Chapter 1

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 794

NEW YORK, March 21, 1891

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXXI., No. 794.

Scientific American established 1845

Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.

Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. BOTANY.--New Race of Dwarf Dahlias.--A new and valuable flowering plant, with portrait of the introducer.--1 illustration.

II. CHEMISTRY.--Carbon in Organic Substances.--By J. MESSINGER.-- An improved method of determining carbon by inorganic combustions.--1 illustration.

III. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--A New Integrator.--By Prof. KARL PEARSON. M.A.--An apparatus for use for the engineer in working up areas, indicator diagrams, etc.--4 illustrations.

Best Diameter of Car Wheels.--The size of car wheels from the standpoint of American engineering.--A plea for a moderate sized wheel.

Improved Overhead Steam Traveling Crane.--A crane constructed for use in steel works.--Great power and range.--3 illustrations.

Some Hints on Spiking Track.--A most practical article for telling exactly how to conduct the operation on the ground.--1 illustration.

IV. ELECTRICITY.--Electrical Laboratory for Amateurs.--By GEO. M. HOPKINS.--A simple collection of apparatus for conducting a complete series of electrical experiments.--17 illustrations.

The Action of the Silent Discharge on Chlorine.--How an electric discharge affects chlorine gas.--An important negative result.

V. ETHNOLOGY.--Some Winnebago Arts.--An interesting article upon the arts of the Winnebago Indians.--A recent paper before the New York Academy of Sciences.

VI. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--The Philosophy of Consumption. --By Dr. J.S. CHRISTISON.--A review of the present theories of consumption, and the role played in it by its bacillus.

VII. MUSIC.--Spacing the Frets on a Banjo Neck.--By Prof. C.W. MACCORD.--A most practical treatment of this subject, with full explanations.--1 illustration.

VIII. ORDNANCE.--High Explosives in Warfare.--By Commander F.M. BARBER, U.S.N.--An elaborate review of modern explosives in their applicability to ordnance, etc.

The Experiments at the Annapolis Proving Grounds.--The recent tests at Annapolis described and illustrated.--Views of the projectiles, plates, etc.--3 illustrations.

IX. PHYSICS.--Aræo-Picnometer.--An entirely novel form of hydrometer, of very extended use and application.--1 illustration.

X. TECHNOLOGY.--Fabric for Upholstery Purposes.--Full technical description of the method of producing a new and characteristic fabric.--1 illustration.

Gaseous Illuminants.--By Prof. VIVIAN B. LEWES.--Continuation of this important article, treating of the water gas and special processes, with analyses.

Glove Making.--Early history of glove making in America.--Its present aspects and processes.

Reversible Ingrain or Pro-Brussels Carpet.--An imitation of Brussels carpet on the Ingrain principle.--Full description of the process of making.--3 illustrations.

The Manufacture and Use of Plaster of Paris.--An excellent treatment of a subject hitherto little written about.--Full particulars of the manufacturing process.

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IMPROVED OVERHEAD STEAM TRAVELING CRANE.

We show in Fig. 1 a general view, and in Figs. 2 and 3 a side elevation and plan of an overhead steam traveling crane, which has been constructed by Mr. Thomas Smith, of Rodley, near Leeds, for use in a steel works, to lift, lower, and travel with loads up to 15 tons. For our engravings and description we are indebted to _Industries._ The crane is designed for hoisting and lowering while traveling transversely or longitudinally, and all the movements are readily controlled from the cage, which is placed at one end of and underneath the transverse beams, and from which the load can be readily seen. All the gear wheels are of steel and have double helical teeth; the shafts are also of steel, and the principal bearings are adjustable and bushed with hard gun metal. This crane has a separate pair of engines for each motion, which are supplied with steam by the multitubular boiler placed in the cage as shown. The hoisting motions consist of double purchase gearing, with grooved drum, treble best iron chain with block and hook, driven by one pair of 8 in. by 12 in. engines. The transverse traveling motion consists of gearing, chain, and carriage on four tram wheels, with grooved chain pulleys, driven by the second pair of 6 in. by 10 in. engines, and the longitudinal traveling motion driven by the other pair of 8 in. by 12 in. engines. The transverse beams are wrought iron riveted box girders, firmly secured to the end carriages, which are mounted on four double flanged steel-tired wheels, set to suit a 38 foot span.

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BEST DIAMETER CAR WHEELS.[1]

[Footnote 1: By Samuel Porcher, assistant engineer motive power department, Pennsylvania Railroad. Read at a regular meeting of the New York Railroad Club, Feb. 19, 1891.]

It goes almost without saying that for any given service we want the best car wheel, and in general it is evident that this is the one best adapted to the efficient, safe and prompt movement of trains, to the necessary limitations improved by details of construction, and also the one most economical in maintenance and manufacture.

It is our aim this afternoon to look into this question in so far as the diameter of the wheel affects it, and in doing it we must consider what liability there is to breakage or derangement of the parts of the wheel, hot journals, bent axles, the effect of the weight of the wheel itself, and the effect upon the track and riding of the car, handling at wrecks and in the shop, the first cost of repairs, the mileage, methods of manufacture, the service for which the wheel is intended and the material of which it is made.

Confining ourselves to freight and passenger service, and to cast iron and steel wheels in the general acceptation of the term as being the most interesting, we know that cast iron is not as strong as wrought iron or steel, that the tendency of a rotating wheel to burst is directly proportional to its diameter, and that the difficulty of making a suitable and perfect casting increases with the diameter. Cast iron, therefore, would receive no attention if it were not for its far greater cheapness as compared to wrought iron or steel. This fact makes its use either wholly or in part very desirable for freight service, and even causes some roads in this country, notably the one with which I am connected, to find it profitable to develop and perfect the cast iron wheel for use in all but special cases.

Steel, on the other hand, notwithstanding its great cost, is coming more and more into favor, and has the great recommendations of strength and safety. It is also of such a nature that wheels tired with it run much further before being unfit for further service than those made of cast iron, and consequently renewals are less frequent. The inference would seem to be that a combination of steel and cast iron would effect the desirable safeness with the greatest cheapness; but up to the present this state of affairs has not yet been realized to the proper extent, because of the labor and cost necessary to accomplish this combination and the weakness involved in the manner of joining the two kinds of material together.

Taking up the consideration of the diameter of the wheel now, and allowing that on the score of economy cast iron must be used for wheels in freight service, we are led to reflect that here heavy loads are carried, and there is a growing tendency to increase them by letting the floor of the car down to a level with the draft timbers. All this makes it desirable to have the wheels strong and small to avoid bent axles and broken flanges, to enable us to build a strong truck, to reduce the dead weight of cars to a minimum, and have wrecks quickly cleared away. The time has not yet come when we have to consider seriously hot journals arising from high speed on freight trains, and a reasonable degree only of easy riding is required. The effect on the track is, however, a matter of moment. Judging from the above, I should say that no wheel larger than one 33 in. in diameter should be used under freight cars. Since experience in passenger service shows that larger cast iron wheels do not make greater mileage and cost more per 1,000 miles run, and that cast iron wheels smaller than 33 in., while sometimes costing less per 1,000 miles run, are more troublesome in the end, it is apparent that 33 in. is the best diameter for the wheels we have to use in freight service.

When we take up passenger service we come to a much more difficult and interesting part of the subject, for here we must consider it in all its bearings, and meet the complications that varying conditions of place and service impose. In consequence, I do not believe we can recommend one diameter for all passenger car wheels although such a state of simplicity would be most desirable. For instance, in a sandy country where competition is active, and consequently speed is high and maintained for a length of time without interruption, I would scarcely hesitate to recommend the use of cast iron for car wheels, because steel will wear out so rapidly in such a place that its use will be unsatisfactory. If then cast iron is used, we will find that we cannot make with it as large a wheel as we may determine is desirable when steel is used. And just to follow this line out to its close I will state here that we find that 36 in. seems to be the maximum satisfactory diameter for cast iron wheels, because this size does not give greater mileage than 33 in., costs more per 1,000 miles run, and seems to be nearer the limit for good foundry results. On the other hand, a 36 in. wheel rides well and gives immunity from hot boxes--a most fruitful source of annoyance in sandy districts. It is also easily applicable where all modern appliances under the car are found, including good brake rigging. In all passenger service, then, I would recommend 36 in. as the best diameter for cast iron wheels.

Next taking up steel wheels, a great deal might be said about the different makes and patterns, but as the diameter of wheels of this kind is not limited practically to any extent by the methods of manufacture, except as to the fastening of the wheel and tire together, we will note this point only. Tires might be so deeply cut into for the introduction of a retaining ring that a small wheel would be unduly weakened after a few turnings.

On the other hand, when centers and tires are held together by springing the former into the latter under pressure, it is possible that a tire of larger diameter might be overstrained. But allowing that the method of manufacture does not limit the diameter of a steel wheel as it does a cast iron one, the claim that the larger diameter is the best is open to debate at least, and, I believe, is proved to the contrary on several accounts. It is argued that increasing the diameter of a wheel increases its total mileage in proportion, or even more. Whether this be so or not, there are two other very objectionable features that come with an increase in diameter--the wheel becomes more costly and weighs more, without giving in all cases a proportionate return. We have to do more work in starting and stopping, and in lifting the large wheel over the hills, and when the diameter exceeds a certain figure we have to pay more per 1,000 miles run. I am very firmly convinced that the matter of dead weight should receive more attention than it does, with a view to reducing it. The weight of six pairs of 42 in. wheels and axles alone is 15,000 to 16,000 lb.

The matter of brakes is coming up for more attention in these days of high speed, heavy cars and crowded roads, and the total available braking power, which has hitherto been but partially taken advantage of, must be fully utilized. I refer to the fact that many of our wheels in six-wheel trucks have gone unbraked where they should not. As the height of cars and length of trucks cannot well be increased for obvious reasons, it is necessary to keep the size of the wheels within the limits that will enable us to get efficient brakes on all of them that carry any weight. This is not easy with a 42 in. wheel in a six-wheel truck, which is usually the kind that requires most adjustment and repairs after long runs. The Pullman Co. has recognized this fact, and is now replacing its 42 in. wheel with one 38 in. in diameter.

A 42 in. wheel with 4 in. journal has a greater leverage wherewith to overcome the resistance of journal friction than the 38 in. wheel with the same journal, and even more than the 36 in. and 33 in. wheels with 33/4 in. and 31/2 in. journals respectively, but the fact remains that the same amount of work has to be done in overcoming the friction in each case, and what may be gained in ease of starting with the large wheel is lost in time necessary to do it, and in the extra weight put into motion.

A large wheel increases the liability to bent axles in curving on account of greater leverage unless the size and weight of the axle are increased to correspond, and the wheel itself must be made stronger. A four or six wheel truck will not retain its squareness and dependent good riding qualities so well with 42 in. wheels as with 33 in. ones. Besides the brakes, the pipes for air and steam under the cars interfere with large wheels, and as a consequence of all this 42 in. wheels have been replaced by 36 in. ones to some extent in some places with satisfactory results. On one road in particular so strong is the inclination away from large wheels that 30 in. is advocated as the proper size for passenger cars.

On the other hand, there is no doubt a car wheel may be too small, for the tires of small wheels probably do not get as much working up under the rolls, and therefore are not as tough or homogeneous. Small wheels are more destructive to frogs and rail joints. They revolve faster at a given speed, and when below a certain size increase the liability to hot journals if carrying the weight they can bear without detriment to the rest of the wheel. Speed alone I am not willing to admit is the most prolific source of hot boxes. The weight per square inch upon the bearing is a very important factor. I have found by careful examination of a great many cars that the number of hot boxes bears a close relation to the weight per square inch on the journal and the character of lubrication, and is not so much affected by the size of wheel or speed. These observations were made upon 42 in., 36 in. and 33 in. wheels in the same trains. We find, furthermore, that while a 3-3/8 in. journal on a 33 in. wheel is apt to heat under our passenger coaches, a 33/4 in., even when worn 3-5/8 in., journal on a 36 in. wheel runs uniformly cool. In 1890 on one division there were about 180 hot boxes with the small wheel, against 29 with the larger one, with a preponderance of the latter size in service and cars of the same weight over them.

I do not know that there is any more tendency for a large wheel to slide than a small one under the action of the brakes, but large wheels wear out more brake shoes than small ones, if there is any difference in this particular.

My conclusions are that 42 in. is too large a diameter for steel wheels in ordinary passenger service, and that 36 in. is right. But as steel-tired wheels usually become 3 in. smaller in diameter before wearing out, the wheel should be about 38 in. in diameter when new. Such a wheel can be easily put under all passenger cars and will not have become too small when worn out. A great many roads are using 36 in. wheels, but when their tires have lost 3 in. diameter they have become 33 in. wheels, which I think too small.

There are many things I have left unsaid, and I am aware that some of the members of the club have had most satisfactory service with 42 in. wheels so far as exemption from all trouble is concerned, and others have never seen any reason for departing from the most used size of 33 in.

One more word about lightness. A wrought iron or cast steel center, 8 or 9 light spokes on a light rim inside a steel tire, makes the lightest wheel, and one that ought to be in this country, as it is elsewhere, the cheapest not made of cast iron.

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A NEW INTEGRATOR.[1]

[Footnote 1: A paper read before the University College Engineering Society on January 22.--_Engineering_.]

BY PROFESSOR KARL PEARSON, M.A.

As I fear the title of my paper to our Society to-night contains two misstatements of fact in its three words, I must commence by correcting it. In the first place, the instrument to which I propose to draw your attention to-night is, in the narrow sense of the words, neither an integrator nor new. The name "integrator" has been especially applied to a class of instruments which measure off on a scale attached to them the magnitude of an area, arc, or other quantity. Such instruments do not, as a rule, represent their results graphically, and we may take, as characteristic examples of them, Amsler's planimeter and some of the sphere integrating machines.

An integrator which draws an absolute picture of the sum or integral is better termed an "integraph." The distinction is an important and valuable one, for while the integraph theoretically can do all the work of the integrator, the latter gives us in niggardly fashion one narrow answer, _et præterea nil_. The superiority of the integraph over the integrator cannot be better pointed out than by a concrete example. The integrator could determine by one process, the bending moment, from the shear curve, at any one chosen point of a beam; the integraph would, by an equally simple single process, gives us the bending moment at all points of the beam.

In the language of the mathematician, the integrator gives only that miserly result, a definite integral, but the integraph yields an indefinite integral, a picture of the result at all times or all points--a much greater boon in most mechanical and physical investigations. Members of our Society as students of University College have probably become acquainted with a process termed "drawing the sum curve from the primitive curve." Many have probably found this process somewhat wearisome; but this is not an unmixed evil, as the irksomeness of any manual process has more than once led to the invention of a valuable machine by the would-be idler. Thus our innate desire to take things easy is a real incentive to progress. It was some such desire as this on my part which led me, three years ago, to inquire whether a practical instrument had not been, or could not be, constructed to draw sum curves. Such an instrument is an integraph, and the one I have to describe to you to-night is the outcome of that inquiry. It is something better than my title, for it is an integraph, and not an integrator.

Before I turn to its claims to be considered new, I must first remind you of the importance of an instrument of this kind to the draughtsman. I put aside its purely mechanical applications, where it has been, or can be, attached to the indicators of steam engines, to dynamometers, dynamos, and a variety of other instruments where mechanical integration is of value. These lie entirely outside my field, and I propose only to refer to a few of the possible services of the integrator when used by hand, and not attached to a machine.

The simple finding of areas we may omit, as the planimeter will do that equally well. But of purely graphical processes which the integraph will undertake for us, I may mention the discovery of centroids, of moments of inertia (or second moments), of a scale of logarithms, of the real roots of cubic equations, and of equations of higher order (with, however, increasing labor). Further, the calculation of the cost of cutting and embanking for railways by the method of Bruckner & Culmann, the solution of a very considerable number of rather complex differential equations, various problems in the storage of water, and a great variety of statistical questions may all be completely dealt with, or very much simplified by aid of the integraph.

In graphical statics proper the integraph draws successively the curves of shear, bending moment slope, and deflection for simple beams; it does the like service for continuous beams, after certain analytical or graphical calculations have first been made; it can further lighten greatly the graphical work in the treatment of masonry arches and of metal ribs. In graphical hydrostatics it finds centers of pressure and gives a complete solution for the shear and bending moment, curves in ships, besides curves for their stability. In graphical dynamics the applications of the integraph seem still more numerous. It enables us to pass from curves of acceleration to curves of speed, and from curves of speed to curves of position. Applied to the curve of energy of either a particle or the index point of a rigid body, it enables us by the aid of easy auxiliary processes to ascertain speeds and curves of action. In a slightly altered form, that of "inverse summation," we can pass from curves of action to curves of position, and deal with a great range of resisted motions, the analysis of which still puzzles the pure mathematician; the variations of motion in flywheels, connecting rods, and innumerable other parts of mechanism, may all be calculated with much greater ease by the aid of an integraph. Shortly, it is the fundamental instrument of graphic dynamics.

It would be needless to further multiply the instances of its application; the questions we have rather to ask are: Can a practical instrument be made which will serve all these purposes? Has such an instrument been already put upon the market? If I have to answer these questions in the negative, it is rather a doubtful negative, for the instrument I have to show you to-night goes so far, and suggests so many modifications and possibilities, which would take it so much further, that it is very close to bringing the practical solution to the problem.

Let me here lay down the conditions which seem essential to a practical integraph. These are, I think, the following:

1. The price must be such that it is within the reach of the ordinary draughtsman's pocket. The Amsler's planimeter at £2 10s. or £3 may be said to satisfy this first condition. The price for the first complex integraph designed by Coradi was £24 to £30. The modified form in which I show it to-night is estimated to cost retail £14. Till an equally efficient instrument can be produced for £5 I shall not consider the price practical. If the error of its reading be not sensibly greater than that of a planimeter, it is certainly worth double the money.

2. The instrument must not be liable to get out of order by fair handling and a reasonable amount of wear and tear. I cannot speak at present with certainty as to how far our integraph satisfies this condition; it is rather too complex to quite win my confidence in this respect.

3. It must be capable of being used on the ordinary drawing board, and of having a fairly wide range on it, i.e., it must not be limited to working where the primitive is at one part only of the board.