Chapter 7

Serration is added to the Weaving economy induces leaf-edge. symmetry.

Similarity of serrated Symmetry induces Geometrical leaf-edge to the Akanthos Severity, and the Omission plant, is observed; of all details of the Imitation becomes more original plant which are not direct; and this artificial easily worked in connection foliage becomes termed with geometrical "Acanthus." arrangement.

Flowers generally circular The Flowers and Leaves in mass-shape, are added (_only_) survive; the growth at the ends of the spiral of the stems is forgotten; stems. and tradition does the rest.

§ 3.--APPLICATION OF THE TWO KINDS.

Each of these two kinds of foliage has its own proper use. Artificial foliage is appropriate to the enrichment of Architecture; and Natural foliage to those objects which are not architectural, but are termed "movables," including under this term, Furniture, and more especially Hangings and other applications of the Textile art.

This may be seen on comparing the two columns below, of which the L.H. one refers to Architecture, and the R.H. one to Natural foliage.

(Architecture) (Natural foliage) RULES: Governed by severe Exhibits _apparent_ playful rules of Repetition, Freedom. There _are_ Axiality, Symmetry, etc., underlying Rules, which which are apparent to are detected by the scientific the passer-by. Hence Botanist; but these Artificial foliage, being are not seen by the casual regular in its structure, observer. is more appropriate than the (apparently) irregular growth of Natural foliage. CHARACTERISTICS: Rigidity and Stability. Elasticity and Tremulousness in every breeze.

LINES OF COMPOSITION: Geometrical lines. In determinate curves, The geometrical lines which are very subtile, and spirals of Artificial and varied, and therefore foliage demand an unmoving suitable to a hanging and surface for proper view. swaying material.

The curves of Nature They would generally be spoiled are not spoiled when on a if not on a plane surface. folded material.

DISTRIBUTION: Symmetrical. The Balanced. The growth symmetry of artificial of natural foliage is generally foliage is appropriate to symmetrical; but that of Architecture. this is not apparent.

BEAUTY: Depends on _form_, with More appropriate to objects color as a secondary adjunct. which depend on _color_ for their principal charm.

There have been waves of the desire to introduce Natural foliage into Architecture (e.g. in the "Decorated period" of Gothic architecture); but the Artificial elements have always proved too strong, and the two have never mixed. In Architecture, everything has three dimensions; and the artificial foliage is carved with leaves, etc., of a suitable thickness: in Natural foliage the tenuity of leaves, etc., is such that it cannot be reproduced. Even in the architraves round the glorious doors of Florence the natural foliage is not always a success; and where Ghiberti has stopped short in the ductile bronze, it is not probable that the modern carver will succeed in stone. It may therefore be suggested that the close imitation of Natural foliage should be confined to objects of _two_ dimensions, i.e., to plane surfaces and figured materials.

This selection of the Elements of Decoration, according to their association, is analogous to the selection made use of by the Poet, from the words and ideas, which are his Materials. It will be observed that, as on a Classic or Heroic subject, the choice is of learned words and classical ideas, and on a Domestic or Pastoral one, simple words and homely similes are used--so, in conjunction with the severe forms of Architecture, the formal character of artificial foliage is suitable; and for decorating Textiles and other movable Accessories, the Natural foliage, with which the earth is clothed and beautified, is appropriate.

ENRICHMENT OF SURFACE may be beautiful for one reason; IMITATION OF NATURE is beautiful for another. When imitations of natural foliage are introduced decoratively on a surface, then may it be twice beautiful--first, in the _principles_ according to which the distribution is arranged; and secondly, because of the _elements_ which are worked in being beautiful in themselves. Geometrical elements might be so used as to serve the first end, but can never fulfill the second: Storiation fulfills the second; but its increase of interest absorbs the first.

This course of Lectures is intended to treat of Natural foliage, leaving Artificial foliage to be dealt with at another opportunity. It is not Historical. The History of the Decorative treatment of Natural foliage, showing its evolution in the past, is a large and interesting theme; but, unless this were accompanied by critical remarks based on given principles, the method might be barren of results. Tradition is not to be undervalued; but the student should be led to Tradition through Principles.

It is further intended more especially to apply to the æsthetic use. When natural foliage is used Æsthetically (i.e., decoratively), then the Shape of the surface should govern the Mass shape of the foliage, and there should be Parallelism between them (see § 29). When used Didactically (i.e., symbolically), then the foliage may be treated more freely.

§ 4.--THE FOUR TREATMENTS.

There are, broadly speaking, four methods of treating Natural foliage. These may be arranged in a Chart, according to their relation to the two poles of Art and Science; from Realism (which is all Art and no Science) to the "Botanical Analysis" method (in which is a little Science but no Art), thus:

The first two of these methods are Artistic and legitimate: the others are inartistic and misleading. Before treating of the artistic methods it will be well to clear the ground by dismissing the others.

ART POLE..........................................SCIENCE POLE

Realism | Conventionalism | Disguised | Botanical (See § 10). | (See § 14). | Artificialism | Analysis | | (See § 6). | (See § 5).

§ 5.--THE BOTANICAL ANALYSIS TREATMENT.

In this method the student was taught (i) to draw each plant with the Stem _straightened out_, the Leaves _flattened out_, and the Flowers represented as in _side elevation_ or _plan_. (ii) The Flowers were further _pulled in pieces_, and the Petals were _flattened out_ in a manner similar to the Entomologists' practice of displaying their "specimens" scientifically. Often, also (iii) the Stems and Buds were _cut through_; and "patterns" were made with the Sections.

With regard to the first of these practices (i): it should be observed that much of the beauty of appearance of natural foliage results from the variety of view, the subtile curvature, and the foreshortening, as seen in perspective; and that to sacrifice all these for the sake of a _diagram_ would be a wasted opportunity.

With regard to the other practices (ii) and (iii): it is obvious that these statements of the facts of the plant are useful as a part of the Science of Botany; but can no more be considered as making Decoration than Anatomical diagrams can be looked upon as Pictures. Some knowledge of external Botany is useful to a Pattern artist as some knowledge of external Anatomy is useful to the Pictorial artist. In each of these cases, the Science, which discovers and records facts, is subservient to its sister, Art, which uses the facts to interpret appearances; and, when scientific diagrams are put forth as Art, the Science is in its wrong place: it has then been treated as if it were the Building instead of being only the Scaffolding; and the results of such attempts cannot be considered as complete or final.

Examples of this method are given in Figs. 1 and 2. It was officially encouraged about twenty-five years ago; and books like "Plants, their Natural Growth and Ornamental Treatment," and "Suggestions in Floral Design," both by F. Edward Hulme, F.L.S., etc., show it at its best.

In criticising this method, there is no desire to cast any slight upon those who were responsible for it. They were groping in the dark, and did the best they knew, according to their lights. But Japanese work was not known at that time, and, but for that, the Pattern artist of to-day might still be occupied in pinning leaves and flowers against the wall. It was, moreover, a protest against the Cabbage Rose on the Hearth rug, that some may still remember with shuddering.

§ 6.--THE DISGUISED ARTIFICIALITY TREATMENT.

In this method the student was taught to sketch out what he considered to be good Curves and Spirals; and then (i) to bend the selected plant so that its stem might coincide with them, regardless of its own proper natural growth; or (ii) to deck out the first drawn spirals with the leaves and flowers of the selected plant.

With regard to the first of these practices: it is much more foolish than the Analysis method; and is little short of blasphemy against the Great Designer. He has determined how each plant shall grow: how, within limits of cultivation, its stems and branches shall separate, each to seek its own share of air and sunshine; how its leaves shall stand erect or droop, each according to its function; and always in perfect beauty. And further: how each family of plants shall have its own method of branching; which is as much a part of its character and often of its beauty as are the Flowers and Leaves.

The second practice, which generally produces a result similar to the first, is quite as unthinking. It is more often practiced; and is responsible for many of the labored and uninteresting designs which are common. If the Pattern-artist deck-out the old worn-out and common place spirals with leaves and flowers borrowed from Nature--the result is like the "voice of Jacob and the hands of Esau;" it is merely a Disguise of Artificiality.

An example of this method is given in Fig. 3. It was generally practiced in Germany; and books like "Das Vegetabile Ornamente," by K. Krumbholz, show it at its best.

If this treatment were universally followed--there would soon be an end to design with natural foliage. The spectator might observe one border which appeared to be a Rose, another a Tulip, the third a Thistle, and the fourth a Fuchsia; and, on examination, discover that these were not Rose, Tulip, Thistle, and Fuchsia; but merely that very artificial old friend--the Spiral-scroll--_in disguise_.

An apologist for this method remarks:--" ... In such matters as the ramification of plants, ... nature is always making angles and elbows [_sic_] which we are obliged, in decorative treatment, to change into curves for our purpose;...". This opinion needs only to be applied to animals in order to exhibit its absurdity; and with regard to plants, it will be seen that this tampering has not even the poor merit of success.

§ 7.--NOTE ON SYMMETRY.

A desire for Symmetry often accompanies these two treatments. This is a quality to be avoided whenever possible in Natural foliage design. The so-called "Turn-over patterns" are an economy in Weaving-design, but the economy is of the wrong kind. An artist should spend his thought to spare material or cost in working. When he spares his _thought_--making the least amount of thought cover the greatest amount of surface--then is his work worth to the world just what it has cost him, i.e., very little.

So injurious is the influence of Symmetry in Natural foliage design, that it might almost be a test question--"Is the design symmetrical?" When the exigencies of Machine-reproduction necessitate this with Natural foliage--it is a hardship which the Artist regretfully accepts, and no one would willingly make a design for Hand-reproduction which was symmetrical; rather would he spend himself to insure the worthier result which ensues from Balance.

An example of Symmetry is given in Fig. 4; and of Balance in Fig. 5. Each panel contains two classes of Elements:--Natural foliage (i.e., two branches of the Bay tree), and an Artificial object (i.e., a Ribbon which ties them). The lower Element (i.e., the Ribbon) is treated symmetrically in both panels: the higher Element (i.e., the Branches) are _symmetrical_ in the former panel, and _balanced_ in the latter. This latter treatment, will be seen to be not only the more interesting, but the more like the infinite variety of Nature; while the former is a wasted opportunity, and contrary to Nature.

The Student will observe by experience that the mind soon tires of Artificiality, both in Curvature and in Symmetry; the lines of Nature have a pleasant freshness and inexhaustible variety; and the _Natural_ method of treating Nature is not only the most true, but also the most beautiful.

§ 8.--REALISM AND CONVENTIONALISM: DEFINITIONS.

REALISM--the result of _Realistic_ treatment, i.e., the attempt to render the reproduction as like the reality as is possible, even to the verge of deception--is the aim of the Pictorial-Artist. In Pictures the surface appears to have been annihilated, and the spectator beholds the scene as if there were a hole through the wall. It is not the highest, and should not be the only aim in Art; but it has always been sought for and admired. It requires perfect conditions, of materials and tools; i.e., _complete Technical appliances_.

CONVENTIONALISM--the result of _incomplete Technical appliances_, and the attempt to render so much of the Beauty of the original as is possible, with due regard to their capabilities--is the aim of the Decorative-Artist. It is not the highest aim; though a necessary curb in Decorative-Art, both for the technical reason, and also as a result of the Position or Function of the object.

It will thus be seen that the two words, when used with regard to foliage of any kind, refer to the _Method of representing it_, and not to its Kind or its manner of Growth.

§ 9.--SCALES FROM REALISM TO CONVENTIONALISM.

These two methods, when applied absolutely, form the two extremes:--The most complete REALISM being at one end, and the most limited CONVENTIONALISM at the other. There are scales of gradual reduction between them, which may be shown on two charts:

(i) Reduction in the NUMBER OF PARTS which preserve their Realistic rendering.

(ii) Reduction in the DEGREE OF REALISM through all parts.

(i) According to the number of the features or parts of the design which are treated with less than realism. Thus there might be a panel representing a Window-opening with an architectural framing, with a Flower-vase on the sill, and a Landscape-background. The first part to be reduced in realistic rendering would be the Background, the second would be the Framing, leaving the third, the Flower-vase, as the survival. This is a Scale of reduction in _Number of Parts_.

It may be shown, in tabular arrangement, thus:--

REALISM............................................CONVENTIONALISM.

COMPLETE PICTORIAL REALISM, in which all parts are realistically represented (see § 10).

SEMI-PICTORIAL REALISM, in which the Back-ground is reduced to a flat-tint, while all the remaining parts are realistically represented (see § 11).

DECORATIVE REALISM, in which the chief Feature (_only_) is realistically represented, and all the other parts are reduced to conventional renderings (see § 12).

COMPLETE CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are reduced to conventional renderings (see Conventionalism).

Inasmuch as there is some realistic part remaining in each of the first three methods--these are classified under the heading of REALISM.

(ii) According to the Degree in which color, gradation, or shading, is sacrificed, in consequence of the limited Means at the disposal of the Artist; resulting in the gradual departure from Realism to the most severe Conventionalism. The reduction is applied to all parts of the work. This is a scale of reduction in _Degree_. There are two Varieties in each degree; and they are marked with italic letters.

It may be shown, in tabular arrangement, thus:--

REALISM.............................................CONVENTIONALISM.

COMPLETE REALISM, in which all parts are represented, in proper colors, and perfect gradation, with correct light and shade (see § 10).

FIRST DEGREE OF CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are represented: (a) By a reduced number of Pigments, the other qualities remaining; (b) By reduction in gradation and shading to Flat-tints of several pigments (see § 15).

SECOND DEGREE OF CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are represented: (c) By a reduction to Monochrome of color, with Gradation (_only_) remaining; (d) By reduction to Monochrome of White and Black, with Gradation (_only_) remaining (see § 16).

THIRD DEGREE OF CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are represented: (e) By reduction to a Flat-tint of one pigment on a ground of another; (f) By reduction to a Flat-tint of White on Black, or _vice versa_ (see § 17).

ULTIMATE CONVENTIONALISM, in which all parts are represented; (g) By reduction to Outline of several pigments; (h) Reduction to Outline of one pigment (see §18).

Inasmuch as Realism ceases so soon as any reduction in the three qualities (of color, gradation, and shadow) is introduced; and the treatment becomes more Conventional in each method after the first--these are classified under the heading of CONVENTIONALISM.

[There is an analogous scale of reduction in Form, from the Complete-relief of an isolated Statue to the Flatness of a Floor-plate; but this does not belong to the present subject.]

* * * * *

THE CYCLOSTAT.

The various processes commonly employed for the observation of bodies in motion (intermittent light or vision) greatly fatigue the observer, and, as a general thing, give only images, that are difficult to examine. We are going to show how Prof. Marc Thury, upon making researches in a new direction, has succeeded in constructing an apparatus that permits of the continuous observation of a body having a rapid rotary motion. The principle of the method is of extreme simplicity.

Let us consider (Fig. 1) a mirror, A B, reflecting an object, C D, and revolving around it: when the mirror will have made a half revolution, the image, C' D', of the object will have made an entire one. The figure represents three successive positions of the mirror, distant by an eighth of a revolution. The structure of the image shows that it has made a quarter revolution in an opposite direction in each of its positions. But if (Fig. 2) the body itself has revolved in the same direction with an angular velocity double that of the mirror, its image will have described a circle in remaining constantly parallel with itself. The image will be just as insensible as the object itself; but it is very easy to bring it back to a state of rest.

Let us suppose (Fig. 3a) the observer placed at O, the revolving object at T, the axis of rotation being this time the line O F. Let us place a mirror at A B and cause it to revolve around the same axis; but, instead of looking at the image directly in the mirror, let us receive it, before and after its reflection upon A B, upon two mirrors, C D and D E, inclined 30° upon the axis of rotation of the system; the image, instead of being observed directly in the mirror, A B, will always be seen in the axis, O F, and will consequently appear immovable.

The same result may be obtained (Fig. 3b) with a rectangular isosceles prism whose face, A B, serves as a mirror, while the faces, A C and B D, break the ray--the first deflecting it from the axis to throw it on the mirror, and the second throwing it back to the axis of rotation, which is at the same time the line of direction of the sight.

The principle of the instrument, then, consists in causing the revolution, around the axis of rotation of the object to be observed, of a mirror parallel with such axis, and in observing it in the axis itself after sending the image to it by two reflections or two refractions. In reality, the entire instrument is contained in the small prism above, properly mounted upon a wheel that may be revolved at will; and, in this form, it may serve, for example, to determine the rotary velocity of an inaccessible axis. For this it will suffice to modify its velocity until the axis appears to be at rest, and to apply the revolution counter to the wheel upon which the prism is mounted, or to another wheel controlling the mechanism.

But Mr. Thury has constructed a completer apparatus, the _cyclostat_ (Fig. 4), which, opposite the prism, has a second plate whose actuating wheel is mounted upon the same axis as the first, the gearing being so calculated that the prism shall revolve with twice less velocity than the second plate. This latter, observed through the prism, will be always seen at rest, and be able to serve as a support for the object that it is desired to examine.