Part 4

Take, for example, the use of fumigations, such as of frankincense, &c. to Saturn; of cloves, &c. to Jupiter; of odoriferous woods to Mars; of all gums to the Sun; of roses, violets, &c. to Venus; of cinnamon, &c. to Mercury; of the leaves of vegetables to the Moon; of all or any of which there must be a good perfume, odoriferous, and precious, in good matters; but in evil ones quite the contrary.

The Zodiac is also favourably affected by proper suffumigations.

Astrologers in their Demonology profess to be able to ascertain the characters and seals of spirits,[10] and according to the Cabalists, tables are given of many of these in their books, in the so-called Theban Alphabet; in characters of Celestial Writing; in that called Mallachim; or in the writing called Passing the River.

[10] See the Table, Plate I. Fig. 2, for distinguished names of their angels, spirits, or demons.

They affect to have suitable bonds by which spirits can be bound, invoked, or cast out.

Of Necromancy they pretend to two kinds, one of which is raising the body of a deceased person, which it is said cannot be done without blood;--the other sciomancy, which is the production of a mere shade or shadow.

The exorcisms and conjurations of Magicians are so audaciously profane and blasphemous as to be unworthy of even a passing notice.

ALCHEMY.

We shall now proceed to consider Alchemy, another but very different chimerical pursuit, which was early cultivated in the East, and is generally ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, although its more enthusiastic admirers pretend to trace a knowledge of it to Adam. From the earliest periods of history man was acquainted with gold, silver, and other metals, with bitumen, sulphur, sea salt, sal-ammoniac, gums, and resins, together with other varieties of substances and liquids common to modern chemistry. For the compounding and heating of certain of these materials a multiplicity of means were adopted requiring furnaces, crucibles, and distillatory apparatus. The first workers in these experimental operations formed a body of investigators into the nature and properties of all manner of substances, whether animal, vegetable or mineral, the members of which were distinguished as adepts, alchemists, and later in their career as common chemists. The most esteemed branch of the art however was Alchemy, a pseudo-science which ultimately took three forms. First, the Hermetic Art for the discovery of the Philosopher's stone; and the Alkahest, or universal solvent;--Second, a Medical Alchemy;--and Third, a Theological Alchemy pretending to conceal divine mysteries under an allegorical form, treating of the spiritual while apparently describing alchemical discoveries.

Our principal business, however, is with the so-called Hermetic Philosophy, treating of vaunted methods of transmuting the base metals into gold. It is doubtful whether this particular delusion of the adepts can be referred to a date earlier than the 8th century, but even then we cannot refrain from surprise at the fallibility of the human intellect, which could be swayed by a belief in the pretended _lapis philosophorum_ for upwards of ten centuries. It was believed to be so secret and rare that its possession was never ascribed at any time to more than two or three favourite adepts, who transmitted it to some single favoured individual after his taking the sacrament, and going through certain prescribed religious ceremonies, preparatory to being entrusted with a verbal recipe for the composition of a peculiar smelling red powder, of which it was affirmed that when projected on heated mercury or any solid metal, it would at once change it into pure gold. Ashmole gravely assures us that Dr. John Dee and his associate Kelly, having in some way procured this precious substance, Kelly--to use Ashmole's own words--"made projection with one small grain thereof, in proportion no bigger than the least grain of sand, upon one ounce and a quarter of common mercury, and it produced almost an ounce of pure gold." With equal simplicity and earnestness, Ashmole asserts that this same Kelly was often seen to make these extraordinary transmutations,-- "and in particular (he adds) upon a piece of metal cut out of a warming-pan, and without touching or handling it, or melting the metal, only warming it in the fire, the elixir being put thereon, it was transmuted into pure silver. The warming-pan and this piece of it, was sent to Queen Elizabeth by her Ambassador who then lay at Prague, that by fitting the piece into the place whence it was cut, it might exactly appear to be once part of the warming-pan."

Among the adepts there were no doubt a select few who employed themselves in their prolonged labours in all sincerity, and who were not unfrequently repaid with remarkable, and unexpected results. Brass, being the result of copper combined with zinc, would appear a singular transformation. Many stones, or more properly, ores, would yield sulphur and metals; sulphur would be found apparently to dissolve iron; and certain salts, when distilled, would yield corrosive acids. Alchemy thus presented to the ancient adepts many of the ordinary wonders of modern chemistry; in short, the latest adept of the present century is no other than an unlettered chemist. It was peculiar to the Alchemists to treat all their operations as secrets; which, when recorded, were described partly by symbols and partly in a novel nomenclature, invented to conceal their mysteries from vulgar gaze or imitation. Thus, to prepare the philosopher's stone, we have merely to--"Take of moisture, an ounce and a half; of meridional redness, that is the soul of the sun, a fourth part, that is, half an ounce; of yellow seyr, likewise half an ounce; and of auripigmentum, a half ounce; making in all three ounces. Know that the vine of wise men is extracted in threes, and its wine at last is completed in thirty." To the incredulous in these matters, Ashmole offers the admonition that, he knows "_Incredulity is given to the world as a punishment!_" However, when the Alkahest, or pretended Universal Solvent, was alluded to by the modern chemist Kunckel, he could not refrain from incredulously enquiring--"If it dissolves all substances, in what vessel can it be contained?"

Alchemical writings are very numerous, it might be impossible to procure a complete bibliographical list of them, but they may be estimated at from 3000 to 4000 works, and an astonishing number of manuscripts. Their authors indulge in such terms as the Ph[oe]nix, to indicate the quintessence of Fire; Realgar, for the fume of minerals; Guma, also Luna Compacta, for quicksilver; Hadid, for iron; Aurum potabile, for liquor of gold; Anathron, for saltpetre; Malek, for salt; Terra fidelis, for silver; Tinkar, for borax; and in a similar strain for all matters and operations; so that Dr. Johnson was justified in deriving the word Gibberish from the mysterious jargon employed by Geber, a celebrated Alchemist; who has, nevertheless, been appropriately styled the Pliny of the 8th century.

Weidenfeld, in an Alchemical Treatise, published in 1685, addressing students, says:--

"Under heaven is not such an art, more promoting the honour of God, more conducing to mankind, and more narrowly searching into the most profound secrets of nature, than is our true and more than laudable Chymy."

And at the conclusion of his address he observes:

"Nothing remains but upon our bended knees to return most humble thanks to the Father of Lights, in vouchsafing us this art by the writings of his servants, and the high priests of Nature; without which, it would be beyond the power of man to arrive at so great a degree of knowledge."

Some notion of the extravagance of the language employed may be obtained from his description of a Philosophical Wine, literally, rectified spirits of wine, or alcohol. He assures us that, on opening a vessel of it, "a wonderful scent" should arise: "so as that no fragrancy of the world can be compared to it; inasmuch as putting the vessel to a corner of the house, it can by an invisible miracle draw all that pass in to it; or, the vessel being put upon a tower, draws all birds within the reach of its scent, so as to cause them to stand about it. Then will you have, my son, our quintessence, which is otherwise called Vegetable Mercury, at your will, to apply in Magistery of the transmutation of metals."

How ardent an adept this Alchemist was may be gathered from his exclamation:--"May the God of Heaven put prudence in the heart of evangelical men, for whom I compose this book, not to communicate this venerable secret of God to the reprobates."

Among the remarkable discoveries made by Alchemists, due to the carefully noted and carefully examined failures and accidents, as well as successes, of their endless combinations of matter, under the treatment of fire and water, the most distinguished is that of gunpowder, noted in a recipe left on record by Roger Bacon, who died in the year 1284. He clearly names the mixture of Saltpetre with Sulphur, but the third ingredient, Carbon, is concealed in the form of an anagram.

Lord Bacon, Luther, Spinoza, Leibnitz, and many eminent moderns, were impressed with a belief in the possibility of transmuting lead, tin, copper, or other metals, into gold; in short, as it was supposed there were only four elements, fire, water, earth, and air, it was probably assumed that a fifth might be found in the Philosopher's stone.

But if ever any pursuit was more open to fraudulent practices than another, surely the pretended possession of a transmuting powder or elixir afforded a grand arena for their exercise. In this enlightened age, although we cannot fail to look with charity on the arduous labours of those adepts who honestly mixed devotional exercises with laborious experimental operations, selecting times and seasons for their alchemical work, and noting with accuracy the hours and days of fusions, sublimations, distillations, lixiviations, and so forth; still, it is scarcely possible to refrain from smiling at the docile simplicity of Ashmole in denouncing a certain class of Alchemists, as pretended masters and adepts, seeing "they are mere practisers of legerdemain," while he himself gave credence to the story of the warming-pan, already named as being shown to Queen Elizabeth, which was clearly a flagrant piece of fraud practised by Kelly, a common adventurer, and from his youth remarkable only for his indifferent character.

An easily performed trick was effected by means of nails, or other light articles, made half of gold and half iron, but disguised, so as to appear to be of one metal and colour. Sometimes these knaves employed crucibles, having an interior false bottom, below which a small quantity of gold was placed, which, being reproduced, as was pretended from base materials, was offered as an example of success. Or, by having the gold in a hollow rod, stopped at one end with wax, used to stir up the materials, the gold would naturally enough appear in the crucible. Or, their materials being conveyed into charcoal, a similar result would be obtained on heating the crucible in a furnace. At other times, by the employment of amalgams, or solutions in acids, they could perform a species of electro-plating on common metals. The extent to which these nefarious practices were carried might appear incredible, considering the evident inconsistency of the owner of the pretended golden key to countless wealth, being in such comparative poverty as to be indebted to any one of moderate means for pecuniary assistance. But, it is some apology for such credulity when we call to mind the state of public morals, of education, of political institutions, and the prevalent superstition, not only among common people, but also the higher classes of all countries and creeds, down to the seventeenth century: representing a phase of the human mind, liable to be overawed by impostors, who boldly claimed supernatural aid in abetting their impositions. And the trickery of the designing was further aided by the close secrecy adopted by the adepts in their processes, their conversations, and their writings. Ashmole freely admits that--"Their chief study was to wrap up their secrets in fables, and spin out their fancies in 'vailes' and shadows, whose radii seem to extend every way, yet so that all meet in a common centre, and point only to one thing." It was this very secrecy, this continual mystery from beginning to end, that favoured deceptions of the grossest and most bungling character, as viewed by the light of modern chemistry.

Alchemy no doubt tended to improve Medical science, by the introduction of many new mineral and vegetable preparations, but the healing art treated after the manner of the Hermetic Art, was laid open to every description of quackery. It is not our intention, however, to enlarge on this department, which has steadily advanced at every stage of improvement in chemical science.

SQUARING THE CIRCLE.

Of Mathematical Problems, the most perplexing to ancient and modern mathematicians, although of late years said to be satisfactorily demonstrated, and no longer desiderata of Geometry, are--

1. The Quadrature or Squaring of the Circle;--2. The Duplication, or doubling of the Cube;--and 3. The Trisection of the Angle.

In his "Popular Astronomy,"[11] Professor Arago, treating on the surface of a circle, observes that,--

It is mathematically equal to the product of the length of the circumference, multiplied by half the radius. To square a circle of a given diameter in mètres, is the same as giving the number of squares, of a mètre in each side, of which the surface is the equivalent. If, the diameter being given, the exact circumference were known by a sort of inspiration, the superficial extent of the circular space would be deducible from the two numbers, by the mere multiplication of the numerical length of the circumference by the fourth of the diameter, or half the radius. But, the circumference being deducible from the diameter only by approximation, the surface alluded to cannot be computed with mathematical rigour; yet the result can be obtained with all desirable precision by the aid of the ratios usually given for such purpose; for instance, the area of the space included within a circle of thirty-eight millions of leagues radius, may be determined within such a degree of precision that the probable error shall not exceed the space of a mite.

[11] See Translation, by Admiral W. H. Smith, and Robert Grant, M.A., in 2 vols. 8vo. 1855, Vol. I., page 10.

"The sect of squarers then," Arago adds,--"are searching after a solution which is proved to be impossible, and which, moreover, would be of no practical use, even if their foolish hopes were crowned with success."

In the "Birds" of Aristophanes, the character is introduced of a geometer, who is going to make a square circle, showing how early this chimerical performance became an object of ridicule.

Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Plato, Apollonius, Ptolemy, with other ancient mathematicians, have given methods for approximating to the area of the circle; and many also among the moderns. In 1775, the Paris Academy of Science determined to discourage papers devoted to this subject, and their course in this respect was soon after adopted also by The Royal Society, it being found that there was among certain geometers a complete mania for settling this and similar problems, the solution of which was either unattainable, or if attained of very questionable value.

DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE.

The Duplication of the Cube it is asserted can readily be demonstrated. It is usually called the Delian Problem, from its having been suggested by the oracle of Apollo at Delphos, requiring that Apollo's cubical altar should be doubled.

It is something in its favour to say that the enquiry has had the attention of Newton and of Huygens.

TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE.

Lastly, we shall notice among problems of this class--the Trisection of an Angle, which it is asserted can only be accomplished by means of the conic sections and some other curves.

A rule for the cubic equation by which the problem of trisection is solved has been given by Cardan.

The difficulty only arises when we attempt the trisection of any other than a right angle, its trisection being easily effected with a pair of compasses.

On this subject it has been observed that, "there is no more trouble in trisecting an angle, not a right angle, than in finding a cube root."

* * * * *

These three celebrated problems have received the attention of mathematicians in every age and country, and led to many learned discussions, and controversial writings. But in point of litigiousness the Squarers of the Circle most decidedly carry off the palm, having frequently laid and lost heavy wagers, and even appeared in a Court of Justice to settle their monetary disputes. They are renowned for their pamphlets, in which philosophers of every class are charged with prejudice, conceit, and ignorance, and denounced for their want of candour and consistency in not giving audience to the projector of the last best demonstration.

PERPETUUM MOBILE.

To conclude this Lecture we shall offer a few remarks on Perpetuum Mobile, or the search for a means of obtaining a mechanical perpetual motion. As a mathematical problem it dates back some 2000 years or more, but we know nothing of any actual attempt earlier than the 14th century to construct a machine intended to be self motive, by containing within itself the means of continually overbalancing. External motive agency such as the tides, magnetism, and the like are not included; the only admitted agent being gravity.

If we considered wear and tear the question would be settled at once, but this is allowed as the single exception, and therefore any machine constantly renewing the means that first moved it might be deservedly called a perpetual motion.

Until a history of the schemes invented by numerous ingenious mechanics was published in 1861, inventors of this class were continually though unconsciously reproducing obsolete contrivances, from taking up the ordinary idea that a wheel may be kept constantly over-weighted on one side, so as to raise the next weight which is to perform the same miracle of art. It is singular to observe this particular coincidence of the inventive faculty of man, and it shows next to a demonstration, that if all mechanical inventions were swept from the face of the earth they would be reproduced in some remote age.

A common error with those who toil at perpetual motion machinery is their aiming to produce a bottled-up power; or to apply the principles of the ordinary scale or balance to a wheel, overlooking the simple facts of friction on one side acting against their most ingenious contrivances, and of non-production on the other. Sooner or later, however, they discover the inertia of matter, that a pound will not raise a pound, and that they cannot invent mechanism to move independently of the laws of action and reaction.

A ball descending a semicircular path, as suggested by Dr. Henderson, will only rise to the same height as that from which it fell; and will afterwards gradually diminish in velocity until it rests at the centre. If it would ascend to a height greater than that from which it descended, then indeed an inclined path might return the ball to repeat such evolutions until quite worn out.

And as regards the weighted wheels, it is always overlooked that they come to rest from the same fact, that the vertical line of descent and that of ascent are equal, however much the weights may on one side recede from the centre, while on the other side the weights are approaching the centre. (_See_ Plate 6, Fig. 1.)

The most famous perpetual motive schemes were those of the Marquis of Worcester made 1630-41; (_See_ Plate 6, Fig. 2,) and of Bessler, better known as Orfyreus, between 1712-19.

The Marquis gives a brief notice of his plan, in his "Century of Inventions," a curious catalogue of his several ingenious schemes.

But of Orfyreus's wheel we know nothing more than was communicated by the eminent mathematician, 'S Gravesande, to Sir Isaac Newton, after an external view of it, while it was rotating in a chamber of the residence of the Prince of Hesse Cassel.

The most singular part of this strange delusion is the fact of its strong hold on the minds of its infatuated votaries. Once bewitched with the idea of at last succeeding in the attainment of his grand design, fortune, health, and reputation, are resolutely set at nought, in the delirium of delight that follows; and more unreasonable creatures can scarcely be found than such self-deluded individuals, for they cannot, or will not, be convinced that their utmost efforts can at best but produce an amazingly curious toy; and nothing can be more futile than to expect any higher application, assuming such a discovery were possible.

The best proof of the sincerity and earnestness of those who seek the attainment of a mechanical perpetual motion, is afforded by the variety and number of their patented schemes; the patentees having among them divines, doctors, lawyers, civil engineers, carpenters, draughtsmen, jewellers, watchmakers, shoemakers, confectioners, and all classes of professions and trades. It is not, as is generally supposed, only the wholly ignorant and designing who can be cajoled by these chimeras; there is in them a spice of mystery, of wonder, of singularity, and of simplicity combined with much subtle difficulty, which, being once fully imbibed, acts like an opiate draught.

We have thus reviewed summarily, chimeras which are mainly associated with Astronomy, Chemistry, Mathematics, and Mechanics, and which have swayed the human mind more or less from a period anterior to the Christian era. The list of this species of deceitful systems of pseudo-philosophy, and of profitless problems, might have been enlarged; but what has been advanced may suffice as a warning to the uninitiated to beware of blind guides and of visionary pursuits. Science has lost nothing by its professors exercising that degree of caution, which all classes of superficially learned men, affecting to possess original and valuable views on certain matters, call _prejudice_: which, in such cases, generally means no more than the natural aversion which the learned have for all attempts to place specious dogmas on a level with sound science. Such enthusiasts are generally men of no research or depth of thought, who obtain an imperfect acquaintance with subjects with which they are incompetent to grapple; and with whom it is, therefore, hopeless to contend. Delusion will have its day, and will as certainly decay, if not die out. Chimeras constantly spring up, and find ardent professors and crowds of easily led proselytes, even up to this very present time; so that although, undoubtedly with many--_Knowledge is power_: yet it is to be feared that far too large a proportion of mankind favour the delusion that--_Ignorance is bliss_.

EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.--FIGURE 1.

_Of the Twelve Houses._--The 1st, 4th, 7th, and 10th houses--_angular_.--These are of more durable signification than the others, denoting the wife or husband--a situation under Government, &c. &c.

The twelve houses have signification of all the various concerns of human life, and of nature at large.

_For Example._--When the cusp of the first house is well aspected by, or has the presence of Jupiter or Venus, and these are not afflicted by the aspects of evil planets, they preserve life in infancy, and give health, and often an agreeable person.