Part 20

=92=: 6. (_a_) =Gallus.= (_b_) =Ovid.= (_a_) Governor of Egypt under Augustus; accused of crime and oppression, and banished. (_b_) A celebrated Roman poet, author of _Metamorphoses_; exiled by Augustus for some grave offense never revealed.

=97=: 12. =The seasons.= This apt and ingenious analogy is regarded as one of Newman's more beautiful passages.

=100=: 30. =Chrysostom's discriminating affectionateness.= The reason, probably, why he has so great a hold upon the heart of posterity--love begets love.

=105=: 8. =Cucusus.= In Caucasus, east of the Black Sea and north of Persia.

=108=: 19. =Troas.= In Northwest Asia Minor. Troad contains ancient Troy.

=105= to =110=. =The letters of Chrysostom.= The charm of his genius, the sweetness of his temper under suffering, and the unselfishness of his lofty soul appear in these simple lines written on the road or in the desert of his banishment.

THE TARTAR AND THE TURK

=Introductory Note.= These sketches of Turkish history form the substance of lectures delivered in Liverpool, 1853. Special interest attached to them at the time, as England was about to undertake the defense of the Turks against Russia in the Crimean War. Selections from only three are here possible.

=111=: 7. =The Tartars.= Fierce, restless tribes originally inhabiting Manchuria and Mongolia.

=112=: 31. (_a_) =Attila.= (_b_) =Zingis.= (_a_) Leader of the Huns, who overran Southern Europe in the fifth century. He was defeated by Aëtius at Chalons, 451, and miraculously turned from Rome by Pope Leo the Great. (_b_) Zenghis Khan, a powerful Mongol chief whose hordes descended upon Eastern Europe in the thirteenth century.

=114=: 21. =Timour.= Known as Tamerlane, founder of a Mongol empire in Central Asia; victor over Bajazet at Angora, 1402 A.D.

=116=: 20. =Heraclius.= Emperor of Greece in the seventh century; noted for his rescue of the true Cross from the Persians, with whom he waged long wars.

=116=: 26. =That book.= The Koran or bible of the Mahometans. It is a mixture of Judaism, Nestorianism, and Mahomet's own so-called "revelations."

=120=: 10. =Monotheism ... mediation.= Belief in one God, but denial of the Redemption of fallen man by Jesus Christ, the God-Man.

=120=: 26. =Durbar.= A levee held by a dignitary in British India; also the room of reception.

THE TURK AND THE SARACEN

=Saracens.= Eastern Mahometans that crossed into Turkey, Northern Africa, and Spain. The Moors are a type.

=122=: 14. =Sogdiana.= Northeast of the river Oxus; included in modern Bokhara.

=123=: 6. =White Huns.= Ancient people living near the Oxus; called _white_ from their greater degree of civilization.

=125=: 23. =Damascus.= In Asiatic Turkey; thought to be the oldest city in the world.

=126=: 1. =Harun al Raschid.= Caliph of Bagdad; contemporaneous with Charlemagne in the eighth century.

=127=: 28. =Ended its career.= The power of the European Turks, virtually broken at Lepanto, 1571, has continued to decline, so that were it not for the jealousy of the Powers, Turkey would long since have been dismembered.

=129=: 24. =Khorasan.= North central province of Persia.

=133=: 25. (_a_) =Seljuk.= (_b_) =Othman.= (_a_) Grandfather of Togrul Beg, who founded a powerful dynasty in Central Asia. (_b_) Third successor of Mahomet; caliph in 644; noted for his extensive conquests and for having given his name to the Ottomans.

=135=: 20. =Greek Emperor.= Romanus Diogenes, defeated in 1071 A.D.

THE PAST AND PRESENT OF THE OTTOMANS

=144=: 17. (_a_) =Thornton.= (_b_) =Volney.= (_a_) An English writer on political economy, belonging to the nineteenth century. (_b_) A distinguished French author. His _Travels in Egypt and Syria_ is a work of high reputation.

=148=: 12. =Scythians.= In ancient times the inhabitants of all North and Northeastern Europe and Asia.

=149=: 31. =The Greek schism.= Separation of the Greek Church from Rome. The schism was begun by the crafty, ambitious Photius in the ninth century, and consummated by Michael Cerularius in 1054.

=154. Principle of superiority.= A forcible proof that Christianity must be and is the religion of civilization. See Balmes on the _Civilization of Europe_.

WHAT IS A UNIVERSITY?

=Introductory Note.= Newman's purpose in these Essays is to set forth by description and statement the nature, the work, and the peculiarities of a University; the aims with which it is established, the wants it may supply, the methods it adopts, its relation to other institutions, and its general history.

The illustrations of his idea of a University first appeared in the _Dublin University Gazette_; later, in one volume, _Office and Work of Universities_. In the present form the author has exchanged the title to _Historical Sketches_, but has retained the pleasantly conversational tone of the original, lest, as he says, he might become more exact and solid at the price of becoming less readable, in the judgment of a day which considers that "a great book is a great evil."

=159=: 14. =A gentleman.= Dr. Newman is unconsciously painting his own portrait in this passage.

=161=: 17. =St. Irenæus.= A Christian martyr of the second century. He was a Greek by birth, a pupil of St. Polycarp, and an eminent theologian of his day.

=163=: 19. =Its associations.= Universities are both the cause and the effect of great men; and these cherish their Alma with unlimited devotion. Read Gray's _Eton_, Lowell's _Commemoration Ode_, etc., as illustrations of this point.

UNIVERSITY LIFE: ATHENS

=164=: 14. (_a_) =Saronic waves.= (_b_) =Piræus.= (_a_) The Gulf of Ægina. (_b_) Commercial port of Athens.

=164=: 31. =Obolus.= A Greek coin worth about three cents. Paid by spirits to Charon for ferriage over the Styx, according to legend.

=165=: 23. =Eleusinian mysteries.= Secret rites of the goddess Ceres, celebrated at Eleusis.

=166=: 31. =Philippi.= Battle in which Antony defeated the conspirators that had slain Cæsar.

=167=: 9. =Proæresius.= Student of Athens, a native of Armenia, famous for his gigantic stature as well as for an astounding memory, displayed in the field of rhetoric.

=170=: 11. =Gallipoli.= In Turkey, at the entrance to the Dardanelles. It was the first conquest of the Turks in Europe, 1354 A.D.

=173=: 3. (_a_) =Acropolis.= (_b_) =Areopagus.= (_a_) The citadel of Athens, ornamented by groups of statuary immortal in beauty. (_b_) The chief tribunal, held on a hill named for Ares or Mars.

=173=: 5. =Parthenon.= The official temple of Pallas, protectress of Athens; it is the work of Phidias, under Pericles.

=173=: 7. =Polygnotus.= A Greek painter, contemporaneous with Phidias. His work is in statuesque style, few colors, form and outline exquisite.

=173=: 13. =Agora.= The commercial and political market place, located near the Acropolis. It was designed by Cimon.

=173=: 14. =Demosthenes.= The most famous orator of Greece, if not of all times. He learned philosophy of Plato, oratory of Isocrates. His _Philippics_ are of world-wide note.

=174=: 6. =Plato.= The Divine, on whose infant lips the bees are said to have dropped their honey. He was the pupil of Socrates and the master of Aristotle; he founded the Academy, or the Platonic School of Philosophy, and wrote the _Republic_. Plato was a man of vast intellect, high ideals, and exceptionally pure life.

=175=: 17. =Aristotle.= Called the Stagyrite from Stagerius, his birthplace. He was preceptor to Alexander the Great and founder of the Peripatetic School, _i.e._ of scholasticism. Aristotle undoubtedly possessed the most comprehensive, keen, and logical intellect of antiquity, and his influence on the philosophical thought of all succeeding ages is incalculable. His work in the field of physical science was also profound and extensive.

=176=: 26. =The fourth century.= The Golden Age of Athenian art, letters, civil and military prestige; it was the age that crowned Athens Queen of Mind.

=177=: 12. =Epicurus.= Founder of a school of materialism whose maxim was, "Eat, drink, and be merry, for to-morrow we die." The Epicurean said, "indulge the passions," the Stoic, "crush them," the Peripatetic,--like the Christian of later times,--"control them." Imperial Athens, no less than other powers, fell when her sons ceased to follow the counsel of her wisest philosophers.--"Play the immortal."

SUPPLY AND DEMAND: THE SCHOOLMEN

=183=: 21. =Paris=, etc. The great Universities reached the zenith of excellence in the thirteenth century, the age of Pope Innocent III, St. Thomas, and Dante.

=185=: 10. =Bec.= Famous monastery founded by a poor Norman knight, Herluin. Bec drew the great Lanfranc and others to its school. Many are accustomed to regard the Renaissance as the fountain whence have issued all streams of art, literature, and science. It is only necessary to turn to any of the teeming university or monastic centers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries to dispel this so common illusion.

THE STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS OF UNIVERSITIES: ABELARD

=186=: 15. =Abelard.= Born in Brittany, 1079. He was a contentious, arrogant, but brilliant and fascinating rationalist. He triumphed over William of Champeaux, but was defeated in a theological contest by St. Bernard.

=187=: 29. =Heresy of= (_a_) =Tertullian=, (_b_) =Sabellius=. (_a_) Modified Montanism; belief in rigid asceticism, the Montanists being, according to their doctrine, "Pneumatics," the Catholics, "Psychics," _i.e._ men of heaven, men of earth. (_b_) A heresy which attempted to _explain_ the Trinity, and which denied the Personality of Jesus Christ.

=188=:28. =Scholastic philosophy.= A constructive system founded by Aristotle, Christianized by Boethius, amplified by St. Anselm, Albert the Great, and others, perfected as a school, in its being harmonized with theology, by St. Thomas of Aquin. Love of subtilizing and of display, and barbarity of terminology, caused its decline after the thirteenth century. Political and religious strife also accelerated decadence, until the Council of Trent restored philosophy to its true position as queen of human sciences and handmaid of Religion. The chief feature of Christian scholastic philosophy is the harmonizing of natural and supernatural truth, _i.e._ the unifying of philosophy and theology, or the perfect conciliation of reason with faith--_distinction_ without _opposition_.

=192=: 10. =The Seven Arts.= The Trivium and Quadrivium: Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric; Music, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Geometry,--these seven comprising the Liberal Arts.

=193=: 19. =John of Salisbury.= Noted English scholar of the twelfth century. In disfavor with Henry II, because of his defense of St. Thomas à Becket.

=195=: 17. St. James iii. 17.

=195=: 23. St. James iii. 6.

=196=: 21. =Samson and Solomon.= Type of bodily and of spiritual strength--strength forfeited by folly. One of Newman's striking comparisons.

=199=: 18. =Heu, vitam....= Alas, I have wasted my life by doing nothing thoroughly.

POETRY ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE

=Introductory Note.= This instructive Essay on poetry forms one of the series titled _Critical and Historical Essays_. Cardinal Newman's own gifts and tastes for music and poetry render his appreciation of these arts keen, delicate, and true.

=200= to =203=. =Nature and office of poetry.= A profound and beautiful definition of poetry and of the poetical mind.

=203=: 1. (_a_) =Iliad.= (_c_) =Choëphoræ.= (_a_) Epic of the _Fall of Troy_ by Homer. (_b_) A tragedy by Æschylus, so named from the chorus that bear offerings to the tomb of Agamemnon.

=203=: 26. (_a_) =Empedocles.= (_b_) =Oppian.= (_a_) A Sicilian; haughty, passionate; proclaimed himself a god; plunged into the crater of Mt. Etna. (_b_) A Greek poet of Cilicia; lived in the second century.

=208=: 15. =The Divine vengeance.= Does not the same criticism apply to Milton's Satan, a majestic spirit, punished beyond his due, and therefore worthy our admiration and pity? Compare Dante and Milton in their conception of Lucifer.

=210=: 17. =Eloquence mistaken for poetry.= A finely distinguished truth, which explains why much rhetoric, even declamation, passes in our day for poetry.

=215=: 16. =Conditions of the poetical mind.= Mark the line drawn between the sources of true poetry and the actual practices of the poet. Compare with the theory of Wordsworth, to find likenesses on this point.

THE INFINITUDE OF THE DIVINE ATTRIBUTES

=Introductory Note.= This and other typical addresses are comprised in _Discourses to Mixed Congregations_. The unerring taste of Newman employs the grave, dignified style suited to the subject-matter, which, however, never loses the simplicity and charm we expect in him.

=218=: 28. =The elements.= Earth, air, fire, and water were believed primal elements by the ancients.

=220=: 27. =This season.= Lent, which commemorates the Sacred Passion of Christ.

=221=: 21. =He seems to say=: to the end. An illustration of Newman's sweet, impassioned eloquence. His sentences roll on like music of indefinable tenderness and beauty. What wonder if men "who came to scoff remained to pray," when the tones of that voice Matthew Arnold could not describe--for its singular sweetness--fell upon their listening souls?

CHRIST UPON THE WATERS

=Introductory Note.= This discourse was written from notes of a sermon preached at Birmingham, on occasion of the installation of Dr. Ullathorne as first bishop of the see. Again it says to us, "I believe, therefore I have spoken."

=222=: 20. "=Day to day.=" See Psalm xviii. 2.

=222=: 25. =Impossibilities.= Extrinsic impossibilities, that is, those things whose elements are not metaphysically opposed, one to another.

=223=: 1. =He came.= See St. Matthew xiv. 24, 27.

=223=: 24. =That mystical ark.= The Church, called the ark because prefigured by the Ark of Noe,--the House of Salvation.

=224=: 14. =Christ in His ark.= "Behold I am with you all days, even to the consummation of the world." St. Matthew xxviii. 20.

=224=: 17. =A savage tribe.= The Anglo-Saxons of Teutonic stock and sprung from the Aryan branch of the human family.

=226= to =228=. =It was a proud race ... hierarchical form.= A passage of inimitable grace and simplicity. Note the sentence-structure, the repetition of "it" in the last sentence, and other features of the consummate master.

=227=: 4. =Too fair to be heathen.= On seeing some Angles in Rome, Pope Gregory exclaimed, "They should rather be called Angels than Angles."

=228=: 5. =A brotherhood ... below.= Where in the range of English prose is to be found form wedded to sense in a more surpassingly beautiful way? Neither music, nor painting, nor poetry, can have anything more exquisite to yield, it would seem.

Other numbers of this volume equally admirable are _The Second Spring_, _The Tree beside the Waters_, and _Intellect the Instrument of Religious Training_.

THE SECOND SPRING

=Introductory Note.= This discourse was given in St. Mary's, Oscott, on the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy to England. It furnishes an excellent specimen of the simplicity and grace of Newman's style. The climax is reached in the glory of the last pages.

=229=: 17. =Alternate Seraphim.= The angelic choirs whom St. John in vision heard crying, "Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God Almighty." Apocalypse iv. 8.

=231=: 24. =How beautiful....= A strong presentation of the weakness of human nature left to itself. "Without me you can do nothing," says Christ. John xv. 5.

=233=: 12. =Roman conqueror.= Scipio Africanus, victor of the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War.

=235=: 22. =The English Church.= The Catholic Church in England was virtually destroyed by Henry VIII, restored by Mary I, and officially re-destroyed by Elizabeth, who attempted, through Matthew Parker, to create new orders. The Second Spring is the resuscitation of the Church in England, 1850.

=237=: 11. =Cumber the ground.= "Why doth it (the barren fig tree) cumber the ground?" Newman's writings, like St. Augustine's, are saturated with Scripture.

=240=: 23. (_a_) =St. Augustine.= (_b_) =St. Thomas.= (_a_) Called St. Austin, sent by Gregory the Great to convert the Anglo-Saxons, 597 A.D. (_b_) Martyred at Canterbury by the nobles of Henry II because of his fearless defense of the rights of the Church. The Pilgrims in Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_ are on their way to the shrine of St. Thomas à Becket.

=241=: 10. =Arian Goths and Lombards.= Barbarians that successively conquered and occupied Italy; from the fifth to the eighth century their power was felt. They embraced the heresy of Arius instead of true Christianity.

=242=: 29. =That building.= Cathedral of Westminster, built in Gothic style.

=243=: 11. =Prince of the Church.= Cardinal Archbishop Wiseman, clad in purple as bishop; in red, as cardinal. In his person the hierarchy was restored to England.

=243=: 16. =St. Benedict.= Founder of monasticism in the West. Europe owes much of its progress in early centuries to the zeal and intelligence of the Benedictine monks,--builders of churches and schools, makers of laws, tillers of lands.

=244=: 15. =The shepherds.= They who heard from angels the tidings of Christ's birth in Bethlehem.

=244=: 22. =Arise, Jerusalem....= Quotations from _Isaias_ and the _Canticle of Canticles_.

=245=: 6. =Thy visitation.= Allusion to Mary's going over the hill country to visit her cousin Elisabeth. At the presence of Mary, the unborn child of Elisabeth, John the Baptist, leaped for joy and was sanctified by the grace of Christ.

=247=: 1. =Regular and secular priests.= The first are those bound by vows to observe a religious rule, as the Dominicans; the second are those under obedience to their bishop, and bound only by the vow of celibacy.

=247=: 18. =Thy first Martyr.= St. Stephen, whose death won the conversion of St. Paul. Note the beauty of the apostrophe.

=248=: 20. =Orphans.= "I will not leave you orphans." John xiv. 18.

=249=: 15. =You ... victim.= Reference to the august Sacrifice of the Mass.

=249=: 31. =A great Pontiff.= Gregory XIII, 1572-1585, established colleges for the spread of the Faith; his work was continued by Gregory XV in the Propaganda; but it was left for Pope Urban VIII to create the great missionary colleges for the six nations.

=250=: 13. =St. Francis.= Xavier, the illustrious Jesuit, who converted millions to Christ in India and Japan; he died on his way to China, in the latter part of the sixteenth century.

=251=: 1. =St. Philip.= 1515-1595. An Italian saint, contemporaneous with St. Ignatius of Loyola, who established the Society of Jesus. St. Philip Neri founded the Oratorians, a body devoted to preaching and to education.

=The Second Spring.= This sermon is very characteristic of Newman in its appeal to the _whole man_ listening; he not only rivets the intelligence, but stirs the will and moves the heart by the intensity, the Vigor, and the tenderness that breathe in every word.

ST. PAUL'S CHARACTERISTIC GIFT

=Introductory Note.= This discourse on St. Paul, delivered in Dublin, 1857, forms one of the _Sermons on Various Occasions_. Paul--that godlike man who longed to be anathema from Christ if thereby he could serve the brethren--was Newman's saint by predilection; and allusions to his character and mission are frequent in the Cardinal's writings.

As these selections for study began with Saul, they may well finish with a sketch of the greater Saul--the Apostle of the Gentiles.

=251=: 17. =Theological virtues.= Faith, hope, and charity; so-called because God is their direct object and motive.

=252=: 19. =Heavenly Bread.= The Holy Eucharist. "I am the living bread which came down from heaven." St. John vi. 51. "And the bread that I will give is my flesh for the life of the world." St. John vi. 52.

=254=: 9. =Conversion of St. Paul.= Commemorated January 25.

=256=: 12. =Heathen poet.= Terence. There is much philanthropy in these latter times,--even to altruism,--but less of charity, which loves the neighbor for God's sake.

=257=: 5. =St. Philip Neri.= Lived in the sixteenth century. Founder of the Oratorians, a congregation devoted to preaching and works of charity. Newman introduced the Oratorians into England.

=259=: 28. =Lycaonians.= People of south central part of Asia Minor; evangelized by St. Paul.

=262=: 26. =Stephen.= The first Christian martyr; stoned to death by the Jews, outside the walls of Jerusalem.

=263=: 6. (_a_) =Josias.= (_b_) =Mathathias.= (_c_) =Machabeus.= (_a_) King of Juda, seventh century B.C. A great warrior and defender of the Jewish religion. (_b_) "Gift of God." Lived in the second century B.C. and fought bravely in defense of Juda during the bloody persecutions of Antiochus. He appointed Judas Machabeus, the most famous of his five sons, to succeed him in the struggle, (_c_) "The Hammer." Judas gained glorious victories over the Idumeans, Ammonites, and other heathen tribes, and the Bible immortalizes his character as that of one of the greatest of the sons of Juda. "He made Jacob glad with his works and his memory is blessed forever."

The books of the Machabees are the history of the final struggles of the Jews against their Syrian and Persian foes.

=265=: 2. =Ecumenical Doctor.= A teacher of the universal Church.

=265=: 31. =And now my time is out.= This conclusion exhibits once more the felicity of diction, the delicate rhythm of structure, the simple grace, the direct force--above all, the unconsciousness, almost disdain of producing literary effect, that everywhere characterize Newman's writings, whatever be the subject.

=267=: 4. =Reverend Prelate.= Paul Cardinal Cullen, primate of Ireland in 1850.

Transcriber's Note. There were a few minor printers' errors which have been amended. For example, ascendency is now ascendancy, rebrobate is now reprobate and offically is now officially.

In the original book the line numbers ran from 1 to 30 on each page. In the Notes, the first figure represents the page number and the second number represents the line number. For example, in the third note:

=13=: 7. =Manna.= Miraculous food supplied to the Jews, wandering in the desert of Sin, after their exodus from Egypt. The taste of manna was that of flour mixed with honey.

the 13 refers to the page number and the 7 refers to the line number on that page.