholly unnecessary. High-backed seventeenth century chairs of the more slenderly proportioned types could be used in the hall opening into a Sheraton dining room without marring the sense of harmony in the suite.
Wall Treatments for the Hall.
When the walls are of plain or ornamental plaster, calcimined, or painted in oil, they should match the adjoining room if either is small or both rooms are small, in order to gain an effect of spaciousness. Where the hall and the adjoining room both are large, the walls may differ in hue; but marked difference in tone is unpleasant. For example, light stone walls in the hall and medium light green in the living room will be agreeable; dark stone and pale green, disagreeable.
When the walls are papered, the effect will be more interesting if the hall paper is different from that of adjoining rooms. If the hall is small, its paper should match that in the adjoining rooms rather closely in hue and tone, differing in texture or pattern, or in the fact that one paper is figured and the other plain. Small halls are high in proportion to their width. A figured paper helps to correct the proportions, whereas a stripe would raise the apparent height of the ceiling.
When the walls are plain, sufficient ornament to enrich the room and relieve it from any effect of thinness must be supplied by floor coverings, draperies, furniture, and accessories.
Floor Coverings for the Hall.
In a decorative sense, floor coverings are more important in the hall than in any other room, because the floor area is smaller in proportion to wall area, and there are fewer interesting pieces of furniture, and relatively fewer accessories. Here are some practical suggestions:
Linoleum is increasingly used for the hall since it permits the user to express her originality and good taste in many interesting forms. Plain or mottled linoleum with an attractive motif or monogram set into the center is both decorative and practical. A border or trim, in keeping with the architectural style of the room, also adds to the decoration. The linoleum may harmonize in color with the floor covering of the room adjoining or may carry out its own color scheme in keeping with the theme of the hall.
If the hall adjoins the living room it is well to use the same floor covering as in the living room since this has a tendency to make both the hall and the living room appear larger. If small rugs are used in the hall they may be of contrasting tone to the living room rug or may blend with the general color scheme.
Stair carpets are desirable for the following reasons:
They are more comfortable, less noisy and easier to keep in condition than bare treads.
They are safer, especially for children and old people.
They make the hall far more hospitable and inviting.
They add a much needed note of color to the room.
They serve to unite lower and upper floors artistically by a sweeping line of color.
Draperies for the Hall.
Except in the case of doors with a metal grille, or recessed doors, Venetian blinds, or curtains, or both, are desirable on the doors and sidelight of a hall of ordinary size and architectural character, because they ensure a sense of privacy, temper the light, add the interest of color and texture and help to invest the hall with a quality of intimacy and hospitality.
HALL FURNITURE MUST BE DISTINCTIVE
Hall furniture must fit the room in scale. Avoid pieces so small and thin as to seem poor, weak, and inadequate, or so large as to crowd the room and destroy its decorative balance. In general, use furniture of slender proportions against light smooth walls, and thicker or more massive furniture against darker and rougher walls.
It is highly important to use distinctive pieces in the hall; partly because it is from this room that the visitor receives his first impression of the house, and partly because the room can use but few pieces, which are seen against such relatively large wall spaces that they must be of unusual interest in order to redeem the room from bareness and a commonplace quality.
Hall furniture should reveal as much variety as is consistent with the necessary harmony. Matched pieces usually are to be avoided. Even in the case of console table and mirror, a mahogany table, for example, usually will be more pleasing with a gold or lacquer mirror of harmonious shape than with a matched piece in mahogany. Differences in woods, finishes, ornamental detail, and height add interest to the room through variety.
As minimum equipment, the hall should have a table or cabinet with a mirror, and something on which to sit. Table and mirror constitute the dominant element; the mirror adds desirable spaciousness, and the charm of reflected vistas, and both are necessary for practical as well as artistic reasons. (See fig. 39.) A seat of some kind is necessary to ensure a sense of hospitality, and as a courtesy to the stranger who enters the home, but is not immediately admitted to its inner rooms. A chair, preferably of the straight high-backed type, a bench, or a low chest with cushion will meet this requirement.
STRENGTHEN DOMINANT ELEMENT
As the dominant element, table and mirror should not be dwarfed by the wall behind them. If for any reason a small table is placed against a wide wall space, a long wall banner or panel should be placed on the wall behind the mirror in order to build up the group at eye level. It may be built up at the base by a chair at one or both sides, torcheres, etc. Never use a mirror wider than the piece that stands below it, or a narrow mirror with a wide table, unless a wall panel also is used to supply the necessary width. Modern hand-woven tapestries often are used for hall walls when their cost is not prohibitive. Other devices for the purpose include panels made from damask, brocade, brocatelle, plain or figured velvet, real or imitation crewel, Indian or Persian calico prints. A panel often is used on the wall behind a low chest.
The hall table need not be of the conventional console type. When wall space permits, any long narrow table will serve, as will a round or square English card table, with the half-top either flat or raised against the wall. In the very small hall a large nest of tables can be used as a small console.
In many halls a lowboy or chest of drawers is decorative and useful. Other possible items include the decorative cabinet, small tables, flower stands, floor or banjo clock, screen, lamps, desk, love seat, radio, and cane or umbrella rack. Always check the possibilities of the hall in a house you furnish.
The general methods discussed in relation to piece and group sales of living room merchandise apply equally to the hall. In addition it should be noted that it is practically impossible to suggest the proper choice of hall furnishings in the absence of measured drawings, since both the number of pieces and their size are more definitely determined by floor and wall space than is the case in any other room. Every sale of hall furniture of any importance should be followed by a call at the house as soon after delivery as possible. If the new furniture does not fit the room, corrections may be made promptly, before any ill-will develops. Moreover, in many cases additional merchandise can be suggested and sold.
SECURING HOSPITABLE DINING ROOM ATMOSPHERE
The dining room should have an atmosphere of cheerfulness and hospitality both under natural and artificial lighting; and since it is occupied but three times a day at most, and for short periods only, its decorative treatment may have more "snap" than would be agreeable in the living room.
SECURING A HOSPITABLE ATMOSPHERE
To produce an atmosphere of cheerfulness and hospitality, emphasize:
Warm or light pastel colors particularly in the walls.
Ample light, properly controlled.
Curved lines, and curvilinear shapes to soften hard austere outlines of case pieces and windows.
Gay, contrasting colors in ornamental details.
Variety and originality.
Cheerfulness and animation will be increased by increasing the diversity of the room treatment through contrasts in hue, tone, line, form, and texture, within the limits permitted by the requirement of unity and harmony. This consideration demands special care in the dining room, because the important pieces of furniture usually are matched, with a resulting loss in diversity which must be made up in the other elements of the room.
Here we have the chief single reason for the great number of monotonous, uninteresting dining rooms. To the skillful salesman this will suggest _(a)_ a sound reason for pushing sales of such accessories as mirrors and pictures, tier tables for plants and accessories, and for plant stands; _(b)_ an approach for the sale of broken suites and unmatched pieces. Many women feel that their dining rooms cannot possibly be correctly furnished unless they are equipped with a matched suite. This is not always true. Many distinctive dining rooms have been furnished with harmonious, unmatched pieces.
DINING ROOM WALLS
The same principles and processes discussed under living room wall treatments apply to the decoration of the dining room, subject to the qualification that for the reasons noted above, the dining room walls often may have more striking patterns and sharper contrasts.
Scenic landscape or other highly decorative papers may be effective in the dining room, although they would not serve as a living room background.
What was said concerning the living room will afford the basis for judging the proper relation of walls to the style of furniture. Highly figured walls do not require choice of plain dining furniture, or vice versa.
The general principles of harmony govern the proper relation of walls to floor covering. Polychromatic walls require that two or more of the colors be repeated (not necessarily accurately matched) on the floor. The floor covering should be somewhat lower in tone, and characterized neither by too little vigor or boldness of drawing to harmonize with the walls, nor too much. Choice among these would depend upon personal taste and the degree of sunniness and warmth required in the rug in order to bring the room total up to the level desired by the buyer.
DINING ROOM FLOOR COVERINGS
The dining room may be treated with a room-size floor covering matching or harmonizing with the living room rug or linoleum or with a single large rug. Some housewives prefer to leave the floor bare, except for two or three small rugs. With figured linoleum the practice is unobjectionable, except for the loss of the sense of physical comfort and hospitality created by pile carpets under foot. With hardwood floors it is open to the objections that it is inhospitable; that it is too weak in a decorative sense to support the weight of the relatively large and heavy furniture; and that it makes the room seem thin and poor, mars the harmony between walls and floor, and prevents a convincing and satisfying distribution of color.
As compared with the living room, the dining room is relatively small and its furniture relatively large, striking, and uniform. This means that the floor covering must be adapted in scale and emphasis of pattern and coloring to sustain the load of this heavy furniture, and thus to prevent an effect of stiffness and spottiness in the room; and that it must have plenty of pattern and color when the other elements of the room are deficient in variety.
A single rug should be large enough to permit free movement of the chairs without letting the back legs touch the bare floor. In general, the rug should just clear the front legs of furniture placed against the wall. In small rooms, however, it is desirable to have the rug come to within 12 or 15 inches of the wall in order to increase the room's apparent size.
DINING ROOM WINDOW TREATMENTS
Window shades, Venetian blinds, glass curtains, and draperies are desirable in the dining room. Their selection is governed by the general considerations discussed under living room window treatments, page 182.
When a dining room has but one window or a single group of windows, there is some danger that the draperies may give the room an effect of spottiness and lack of balance unless care is taken to repeat the color of the draperies in some way on two or three of the other walls. With plain draperies, touches of the same hue should so appear, in pictures, wall panel, screen, sideboard decorations, or some similar device. With figured draperies containing several colors, at least one of the important colors should be thus repeated. (See fig. 29, page 130.)
DINING ROOM LIGHTING
The dining room should be lighted by direct light, released through a ceiling fixture. The light from this source can be turned off when candles are used; but the ceiling will be bare and unpleasing without this central point of interest, and most families prefer not to dine by candlelight alone.
The fixture should have sufficient height to keep the glare of light from the eyes of diners. The effect will be most agreeable if the light is released through several globes of low wattage, and if each of the globes is shaded in such a way as to keep the table in an arc of slightly higher illumination than the rest of the room.
Side lights are effective as auxiliaries, but not as the principal source of light.
DINING ROOM FURNITURE
Usually the dining room adjoins the living room, and it may be assumed that the same style will be carried through, although not imperatively so. Any eighteenth century style--Hepplewhite, Sheraton, or Chippendale can be used with any eighteenth century style or with Colonial or Duncan Phyfe furniture, providing wood, textures, and fabrics have unity, similarity, color likenesses, or pleasing contrasts. (See fig. 40.) "Modern" in walnut living room pieces will look well with walnut dining room in contemporary design. Maple living room furnishings look well with Early American or French Provincial dining room furniture. It is easier to combine single styles than several styles harmoniously. Frequently, however, the most interesting arrangements are from several styles put together well.
Try out, on the floor, in idle moments, a Sheraton dining table with Chippendale or Duncan Phyfe chairs. The scale may be right or wrong--your judgment should tell you. Naturally, the store finds it easier to sell "sets," but should you run into difficult customers, this knowledge of interesting combinations may "save" a sale.
Tell customers that, although they may buy six chairs, it is not only good taste from a decorative standpoint but also from a practical point of view to have a host and hostess chair. These are upholstered chairs with tall backs and are used at the head and the foot of the table. The host chairs either should match the draperies or harmonize with the color scheme of the room. Many times host and hostess chairs upholstered in a print, matching the draperies are cheerful and decorative. Stripes are popular as upholstered seat covers on dining room chairs, but plain coverings in damask, leather, or tapestry are also in good taste. Small figured patterns are also used.
COMBINATION LIVING ROOM AND DINING ROOM
Many of the new homes are being built with living room and dining room combined into one unit or with a large living room and very small dining room. For the single-unit rooms, a happy choice is an extension or a gate-leg table and a low chest of drawers for linen which may be used either in the living room or in dining room. Small dining room tables which may be extended to seat six or eight may be arranged in front of a bay window or along the wall at one side of the room in keeping with the general room harmony. The dining chairs are placed near the table, when not in use, and may be used as bridge chairs or auxiliary seating equipment. (See fig. 41.)
Dinette furniture, especially made for the dinette, offers a variety of selection and need not necessarily be in keeping with the living room scheme. Light woods are popular for dinettes, maple, oak, birch, and pine being popular for this purpose. When the dinette is replaced by a larger dining room ensemble the dinette set may be used in the breakfast room or in the kitchen. Small size china cabinets and buffets accompany many of the dinette sets.
Junior dining room sets are small scale dining room ensembles and are usually shown in fine cabinet woods in styles found in large size dining room ensembles. The junior dining room sets differ from the dinette sets in that they are usually not as informal as the dinette and are designed for the small-size dining room rather than for the dinette.
ENSEMBLE SELLING
Sales of living room merchandise fall into two classes: _Piece sales_, involving the selection of one or more pieces for use in a room already partially furnished; and _ensemble sales_, involving the selection of most or all of the furnishings necessary to equip completely a room, or even a house.
These two types of sales present different problems and require the use of different methods. However, they are alike in two important respects. In all of them the self-interest of the buyer is the determining factor; and competition in one or more forms is inevitable.
THREE FORMS OF COMPETITION
The first and inescapable form of competition is a competition among conflicting desires in the mind of the average buyer. In order to buy one thing, she must give up something else. Furniture dealers and salesmen habitually assume that the woman who enters a furniture store and asks, for example, for an easy chair, has already decided to buy one. The fact is that the customer is often merely weighing the satisfactions likely to come to her through possession of a chair against those offered by other articles or services also under consideration. In this case you must lead her to desire a chair more than she desires anything else before you can sell any chair, however large your stock or low your prices.
Unhappily, much furniture advertising is calculated to give the reading public a false impression of the necessary price levels of good furniture. It may be that you can please your customer with a chair at the price she has tentatively decided to pay. If not, you must please her in a more costly piece. Here you run up against new competition; for however able your demonstration of quality may be, your customer is certain to weigh that additional item of cost against the additional articles that she must give up in order to buy the chair. Hence something more than a convincing demonstration of the intrinsic worthiness of the piece will be necessary to complete the sale.
Finally, there is a third form of competition--that among different furniture stores for the same sale. However well the customer may like your chair at the price asked, it is natural for her to try to find something just as good at a lower price, or more pleasing at the same price, since that is her habit in buying other commodities.
She knows that there are other good stores nearby, with scores of easy chairs to show her, and that they are advertising bargains and holding out inducements to get her trade. You cannot prove to her in advance that she will only waste her time by looking further, and any arguments, pleadings, or high-pressure methods designed to keep her from doing so are quite likely to have precisely the opposite effect.
WHAT SHOPPERS REALLY WANT
At this point a surprisingly large percentage of salesmen weaken. Knowing that it is impossible to oppose successfully the self-interest of the buyer, they can think of nothing else to do. In point of fact there is nothing else to do in a great many cases, _except to make every possible effort to create an impression sufficiently powerful to bring the buyer back after her shopping tour is over_. In many other cases, however, there is a way to meet competition, if you can develop the ability to use it.
The woman who wants an easy chair, a sofa, a rug, or a desk, also wants something else which is far more important to her, namely, a more satisfying room. She doesn't tell you about it, but she really hopes that the new piece under consideration will add more beauty, comfort, distinction, or impressiveness to her room.
Get her to thinking of her room as a whole, with the new article a part of that whole. Lead her to believe that the desirable qualities which she seeks will appear in it as a result of your help in selection and arrangement. In other words, appeal to her self-interest by offering her something highly important which she knows in advance cannot be found elsewhere.
THE "ROOM PICTURE" METHOD
To overcome the inevitable competition of opposing desires, and to reduce or eliminate shopping for variety of selection or price, make your customer see the piece under consideration not as an individual unit, but as an integral part of her room. As long as she is permitted to think that she is buying a chair and nothing but a chair, she will be concerned with a multitude of details, most of which are of no real importance,[27] and will be strongly disposed to keep on looking until she has exhausted every possibility of finding something completely satisfactory in all of these details.
Transfer her interest to her room as a whole, with your chair as a part of it, and you immediately rob most of these details of their earlier importance in her mind. Paint a sufficiently attractive mental picture of her room as it will become with your chair in it, and she may buy the picture, and the chair as an essential element of it. She will not care to shop further for a better looking or cheaper chair, in the fear that even if one could be found the picture would be spoiled.
THE SHIFT FROM UNIT TO ENTIRE ROOM
Possibly you have had the experience of losing important sales to men working in stores far smaller than your own or to decorators with no more physical equipment than could be condensed into a small office or studio. Why should you have lost such sales when you enjoy the great advantages of ample stocks, lower prices, better terms, and the prestige of a well-known and financially solid house? Obviously, because the other man had the skill and the power to _shift your customer's interest and desire from merchandise, as such to what merchandise will do_.
In order to make a normal sale by means of this "room-picture" method, you will require:
1. Full knowledge of your own merchandise from the technical and artistic aspects.
2. Considerable knowledge of the customer's room and its important elements.
3. Adequate knowledge of decorative principles, including the emotional values of light, color, texture, line, and proportion.
4. A little knowledge of the decorative accessories--pictures, potteries, glass, embroideries, and the many small things necessary to save a room from bareness, and to give it color, snap, and intimacy.
It is desirable but by no means necessary that you have these accessories for sale; however, you must know how to talk about them, because it is impossible to make a living room genuinely attractive and satisfying without them.
WHY CUSTOMERS ARE DISAPPOINTED
Few furniture men appreciate the extent to which sales volume is restricted by insistence upon selling parts instead of finished products. Not only is furniture displayed as a pharmacist displays drugs in the rows of bottles on his shelves; but also customers are asked to do their own compounding and to accept full responsibility for the results.
Many salesmen habitually assure the buyer that her room will be comfortable and beautiful after they have placed in it a sofa, two chairs, an end table, one floor lamp, and a radio. Of course it isn't, and disappointment results. She sees her room as bare, thin, spotty, unhomelike, and unlovely. She knows something is wrong, but she is without knowledge to correct it.
Ensemble selling and complete room settings are the home-furnishings industry's modern answer. Unless she is able to arrange the major pieces of her furniture in a manner that will show them to the best advantage, unless she has at least the requisites in the smaller pieces, lamps, and other accessories, she may never get the full satisfaction that she should for the money she has spent in the furniture store. It is the salesperson's duty to fit his customer's purchases into a complete room or home.
NATURALNESS ESSENTIAL IN ENSEMBLE SELLING
In ensemble selling, don't lecture, talk about yourself, or appear in any way to be airing your knowledge. Simply talk in an off-hand manner, as if you were dealing in commonplaces as familiar to your customer as to yourself. The important matter is to learn promptly enough about her room to enable you to link some of its characteristics with the characteristics of your merchandise, so that as you point out the many desirable features of her room, and the perfect way in which your furniture harmonizes with and emphasizes these features, she is brought to the conviction that she should have the room just as you have pictured it, and therefore must have your furniture, without regard to what other stores may have to offer.
This method is not too easy when one first begins to employ it, nor should it be used with every customer. It will interest a surprisingly large percentage of customers, and it often will result in a sale in situations where all other methods fail. It is planned selling, which, based on the enlightened self-interest of the buyer, helps her to buy, and so smoothes the path before her that she may purchase her needs room by room.
SELLING THE COMPLETE ROOM OR COMPLETE HOUSE ENSEMBLE
Many important sales will involve the complete room ensemble or the complete house ensemble both of which are used to the great advantage of the store and of the public. Usually such sales are in sight long enough in advance to permit you to study and measure the rooms. In important sales of this kind, try to get the head of the house in for the first showing. You will probably be unable to close the sale without him, and he will be likely to save your time as well as to increase the amount of the sale. Do not overlook the fact that it is important to see the house after the sale is made, preferably when the goods are being installed. In this way you guard against possible disappointment, ensure good will, and often find room for more merchandise.
There are three general methods for dealing with these room sales. The choice between them will depend upon your judgment as to the probable reactions of the customer.
Setting Up a Complete Room in Advance.
Measure the room accurately, locating doors and windows; study the room, and so far as possible the disposition, tastes, and means of the buyers; select harmonious furnishings for the entire room, usually with one or more substitutes for the most important pieces; lay out the room with chalk, or with a chalk line or string tacked to the floor, with recesses for the windows and openings for the doors in their exact locations; set up the room with the merchandise selected, keeping the substitutes at one side for emergency use; arrange to have the customers call by appointment; and show the whole setting, making your talk while they examine it.
If you know the people, and feel sure that the total cost of the room is not far above what they expect to spend, this is a good method. Otherwise there is some danger that they will dislike one or more single elements of the room, and without giving you the opportunity to correct them, reject the whole setting; and also that they may ask for the total price before a real desire for the setting has been aroused, find it unexpectedly high, and refuse to pay it.
Building Up Room With Customers.
Proceed as above to the point where the room is laid out; but instead of actually placing the furniture keep it at one side; explain to the buyers the lay-out of the room, locating the doors and windows; have the furnishings brought in and placed by porters one piece at a time, starting with the floor covering. This will give you the chance to prepare their minds for each piece, and to sell your picture as they see it grow before their eyes; to make immediate substitutions in case one of your selections fails to please; and to reduce the price hazard.
For example, they may ask the price of some important piece such as the rug or sofa, or you may quote it in the course of your talk. If there is a quick objection, you will be able to reassure them by a statement that something of similar appearance but lower price can be substituted later without marring the total effect.
Laying Out Room to Scale.
Proceed at the outset as in above; but instead of laying out the actual room, prepare a scale drawing on a regular floor plan, to the scale of a ¼ inch to 1 foot, or a large drawing to the scale of 1 inch, to 1 foot. Make drawings or symbols of the furniture to be used to the same scale, cut them out, and fix them to the floor plan by means of thumb tacks. This will permit shifting them about in case of question as to the arrangement of the room. Have the furnishings assembled, and brought in by porters as needed and arranged in small intimate groups, if space permits. Otherwise carry the drawing board with you as you take your customers through the stock from one of the proposed pieces to the next.
This method is necessary in small stores where it is practically impossible to spare floor space for a display lasting several hours. It can be made somewhat more effective by drawing in the four-wall elevations and indicating the space relationships of furniture and walls.
In the ordinary ensemble sale where no advance preparation is possible, quick thinking and smooth action are essential. Such a sale may start anywhere, but ordinarily you will start it where your stock is most complete, or where for any other reason you expect to encounter minimum resistance. Many stores have a series of model rooms, or several series furnished completely at different price levels. A visit to these rooms will give the salesman a fair idea, of what his customers consider necessary, what they are prepared to pay, and where to start the sale.
QUESTIONS
_1. What methods do you follow in reducing to a minimum the kinds of competition a salesman must meet in selling furniture for the living room? dining room?_
_2. A salesman asks his customer: "Just what kind of studio couch do you have in mind?" Why is this bad practice?_
_3. Why do you use a floor-plan idea for getting a picture of the background which has brought a customer to your store?_
_4. Suppose a customer seems determined to purchase a piece of furniture which you know is not suited for her use. Do you discourage her at the risk of losing the sale?_
_5. Suggest three or four good ways to interest your customer in rugs for the living room._
_6. Few customers are able to afford use of the most costly furnishings. How do you proceed to convince the average woman that certain essential harmonies actually cost nothing whatever in money?_
_7. Suppose you are consulted by a young couple soon to be married. They ask you for suggestions for furnishing their five-room apartment. How do you proceed?_
_8. How does customer age present a problem in selling house furnishings?_
_9. Why is it not good practice to ask your customer the style of her living room?_
_10. Work out a plan for furnishing an unattractive hall in the home of a well-to-do couple, and outline steps you would take to call your ideas to their attention?_
SUGGESTED READING LIST
BURROWS, THELMA M. _Successful Home Furnishing._ Manual Arts Press, Peoria, Ill. 1938.