Chapter 9

Such is, in brief, a general account of these remarkable structures. Of course there were several variations in the methods of fixing these piles, one of which may be mentioned as showing the ingenuity of the builders. Where the piles did not get a firm hold of the lake bottom, they carried out in boats or rafts loads of stones, which they threw down between the piles, thus firmly fixing them, just as modern engineers sometimes do for a similar purpose. As to the habits of the people who dwelt in these lake dwellings, we get a considerable amount of information from the various implements, refuse, etc., which fell through the imperfectly closed platforms into the lake, and which have been preserved in the mud at the bottom. They were fishers, hunters, shepherds, and agriculturists. Skeletons of fish are found in large abundance, and in some settlements even the fishing nets, and hooks made of boar's tusks, have been discovered. Then again there is an abundance of remains of the hunter's feast; bones of the stag, wild boar, bear, wolf, otter, squirrel, and many other wild animals are found in rich profusion, and often these are split and the marrow extracted. These ancient men, however, did not entirely rely on such precarious provision for their wants, but were so far advanced in civilization that they kept cattle and domestic animals of various kinds. They possessed dogs in great numbers, as well as cows, sheep, goats, and pigs, and in winter time had these housed on their settlements, as among the remains found are litters of straw, etc., which had evidently served as bedding for these animals. This, of course, necessitated the gathering of grass or other material for their food. They also cultivated wheat, barley, flax, and a number of other vegetable products. Their methods of cultivation were no doubt very rude, consisting of a mere scratching of the ground with crooked branches of trees or with simple instruments made of stags' horn; but, nevertheless, they succeeded in getting very good results. Among the relics which they have left are found stones for crushing corn, the grain which they used, and even the very cakes or bread which they made. There are also fruits, such as the apple, pear, nut, etc.; so that the bill of fare of prehistoric man was by no means contemptible. He had fish, game, beef, mutton, pork, bread, and fruit, besides a plentiful supply of water from the lake at his door. He was acquainted with the potter's art, and manufactured earthen vessels of various kinds. He seems to have produced two kinds--a coarser and a finer; the former made from clay mixed with a quantity of grains of stone, and the latter of washed loam. These he ornamented in an elementary fashion with certain lines and marks. Some of the vessels he used have been found with a burnt crust of the porridge which he had been making adhering. As to his clothes, these were probably formed in great part from the skins of wild or domestic animals, but he also used fabrics made from flax, which he had learned to weave, as remains of cloth, twine, rope, etc., are not infrequently found in his dwellings.

One prominent feature in the history of these lake dwellers is their gradual advance in the arts of civilization. While the main features of their settlements remain very much the same during the whole period of their residence, there is a gradual improvement in the details; the settlements become larger, and the implements, etc., better finished. And this is especially observable in the change of material which the dweller uses. In the earlier stages of his existence stone is the predominant feature, all his knives, saws, chisels, axes, etc., are made from this substance; but as time rolls on, one or two implements are found made of bronze, which is a mixture of tin and copper, and requires for its production a certain amount of knowledge and mechanical skill. Gradually the number of bronze implements increases until eventually stone is superseded altogether, and improved forms of weapons of war make their appearance, and his work has a more finished look, arising from his improved implements. Whether the manufacture of bronze was an original discovery of his own, or whether it was an importation from some more advanced race, is not certainly known; but as he undoubtedly had intercourse with the East, it is probable that the first bronze was imported, and that afterward he discovered the way to manufacture it himself. However this may be, it seems evident that the introduction of this material greatly aided his development. As stone gave place to bronze, so in the course of time this latter gave place to iron, probably introduced in the same manner some considerable time before the dawn of history; and this metal held its place until these habitations were finally abandoned.

With regard to the religion of these lake dwellers, if they had any, nothing is known. From some curious objects formed somewhat like the crescent of the moon, which are found in considerable numbers, it has been supposed that they worshiped that body; but there seems to be really no evidence for this supposition, and these objects may only have been ornaments, or perhaps charms, fixed above the doors of their huts something after the manner of the horse shoe nailed over the door in modern times to keep away evil spirits. So far as can be inferred from the remains that have been examined, the same race seems to have inhabited these dwellings from their commencement to their end. There is no appearance of invasion from without; all seems continuous. Probably his race came in early time from the East, and were a pastoral people, with flocks, herds, and domestic animals, and built their peculiar habitations to protect themselves from human enemies. Certainly the arrangements were well fitted for the purpose in those days, when the club and the spear were almost the only weapons of offense. Dr. Keller, who has investigated this subject with great care, is of the opinion that these lake dwellers were a branch of the great Celtic race.

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[New England Farmer.]

HOW TO RAISE TURKEYS.

The best feed for young turkeys and ducks is yelks of hard-boiled eggs, and after they are several days old the white may be added. Continue this for two or three weeks, occasionally chopping onions fine and sometimes sprinkling the boiled eggs with black pepper; then give rice, a teacupful with enough milk to just cover it, and boil slowly until the milk is evaporated. Put in enough more to cover the rice again, so that when boiled down the second time it will be soft if pressed between the fingers. Milk must not be used too freely, as it will get too soft and the grains will adhere together. Stir frequently when boiling. Do not use water with the rice, as it forms a paste and the chicks cannot swallow it. In cold, damp weather, a half teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper in a pint of flour, with lard enough to make it stick together, will protect them from diarrhea. This amount of food is sufficient for two meals for seventy-five chicks. Give all food in shallow tin pans. Water and boiled milk, with a little lime water in each occasionally, is the best drink until the chicks are two or three months old, when loppered and buttermilk may take the place of the boiled milk. Turkeys like best to roost on trees, and in their place artificial roots may be made by planting long forked locust poles and laying others across the forks.--_American Agriculturist._

HOW TO RAISE TURKEYS.

Keep the turkey hens tame by feeding them close to the house. Have two or three barrels in sheltered corners containing plenty of straw or leaves for them to lay in. Gather the eggs every evening, as turkey eggs are very easily chilled. Keep the eggs in a woolen cloth on end and turn them every three days. Set the first seven eggs under a chicken hen, as they get too old before the turkey hen will go to sitting. Make a board pen ten or twelve feet square and twelve or fourteen inches high. Put a coop in it and put your hen and turkeys in it. Feed the hen with corn and the turkeys soaked wheat bread (corn meal will kill them), until they are a week old (I feed five or six times a day). Then feed wheat until they are big enough to eat corn. Give plenty of fresh water in a shallow vessel. Keep the mother in the pen until they are large enough to fly over the top of the boards. Let them out awhile about the middle of the day. Shut them in at night. A turkey hen does not like to be shut up, but have a good big coop for her and she will go in. Don't let the little turkeys get their backs wet until they are feathered. The turkey hen will sit down when night comes just where she happens to be, but if you drive her home a few times she will come herself after that. Always feed them when they come home, no matter if they are full of "hoppers." Have your No. 2 pen in the orchard under an apple tree where it is shady. Have the turkey hen's pen close to the chicken hen's pen, so that when the chicken hen weans her turkeys, they will soon learn to go with the turkey hen. Give them a dose of black pepper in their feed every cold rain. And never, no never, get excited and in a hurry while working with turkeys if you don't want them to get wild and fly all over the plantation. Three or four weeks before selling, feed all the corn they will eat.

FOOD HINTS.

Restrain your desire to count your young turkeys, and let them alone for twenty-four hours after they get into this world. Remove them to a clean, airy, roomy coop, and give them boiled eggs, stale wheat bread crumbs just moistened with milk or water, "Dutch" cheese, or a mixture of all these.

For the first two weeks feed entirely with the eggs, bread, curds, cooked rice and cooked oatmeal. About the third week commence feeding cooked cornmeal; and from that on they may have any cooked food that would be suitable for chickens of the same age. Season all food slightly with salt and pepper, and twice a week add a level tablespoonful of bone meal to a pint of feed. Never feed any sour food or sloppy food of any kind, except sour milk, and never feed any uncooked food of any kind until after they have thrown out the red on their heads. Feed often, five or six times a day, until after they are three months old; then, if insects are numerous, you may gradually reduce the number of meals per day to three or even two.

After they are three months old they may be given wheat, cracked corn, etc., but not whole corn until they are five months old. Keep the coops dry and clean, and the turkeys out of the dew and rain until they are fully feathered, and have thrown out the red. Dampness and filth will kill young turkeys as surely as a dose of poison. For the first few days confine the poults to the limits of the coop and safety run; then, if all appear strong and well, give the mother hen and her brood liberty on pleasant days after the dew is off.

If they get caught out in a shower, get them to shelter as soon as possible; and if they are chilled take them to the house and thoroughly dry and warm them. See that the little turkeys come home every night. The turkey mother must, for the first few nights, be hunted up and driven home. After they are three months old, turkeys are quite hardy, and may be allowed range at all times. If turkeys that are well cared for, and have always seemed all right, show signs of drooping when about six weeks or two months old, give Douglas mixture in the drink or food, and add a little cooked meat to the food once a day.--_The Practical Farmer._

ABOUT SITTING.

For an ordinary place, select from a good breed (I prefer the bronze) a large gobbler and two or three hens. As soon as the warm weather comes, place about the barn in sheltered places two or three barrels on their sides, and in them make nice nests. In these the hens will lay. Gather the eggs every day, keeping them in a cool place. When a box contains 23 eggs mark it No. 1 and begin to fill a second box, and when it contains 23 eggs mark it No. 2 and so continue. It is well to leave turkey hens on the nest two or three days, for they often lay one or two eggs after they begin to show signs of sitting.

When you have decided to sit a hen, give her a good nest and 15 eggs and at the same time give a common hen eight eggs. These, when hatched, are all to be given to the turkey hen. Never try to raise turkeys with a domestic fowl. If you have no place free of grass, you can start turkeys with difficulty. Feeding is of the greatest importance. For the first week I have found wheat bread moistened in water the most satisfactory. If you can feed them by sunrise for the first three or four weeks, you need lose hardly a bird. Each evening try and call them nearer and nearer home, so that you will not be troubled with their wandering to the neighbors'. As early as possible train them to roost high, so as to be out of danger at night. Bird dogs are often very destructive to turkeys, at times destroying a whole flock in a single night. Fatten with corn. The turkey crop ought to be one of the most profitable on our farms.

Dr. G.G. GROFF. Pennsylvania.

GRAHAM.

Turkeys want care, especially for the first two or three weeks. I feed graham and wheat bread, made by scalding the flour, making a very stiff dough, and baking in a hot oven; soak over night in cold water. I also give them plenty of young onions, cutting them up with scissors. Be careful not to let young turkeys out in the morning while the grass is wet. After the birds are two weeks old I feed wheat, but no corn until they are about a month old. I like hen mothers best, for turkey mothers are rangers, and do not take kindly to being kept in a coop. The bread will keep a week if made right, but do not soak more than will be wanted in a day, as it soon sours. I feed scraps from the table, such as potatoes and bits of meat cut very fine, but not much of the latter to young birds. I rarely lose a bird.--_Mrs. E. Reith, in Homestead._

CARE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

In turkey raising the one who is the most careful and attentive to the small things is the most successful. The first laying of eggs should be set under a chicken hen. The turkey hen will, after a few days' confinement, lay another batch of eggs. A good-sized hen will cover and care for ten eggs; a turkey hen, seventeen. Make a large, roomy nest of soft, fine hay--straw is too brittle and slippery. If there is danger of lice in the nest-box, sprinkle with water in which carbolic acid has been mixed in the proportion of eight drops to a half gallon of water. Don't wet the eggs with this. After the eggs have been sat on one week, sprinkle with warm water every other day, until the last week; then every day, until they hatch. Have the water clear, and use a flower or fine rose sprinkler. Let the water be of the same temperature as the eggs, which can be ascertained by slipping a thermometer under the hen for a few minutes. This softens the shells, and as a little turkey is very weak, it is helped out easily, and is stronger than if working long to get out.

Let the little turkeys get well dried and strong enough to climb around the edges of their nest before taking them off. Have a pen, say six feet square, built for them, and made tight at the sides clear down to the ground, to keep them from getting out and being chilled. Put sand and fine gravel over the ground, and cover enough of it to afford shelter at night and when it rains. They may be kept in this pen the first four or five days, then let out after dew is off, and shut up before night.

For the first few days' feed, nothing is better than clabber cheese or curd made by scalding clabbered milk until the curd separates and is cooked, then skimmed out and fed. Mix a little black pepper with this every other day. Meal must not be fed raw for several weeks, and then should be mixed with sour milk instead of water. Bake the meal into bread by mixing it, unsifted, with sour milk, and adding a little soda and pepper. Spinach, lettuce, onion tops and any other tender greens, chopped fine, are excellent food. From the time a turkey is hatched until it is ready for market it should have plenty of milk. Give them clear water to drink, for milk is a food. See that the very young ones have milk and water in quite shallow dishes, for they are in danger of getting wet if the dish is deep.

GATHER THE LITTLE TURKEYS IN

at the first signs of rain, and they will soon learn to run and fly to their coop at the first drops. Always shut them up at night, for they are early risers and will be out long before the dew is dried off. Don't pen them too near the house. Feed them at or near the same place all the time and they will learn to go there when hungry. Give them a good feed at night and they will remember to come home for it. If the morning is dry, feed lightly and let them hunt the rest in the orchard and fields. Keep the grass and weeds mowed around their pen and feeding places. Mix slaked lime in the dust for them to take their dust bath in, and sprinkle the carbolic acid and water over and around their roosting pen. Keep pails and kettles covered, for they will get drowned if they have half a chance, as they begin to fly so young. Of course a turkey hen will take her young off, and care for them after a fashion, but the safest way to make them tame is to raise them where they may be cared for. Even if the turkey hen hatches her last batch of eggs, it is a good plan to have a hen ready to take the little turkeys and slip them away at night. If she still stays on her nest give her 20 or 25 hen's eggs, and if she hatches them let her run with the chickens. They are not so tender or so easily led astray as turkeys are, nor as valuable.--_Mrs. Jas. R. Hinds, in Orange Judd Farmer._

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WATER AS A THERAPEUTICAL AGENT.

By F.C. ROBINSON, M.D.

My experience in the use of water in almost every disease occurring in this climate has long since satisfied me that it is less objectionable and produces quicker and better results than any other treatment, and can be used when all other medication is contra-indicated. Drinking water should be pure, uncontaminated by animal or vegetable impurities, and given _ad libitum_, unless, in rare instances, it should cause vomiting or interfere with the capability of digesting food. If children are comatose or delirious, as they frequently are in typhoid fever, give water to them regularly, or force it upon them, if they refuse to take it, as I was obliged to do with a child of six years just recovering from that fever.

It is my custom to allow cold drinks of water in all cases of measles whenever patients desire it, and I am satisfied that it aids the early appearance of the rash, and certainly is cooling and grateful to the patient. Hot drinks or vile and nauseous teas are unnecessary in this disease, and should be discarded as useless, odious, and disgusting. If congestion of the lungs or any intercurrent inflammation occurs, or the rash is much delayed, a hot water bath or the old reliable corn sweat will break up the complication with amazing rapidity, and if the head is kept cool, will not generally be unacceptable to the patient.

Hot baths reduce temperature by causing free perspiration afterward, and cold packs reduce it by cooling the surface sufficiently long to reduce the heat of the blood, and, if used judiciously, seldom fail of success. I have reduced the temperature four degrees in two hours by wrapping around a child a sheet wet with tepid water, and no other covering. Cold packs are sometimes objectionable, because of their depressing effects, and should only be used to reduce high temperature and when there is no congestion or inflammation of any of the vital organs of the body.

Cold water poured in a small stream from a pitcher upon the head for five or ten minutes will often relieve headache, and is a benefit in all inflammatory brain diseases, if, at the same time, you can put the feet into hot water containing mustard or pepper.

Large enemas of warm water will care for spasmodic colic, and I have, in one instance, relieved strangulated hernia by the same method, and at another time the same result was accomplished by a large injection of warm linseed oil. I have often applied a cloth wet with cold water upon the throats of children suffering with spasmodic croup, with satisfactory results.

I have seen infants suffering with diarrhea or summer complaint, sleepless, worrying, fretting, or crying from thirst, begging for water, and the mother or nurse afraid to give it more than a teaspoonful or two at a time, saying that it vomited everything it drank as soon as taken. I have often, when visiting such cases, called for a glass of cold water, and, to the surprise of the mother, would allow it to take all it could drink, which usually would be retained, and the child would soon be wrapped in a refreshing sleep. Without medicine, a proper regulation of the child's diet would soon restore it to health again.

The spasms of children, from whatever causes, or the eclampsia from uræmic poisoning, are often readily controlled when immersed in hot water or given a hot vapor bath or corn sweat. If the convulsions of children are accompanied by a high temperature, put them into water of 100° and then gradually cool it down to 68° or 70°, and then keep them in a room of the same temperature, with little covering. If the temperature rises, repeat the treatment as frequently as necessary, and I think you will not be disappointed in the results.

Scarlet fever and diphtheria, two of the most dreaded and formidable diseases of children, are largely shorn of their terrors when, in addition to an early and thorough medicinal treatment, the little patients are bathed in as warm water as the surface will allow frequently, or for thirty minutes wrapped in a warm, wet blanket, followed by warm, dry coverings, to maintain the perspiration that such treatment usually produces. It has proved to me a valuable aid in eliminating from the blood the specific poison which causes these diseases, and I can safely recommend it to your notice and trial.

There is no disease more favorably influenced by this treatment than pneumonia, and in mild cases one daily warm bath or sweat, without medicine, will be sufficient to arrest this disease, and it is among the first things I usually order. If I find a child or infant with a temperature of 103° to 105°, short, dry, and painful cough, dyspnoea, rapid pulse, great thirst, or vomiting, with dry crepitation in any part of the lung tissue, I order it rolled up in a blanket or sheet coming out of hot water, and in thirty minutes change it to warm, dry blankets, and soon the little fretful, worrying sufferer would rest in a quiet, peaceful sleep.--_Peoria Med. Mo._

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ON THE HEALTH VALUE TO MAN OF THE SO-CALLED DIVINELY BENEFICENT GIFT, TOBACCO.

By J.M.W. KITCHEN, M.D., New York.

With perhaps the exception of heredity, the question of stimulants and narcotics in their relation to the physical welfare of the race is second to none in importance. With trifling exceptions, the whole world is addicted to their use. The universality of such use has led many to consider them a necessity to man, and that they are God's gifts to him, and, if rightly used, are of physical benefit. It may not be a perversion of judgment to consider that their widespread popular use is greatly due to the efforts of the race to gain anæsthesia for, and distraction from, those pains and punishments that are the inevitable sequence of departure from hygienic and social law on the part of the individual, his ancestry, and society in general.