Chapter 1

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 717

NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 28, 1889.

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXVIII., No. 717.

Scientific American established 1845.

Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.

Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. CIVIL ENGINEERING.--The Girard Hydraulic Railway.--One of the great curiosities of the Paris exposition, the almost frictionless railway, with sectional illustrations of its structure.--8 illustrations. 11451

II. ELECTRICITY.--Early Electric Lighting.--Electric lighting in Salem in 1859, a very curious piece of early history. 11458

Electric Motor for Alternating Currents.--A motor on an entirely new principle for the application of the alternating current with results obtained, and the economic outlook of the invention. 11458

Portable Electric Light.--A lamp for military and other use, in which the prime motor, including the boiler and the lamp itself, are carried on one carriage.--1 illustration. 11458

The Electric Age.--By CHARLES CARLETON COFFIN.--A short _resume_ of the initial achievements of modern electricity. 11458

III. GEOLOGY.--The Fuels of the Future.--A prognosis of the future prospect of the world as regards a fuel supply, with a special reference to the use of natural gas. 11457

IV. MISCELLANEOUS.--Preservation of Spiders for the Cabinet.--A method of setting up spiders for preservation in the cabinet, with formulæ of solutions used and full details of the manipulation.--1 illustration. 11461

The Ship in the New French Ballet of the "Tempest."--A curious example of modern scenic perfection, giving the construction and use of an appliance of the modern ballet.--5 illustrations. 11450

V. NAVAL ENGINEERING.--Crank and Screw Shafts of the Mercantile Marine.--By G. W. MANUEL.--This all-important subject of modern naval engineering treated in detail, illustrating the progress of the present day, the superiority of material and method of using it, with interesting practical examples.--1 illustration. 11448

Experimental Aid in the Design of High Speed Steamships.--By D. P.--A plea for the experimental determination of the probable speed of ships, with examples of its application in practice. 11449

Forging a Propeller Shaft.--How large steamer shafts are forged, with example of the operation as exhibited to the Shah of Persia at Brown & Co.'s works, Sheffield, England.--1 illustration. 11447

The Naval Forges and Steel Works at St. Chamond.--The forging of a piece of ordnance from a 90 ton ingot of steel, an artistic presentation of the subject.--1 illustration. 11447

VI. PHOTOGRAPHY.--The Pyro Developer with Metabisulphite of Potash.--By Dr. J. M. EDER.--A new addition to the pyro developer, with formulæ and results. 11462

VII. PHYSICS.--Quartz Fibers.--A lecture by Mr. C. V. BOYS on his famous experiments of the production of microscopic fibers, with enlarged illustrations of the same, and a graphic account of the entire subject.--7 illustrations. 11452

The Modern Theory of Light.--By Prof. OLIVER LODGE.--An abstract of a lecture by the eminent investigator and expositor of Prof. Hertz's experiments, giving a brief review of the present aspect of this absorbing question. 11459

VIII. PHYSIOLOGY.--Heat in Man.--Experiments recently made by Dr. Loewy on the heat of the human system.--Described and commented on by Prof. ZUNTZ. 11461

IX. SANITATION.--On Purification of Air by Ozone--with an Account of a New Method.--By Dr. B. W. RICHARDSON.--A very important subject treated in full, giving the past attempts in the utilization of ozone and a method now available. 11460

X. TECHNOLOGY.--Alkali Manufactories.--Present aspect of the Leblanc process and the new process for the recovery of sulphur from its waste. 11457

Dried Wine Grapes.--The preparation of the above wine on a large scale in California, with full details of the process adopted. 11461

The Production of Ammonia from Coal.--By LUDWIG MOND.--A valuable review of this important industry, with actual working results obtained in carrying out a retort process.--2 illustrations. 11454

Nature, Composition, and Treatment of Animal and Vegetable Fabrics.--The history of fabrics and fibers in the vegetable and animal world, their sources, applications, and treatments. 11453

Walnut Oil.--By Thomas T. P. BRUCE WARREN.--An excellent oil for painters' use, with description of a simple method for preparing it on a small scale. 11462

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THE NAVAL FORGES AND STEEL WORKS AT ST. CHAMOND.

With the idyls and historic or picturesque subjects that the Universal Exposition gives us the occasion to publish, we thought we would make a happy contrast by selecting a subject of a different kind, by presenting to our readers Mr. Layraud's fine picture, which represents the gigantic power hammer used at the St. Chamond Forges and Steel Works in the construction of our naval guns. By the side of the machinery gallery and the Eiffel tower this gigantic apparatus is well in its place.

The following is the technical description that has been given to us to accompany our engraving: In an immense hall, measuring 260 ft. in length by 98 ft. in width, a gang of workmen has just taken from the furnace a 90 ton ingot for a large gun for an armor-clad vessel. The piece is carried by a steam crane of 140 tons power, and the men grouped at the maneuvering levers are directing this incandescent mass under the power hammer which is to shape it. This hammer, whose huge dimensions allow it to take in the object treated, is one of the largest in existence. Its striking mass is capable of reaching 100 tons, and the height of the fall is 16 ft. To the left of the hammer is seen a workman getting ready to set it in motion. It takes but one man to maneuver this apparatus, and this is one of the characteristic features of its construction.

The beginning of this hammer's operation, as well as the operations of the forge itself, which contains three other hammers of less power, dates back to 1879. It is with this great hammer that the largest cannons of the naval artillery--those of 16 inches--have been made (almost all of which have been manufactured at St. Chamond), and those, too, of 14, 13, and 12 inches. This is the hammer, too, that, a few months ago, was the first to be set at work on the huge 13 in. guns of new model, whose length is no less than 52 ft. in the rough.

Let us add a few more figures to this account in order to emphasize the importance of the installations which Mr. Layraud's picture recalls, and which our great French industry has not hesitated to establish, notwithstanding the great outlay that they necessitated. This huge hammer required foundations extending to a depth of 32 ft., and the amount of metal used in its construction was 2,640,000 pounds. The cost of establishing the works with all the apparatus contained therein was $400,000.--_Le Monde Illustré._

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FORGING A PROPELLER SHAFT.

During the recent visit of the Shah of Persia to England, he visited, among other places, the great works of John Brown & Co., at Sheffield, and witnessed the pressing of a propeller shaft for one of the large ocean steamships. The operation is admirably illustrated in our engraving, for which we are indebted to the _Illustrated London News_.

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CRANK AND SCREW SHAFTS OF THE MERCANTILE MARINE.[1]

By G. W. MANUEL.

[Footnote 1: A paper read before the Institute of Marine Engineers, Stratford, 1889.]

Being asked to read a paper before your institute, I have chosen this subject, as I think no part of the marine engine has given so much trouble and anxiety to the seagoing engineer; and from the list of shipping casualties in the daily papers, a large proportion seem due to the shafting, causing loss to the shipowner, and in some instances danger to the crew. My endeavor is to put some of the causes of these casualties before you, also some of the remedies that have tended to reduce their number. Several papers have been read on this subject, chiefly of a theoretical description, dealing with the calculations relating to the twisting and bending moments, effects of the angles of the cranks, and length of stroke--notably that read by Mr. Milton before the Institute of Naval Architects in 1881. The only _practical_ part of this paper dealt with the possibility of the shafts getting out of line; and regarding this contingency Dr. Kirk said that "if superintendent engineers would only see that the bearings were kept in line, broken crank and other shafts would not be so much heard of." Of course this is one of those statements made in discussions of this kind, for what purpose I fail to see, and as far as my own experience goes is _misleading_; for having taken charge of steamers new from the builders' hands, when it is at least expected that these shafts would _be in line_, the crank shaft bearings heated very considerably, and _continued_ to do so, rendering the duration of life of the crank shaft a short one; and though they were never what is termed out of line, the bearings could _not_ be kept cool without the use of sea water, and occasionally the engines had to be stopped to cool and smooth up the bearing surfaces, causing delays, worry, and anxiety, for which the engineer in charge was in no way responsible. Happily this state of what I might call _uncertainties_ is being gradually remedied, thanks being largely due to those engineers who have the skill to suggest improvements and the patience to carry them out against much opposition.

These improvements in many instances pertain to the engine builder's duties, and are questions which I think have been treated lightly; notably that of insufficient bearing surface, and one of the principal causes of hot bearings, whereby the oil intended for lubrication was squeezed out, and the metal surfaces brought too close in contact; and when bearings had a pressure of 200 lb. per square inch, it has been found that not more than 120 lb. per square inch should be exerted to keep them cool (this varies according to the material of which the bearing is composed), without having to use sea water and prevent them being ground down, and thus getting out of line. I have known a bearing in a new steamer, in spite of many gallons of oil wasted on it, wear down one-eighth of an inch in a voyage of only 6,000 miles, from insufficiency of bearing surface.

Several good rules are in use governing the strength of shafts, which treat of the diameter of the bearings only and angles of the cranks; and the engine builder, along with the ship owner, has been chary of increasing the surfaces by lengthening the bearings; for to do this means increase of space taken up fore and aft the vessel, besides additional weight of engine. Engine builders all aim in competing to put their engines in less space than their rivals, giving same power and sometimes more. I think, however, this inducement is now more carefully considered, as it has been found more economical to give larger bearing surfaces than to have steamers lying in port, refitting a crank shaft, along with the consequences of heavy bills for salvage and repairs, also the risk of losing the steamer altogether. Proportioning the bearings to the weights and strains they have to carry has also been an improvement. The different bearings of marine engines were usually made alike in surface, irrespective of the work each had to do, with a view to economy in construction.

In modern practice the after bearings have more surface than the forward, except in cases where heavy slide-valve gear has to be supported, so that the wear down in the whole length of the shaft is equal, thus avoiding those alternate bending strains at the top and bottom of the stroke every revolution. Another improvement that has been successfully introduced, adding to the duration of life of crank shafts, is the use of white bearing metal, such as Parson's white brass, on which the shafts run smoothly with less friction and tendency to heat, so that, along with well proportioned surfaces, a number of crank shafts in the Peninsular and Oriental Co.'s service have not required lining up for eight years, and I hope with care may last till new boilers are required. Large and powerful steamers can be driven full speed from London to Australia and back without having any water on the bearings, using oil of only what is considered a moderate price, allowing the engineer in charge to attend to the economical working of both engines and boilers (as well as many other engines of all kinds now placed on board a large mail and passenger steamer), instead of getting many a drenching with sea water, and worried by close attention to one or two hot bearings all the watch. Compare these results with the following: In the same service in 1864, and with no blame to the engineer in charge, the crank shaft bearings of a screw steamer had to be lined up every five days at intermediate ports, through insufficient bearing surfaces. Sea water had continually to be used, resulting in frequent renewal of crank shaft. Steamers can now run 25,000 miles without having to lift a bearing, except for examination at the end of the voyage. I would note here that the form of the bearings on which the shafts work has also been much improved. They are made more of a _solid character_, the metal being more equally disposed _round_ the shaft, and the use of gun metal for the main bearings is now fast disappearing. In large engines the only metals used are cast iron and white brass, an advantage also in reducing the amount of wear on the recess by corrosion and grinding where sea water was used often to a considerable extent.

Figs. No. 1 and No. 2 show the design of the old and new main bearings, and, I think, require but little explanation. Most of you present will remember your feelings when, after a hot bearing, the brasses were found to be cracked at top and bottom, and the trouble you had afterward to keep these brasses in position. When a smoking hot bearing occurred, say in the heating of a crank pin, it had the effect of damaging the material of the shaft more or less, according to its original soundness, generally at the fillets in the angles of the cranks. For when the outer surface of the iron got hot, cold water, often of a low temperature, was suddenly poured on, and the hot iron, previously expanded, was suddenly contracted, setting up strains which in my opinion made a small tear transversely where the metal was _solid_; and where what is termed lamination flaws, due to construction, existed, these were extended in their natural direction, and by a repetition of this treatment these flaws became of such a serious character that the shafts had to be condemned, or actually gave way at sea. The introduction of the triple expansion engine, with the three cranks, gave better balance to the shaft, and the forces acting in the path of the crank pin, being better divided, caused more regular motion on the shaft, and so to the propeller. This is specially noticeable in screw steamers, and is taken advantage of by placing the cabins further aft, nearer the propeller, the stern having but little vibration; the dull and heavy surging sound, due to unequal motions of the shaft in the two-crank engines, is exchanged for a more regular sound of less extent, and the power formerly wasted in vibrating the stern is utilized in propelling the vessel. In spite of all these improvements I have mentioned, there remains the serious question of defects in the material, due to variety of quality and the extreme care that has to be exercised in all the stages during construction of crank or other shafts built of iron. Many shafts have given out at sea and been condemned, through no other cause than _original defects_ in their construction and material.

The process of welding and forging a crank shaft of large diameter now is to make it up of so many small _pieces_, the _best shafts_ being made of what is termed scrap, representing thousands of small pieces of selected iron, such as cuttings of old iron boiler plates, cuttings off forgings, old bolts, horseshoes, angle iron, etc., all welded together, forged into billets, reheated, and rolled into bars. It is then cut into lengths, piled, and formed into slabs of suitable size for welding up into the shafts. No doubt this method is preferable to the old method of "fagoting," so called, as the iron bars were placed side by side, resembling a bundle of fagots of about 18 or 20 inches square.

The result was that while the outside bars would be welded, the inside would be improperly welded, or, the hammer being weak, the blow would be insufficient to secure the proper weld, and it was no uncommon thing for a shaft to break and expose the internal bars, showing them to be quite separate, or only partially united. This danger has been much lessened in late years by careful selection of the materials, improved methods of cleaning the scrap, better furnaces, the use of the most suitable fuels, and more powerful steam hammers. Still, with all this care, I think I may say there is not a shaft without flaws or defects, more or less, and when these flaws are situated in line of the greatest strains, and though you _may not_ have a hot bearing, they often extend until the shaft becomes unseaworthy.

[Diagrams shown illustrated the various forms of flaws.] These flaws were not observable when the shafts were new, although carefully inspected. They gradually increased under strain, came to the outside, and were detected. Considerable loss fell upon the owners of these vessels, who were in no way to blame; nor could they recover any money from the makers of the shafts, who were alone to blame. I am pleased to state, and some of the members here present know, that considerable improvement has been effected in the use of better material than iron for crank shafts, by the introduction of a special mild steel, by Messrs. Vickers, Sons & Co., of Sheffield, and that instead of having to record the old familiar defects found in iron shafts, I can safely say no flaws have been observed, when new or during eight years running, and there are now twenty-two shafts of this mild steel in the company's service.

I may here state that steel was used for crank shafts in this service in 1863, as then manufactured in Prussia by Messrs. Krupp, and generally known as _Krupp's steel_, the tensile strength of which was about 40 tons per square inch, and though free from flaws, it was unable to stand the fatigue, and broke, giving little warning. It was of too brittle a nature, more resembling chisel steel. It was broken again under a falling weight of 10 cwt. with a 10 ft. drop = 12½ tons.

The mild steel now used was first tried in 1880. It possessed tensile strength of 24 to 25 tons per square inch. It was then considered advisable not to exceed this, and err rather on the safe side. This shaft has been in use eight years, and no sign of any flaw has been observed. Since then the tensile strength of mild steel has gradually been increased by Messrs. Vickers, the steel still retaining the elasticity and toughness to endure fatigue. This has only been arrived at by improvements in the manufacture and more powerful and better adapted hammers to forge it down from the large ingots to the size required. The amount of work they are now able to subject the steel to renders it more fit to sustain the fatigue such as that to be endured by a crank shaft. These ingots of steel can be cast up to 100 tons weight, and require powerful machines to deal with them. For shafts say of 20 inches diameter, the diameter of the ingot would be about 52 inches. This allows sufficient work to be put on the couplings, as well as the shaft. To make solid crank shafts of this material, say of 19 inches diameter, the ingot would weigh 42 tons, the forging, when completed, 17 tons, and the finished shaft 11¾ tons; so that you see there is 25 tons wasted before any machining is done, and 5¼ tons between the forging and finished shaft. This makes it very expensive for solid shafts of large size, and it is found better to make what is termed a _built shaft_; the cranks are a little heavier, and engine framings necessarily a little wider, a matter comparatively of little moment. I give you a rough drawing of the hydraulic hammer, or strictly speaking a _press_, used by Messrs. Vickers in forging down the ingots in shafts, guns, or other large work. This hammer can give a squeeze of 3,000 tons. The steel seems to yield under it like tough putty, and, unlike the steam hammer, there is no _jarring_ on the material, and it is manipulated with the same ease as a small hammer by hydraulics.