Part 9

Some small filaments were subsequently removed with the lithotrite, but on microscopical examination nothing of diagnostic importance was discovered. From lack of the capacity of the bladder, the field was necessarily limited, nevertheless, a very excellent view of the tumor could be obtained. This is shown in the illustration, from a sketch made at the time of the first examination. It represents the position of the tumor and cystoscope when the best view of it was obtained.

On the following Monday the patient entered St. Luke's Hospital, and was operated upon by my associate, Dr. L. B. Bangs, Dr. Charles McBurney assisting. The high operation was performed, and the bladder being examined by means of an electric light, introduced through the suprapubic incision, the diagnosis made by the cystoscope was verified in every particular. The growth was then removed, as far as possible, with the scissors, and the surface cauterized with the Paquelin cautery. At the present writing the patient is going on toward a satisfactory recovery. The pathological examination made by Dr. Frank Ferguson, pathologist of St. Luke's Hospital, showed the neoplasm to be a simple papilloma.

This case is deserving of especial interest as being the first tumor of the bladder diagnosticated in this country by means of the cystoscope, and verified by subsequent operation, and adds one more to the list of sixteen cases so made out by foreign observers, and two by Dr. Fenwick, of England. In this instance the instrument deserves particular credit, as other methods had completely failed in the practice of competent observers.

This consists of a metal tube, about seven inches long, of a caliber of 22 French, having at the proximal end a funnel shaped ocular opening; at the distal, a short beak, similar to that of the catheter coudé. A window of rock crystal is set in the end of this beak, behind which a small electric lamp, controlled by a switch at the ocular end, is placed. A rectangular prism, the hypothenuse plane of which is silvered, is placed in the end of the straight portion of the tube, its superior face being seen just anterior to the angle formed by the beak. The distended bladder is illuminated by the electric lamp, the rays reflected from its wall falling on the prism experience total reflection, an inverted image being formed within the tube. The size of the field thus obtained is greatly increased by means of a telescope introduced into the tube. The image seen through the cystoscope is an inverted image, but right and left are not transposed.

There can be no question as to the great prospective value of the electro-cystoscope in diagnosis of many difficulties to which the bladder is subject. A variety of foreign bodies have already been reported as made out by use of this instrument. The locality, size, and color of vesical calculi have been demonstrated in my own experience. In one instance two stones were seen where only one had been previously found, but this of course might with care have been effected by means of the lithotrite. But it is in the diagnosis of the tumors, and encysted or impacted calculi, that the most essential service may be anticipated from the use of the cystoscope. The orifices of the ureters are quite readily brought into the cystoscopic field, and it is more than probable that (perhaps through the introduction of some clear fluid with which blood does not readily mingle--glycerine, for instance) the true source of a previously doubtful hæmaturia will be demonstrated.--_Medical Record._

DISTANCE AND CONSTITUTION OF THE SUN.

So many queries about the solar system, or the members of it, have come recently to the attention of those in charge of this journal, from various sources, that it is thought best to make a brief statement of the present state of knowledge that astronomy has of the solar neighborhood in which we live.

Naturally we begin with the sun, and the oldest and most important problem which the study of this body offers is the determination of its distance from the earth in terrestrial units of measure. This distance is important because the knowledge of all the phenomena of all the heavenly bodies, except those of the moon, depend directly or indirectly on its value. The problem of the sun's distance is difficult because the data given for determining it are insufficient to enable the astronomer to apply the principles of trigonometry directly to it. He is, therefore, compelled to use indirect methods of solution, which, at best, give only approximations to the true distance, arising chiefly from small errors in observation, which, at the present time, seem unavoidable. A familiar illustration will make our meaning clear. The knowledge we have of the sun's distance depends on the accurate measurement of a small angle formed by drawing two lines from a point at the sun to the extremities of the earth's radius. That angle is called the sun's parallax. Ptolemy thought that this angle was 3' of arc, but we now know that its value is very near 8.80" of arc, and that the error of this amount from the true angle probably is not more than 0.02". To measure this small angle has been the astronomer's great trouble since the time of Aristarchus, and he does not yet know its value accurately. His problem is like that of a surveyor attempting to measure a ball, whose real diameter is one foot, at the distance of 4.4 miles nearly; and unless he can determine the diameter of the ball so that he shall not be uncertain in his measure to the amount of 0.03 of an inch, his work will not add anything useful to present knowledge.

If we suppose the angle of parallax to be known, the computation of the distance of a celestial body is easy. Multiply earth's radius by 206,265 (seconds of arc in the unit radius), and divide the product by the angle of parallax in seconds of arc. The mean equatorial radius of the earth, as given in Clark's Geodesy, is 3963.3 English miles. The sun's distance for a parallax of 8.78" would be

206,265" × 3963.3 ----------------- = 93,108,000 miles. 8.78"

For parallax of 8.80" = 92,897,000 miles. For parallax of 8.82" = 92,686,000 miles.

The range of error in parallax, as here given, is 0.04", and the change of the distance of the sun in allowing for this error is nearly half a million of miles. If 8.80" be the assumed parallax, with ± 0.02" as probable error, then the uncertainty of the sun's distance is still nearly a quarter of a million of miles.

So far astronomers are pretty generally agreed, unless it be in the value of the earth's radius used above. In his excellent work, entitled "The Sun," we notice that Professor Young gives 3,962.72 English miles as the "latest and most reliable determination" (page 22), while he seems to use Bessel's value of 3,962.80 in obtaining 92,885,000. This may be because the last named value is still in most general use, though less accurate undoubtedly than that of Clarke.

Since the transit of Venus, of 1874, the determination of the solar parallax has not been very much improved. The transit of 1882, so far as known, has given surprisingly discordant results, and probably they will be of very little service in improving our knowledge of the distance of the sun. In the midst of all this uncertainty of late work, in ordinary methods two ways of studying the problem show results almost exactly alike. They are obtained from late improved measures of the velocity of light, and from measures by the heliometer. The parallax from these sources is 8.794". The Brazilian results of transit of Venus for 1882, by Wolf and Andre, recently published, make the parallax 8.808". The American reductions for the last transit are not yet completed.

From the above brief statement of results, it seems that the value of the solar parallax is likely to be a trifle under 8.80", rather than above it, making the distance of the sun probably very near 93,000,000 miles.

The next most important problem pertaining to the sun is its constitution, which is usually considered under four heads:

1. The central portion, thought to be made up chiefly of intensely heated gases.

2. That part which is seen by the aid of the telescope, called the photosphere, consisting of a "shell of luminous clouds formed by the cooling and condensation of the condensible vapors at the surface where exposed to the cold of outer space." (Young.)

3. Outside of the photosphere is a shallow stratum, called the chromosphere, "composed mainly of uncondensible gases (conspicuously hydrogen) left behind by the formation of the photospheric clouds, and bearing something the same relation to them that the oxygen and nitrogen of our own atmosphere do to our own clouds." (Young.) And--

4. The corona, which is the beautiful halo seen, with the naked eye, outside of all, during the time of a total eclipse of the sun. This curious halo with all its streamers and rifts is thought to be composed chiefly of an incandescent material, in a far more attenuated state than that of hydrogen, the rarest gas known, because it yields freely in the spectroscope a certain line, 1474 K, which most agree can mean nothing else, although no one knows what the gas or metallic vapor is. Hydrogen is also found in the corona extending to the height of 600,000 miles above the photosphere, and possibly 1,200,000 miles. Suspended in this mixture of vapors, and "falling into, or projected from, the sun is a large quantity of solid or liquid material, which is at such a temperature as to be self-luminous. It is this which yields the continuous spectrum, free from dark lines.

"Besides these components in the outer envelope, there is present matter which reflects or diffuses light much as our own atmosphere does.

"To this is attributed the partial radial polarization of the corona. The streamers and rifts indicate matter repelled, in various quantities, from the sun by forces which may be electrical." (Hastings.)

These are the views advanced by astronomers and physicists, as theories or working hypotheses, until something better or more certain can be known. They are not held as facts by any, because of insufficient proof to establish them as such, and because there are very grave objections to some of them which are at present unanswerable.

For example, the spectroscope shows that the gaseous pressure at the limit of the chromosphere is very small, although that is at the base of an atmosphere from 600,000 to 1,200,000 miles deep, and under the influence of a force of gravity more than twenty-seven times as great as that in action at the surface of the earth.

Optically, the atmosphere of the earth ceases at a height of forty-five miles, but bodies at twice that altitude, moving at the rate of twenty-seven miles per second, meet resistance of air enough to render them incandescent almost instantly. But the evidence seems clear that, far within the corona, the resistance to moving bodies is much less than in our atmosphere at a height of sixty miles. The great comet of 1882 passed through the coronal atmosphere within 300,000 miles of the sun, with a velocity one hundred and eighty times that of the earth in its orbit. The comet was not stopped, nor destroyed, nor its orbit disturbed, as subsequent observations showed. The same thing was true, so far as known, of the comet of 1843, which passed still nearer the solar surface. These facts are troublesome to explain on the hypothesis of a coronal atmosphere.

Still further: if the sun be surrounded by a gaseous envelope, its density, as aforesaid, ought to diminish from the solar surface outward to its upper limits; but the fact is, the material of 1474 K line always appears in the spectrum of chromosphere, which would seem to indicate, by its place, that it is as much more dense than hydrogen as is magnesium vapor, or even the vapor of iron. But the evidence of the spectroscope makes this 1474 K material far less dense than that of hydrogen, and this is a contradiction that is very troublesome to the student of solar physics.

In studying the polarization of the light of the corona, it is clear that the amount of polarized light reflected from a particle at the surface of the sun is nothing, "because the luminous source there is a surface with an angular subtense of 180°;" hence polarization of the corona near the limb of the moon ought to be small, farther away, larger. But observation shows that the contrary is true, _i. e._, the percent. of polarized light increases as the corona is observed nearer the limb of the moon during totality.

These are a few of the difficult questions that stand in the way of accepting the foregoing theories as facts pertaining to, or well grounded knowledge of, the constitution of the sun. They are by no means all, or possibly the most important ones. They are certainly among those that are receiving very general attention at the hands of physicists at the present time.--_Sidereal Messenger._

CHANGES IN THE STELLAR HEAVENS.

By J. E. GORE, F.R.A.S., Honorary Associate and Vice-President of the Liverpool Astronomical Society.

If we look up at the starry heavens on a clear, moonless night, all seems still, lifeless, and devoid of energy and motion. All of us are--or at least should be--familiar with the apparent diurnal motion of the star sphere, caused by the actual rotation of the earth on its axis, and with the slower annual motion, due to the earth's revolution round the sun, which brings different constellations into view at different seasons of the year. These motions, due to the great and universal law of gravitation, discovered and so ably expounded by the famous Sir Isaac Newton, are of course wonderful and orderly in their regularity, and bear silent testimony to the amazing power, majesty, and goodness of a great and glorious Creator. There are, however, other motions and changes, even still more wonderful, going on in the depths of space, which, though unperceived by the ordinary observer, have been revealed to the eye and contemplation of the astronomer by the accurate instruments and methods of research which modern science has placed at his disposal. Some accounts of these marvelous discoveries may prove of interest to the reader. The "fixed stars" are so called because they apparently hold a fixed position with reference to each other on the concave surface of the celestial vault, and do not, as far as the unaided eye can judge, change their relative positions as the planets do. Many stars have, however, what is technically called a "proper motion," which, though of course very minute, and only to be detected by the aid of refined and accurate instruments, yet accumulate in the course of ages, and sensibly alter their position in the sky. The largest "proper motion" hitherto detected (about seven seconds of arc per annum) is that of a small star in the constellation Ursa Major, known to astronomers as No. 1830 of Groonbridge's catalogue. It has been calculated that this star is rushing through space with the amazing and almost inconceivable velocity of 200 miles per second!--a velocity which would carry it from the earth to the sun in about 5½ days and to the moon in 20 minutes! The well-known double star 61 Cygni has a proper motion of about five seconds of arc per annum, both components moving through space together. This is, as far as yet known, the nearest star to the earth in the northern hemisphere. Its parallax, as determined by Sir R. S. Ball, is 0.4676 of a second of arc, and by Prof. Pritchard (by photography) 0.43 of a second. Taking the mean of these values, its distance from the earth would be about 460,000 times the earth's mean distance from the sun, and its actual velocity about 33 miles per second. This is, of course, the motion at right angles to the line of sight, but as it may also have a motion _in_ the line of sight, either to or from the eye, its real velocity is probably greater than this. The remarkable triple star 40 Eridani has a proper motion of four seconds annually. The components are a fourth magnitude star accompanied by a distant double companion which is a binary (or revolving double star), and accompanies the bright star in its flight through space. There are two other faint and distant companions which do not partake in the motion of the ternary star. In the year 1864 the bright star was situated to the east of a line joining these faint companions, but owing to its large proper motion it is now to the west of them. In the case of the triple star Struve 1516, one of the companions, which was to the west of the primary star in 1831, is, owing to the proper motion of the bright star, now to the east of it. Prof. Asaph Hall has found a parallax for 40 Eridani of 0.223 of a second. This, combined with the observed proper motion, indicates an actual velocity of about 54 miles per second. The star Mu Cassiopeiæ has also a large proper motion. This star, about 4,000 years ago, must have been close to Alpha Cassiopeiæ, and might have been so seen by the ancient astronomers. The proper motion of the bright star Arcturus is so considerable that in the course of about 30,000 years it will be near the equator, and about 10° to the north of the bright star Spica, from which it is at present separated by over 30°. These motions are of course those which take place across the face of the sky. There are, however, motions in the line of sight--both toward and from the eye--which have of late years been revealed to us by the spectroscope, that wonderful instrument of modern scientific research, by the aid of which several new metals have been discovered, and which has been found so useful in chemical analysis, and even in the manufacture of steel by the Bessemer process. Some years since, Dr. Huggins, the eminent spectroscopist, found that the bright star Sirius, "the monarch of the skies," was receding from the earth at the rate of about 20 miles a second. Later observations at Greenwich Observatory showed that this motion was gradually diminishing, and within the last few years it has been found that the motion of recession has been actually changed into a motion of approach, showing that this giant sun is probably traveling in a mighty orbit round some as yet unknown center of gravity.

From a consideration of stellar proper motions, it has been concluded that the sun--and therefore the whole solar system--is moving through space. Recent investigations make the velocity of translation about 19 miles per second (30 kilometers). The Greenwich observations place the "apex of the solar motion" (as the point toward which the sun is moving is called) between Rho and Sigma Cygni, while Dr. Huggins' results fix a point near Beta Cephei. Both these points are near the Milky Way.

There are other startling changes which have occasionally taken place among the stars, and which must be looked upon almost in the light of catastrophes. At rare intervals in the history of astronomy "temporary" or "new" stars have suddenly blazed out in the heavens which were previously either unknown to astronomers, or else were invisible, except in the telescope. Some of these were of great brilliancy. In A.D. 173 a bright star is recorded in the Chinese annals as having appeared between Alpha and Beta Centauri (two bright stars in the southern hemisphere). It remained visible for seven or eight months, and is described as resembling "a large bamboo mat" (!)--a not very lucid description. It is worthy of remark that there exists at the present time, close to the spot indicated, an interesting variable star, which may possibly be identical with the bright star of the second century. Perhaps the most remarkable of these wonderful objects was that observed by the famous Tycho Brahe in 1572, in Cassiopeia, and called the "Pilgrim." It was so brilliant that it rivaled the planet Venus at its brightest, and was visible at noonday. It remained visible for over a year and then disappeared.

A small star close to its recorded position has been observed in recent years, and as it is thought to be slightly variable in its light, it may possibly be identical with the long lost star of Tycho Brahe. Another new star of almost equal brilliancy was observed in October, 1604, in Ophiuchus, a few degrees southeast of the star Eta Ophiuchi. The planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were close together in this vicinity, and one evening Mostlin, a pupil of Kepler's, remarked that a new and very brilliant star had joined the group. When first seen it was white, and exceeded in brightness Mars and Jupiter, and was even thought to rival Venus in splendor! It gradually diminished, however, and in six months was not equal in luster to Saturn; in March, 1606, it had entirely disappeared. In 1670 a star of the third magnitude was observed by Anthelm near Beta Cygni. It remained visible for about two years, and increased and diminished several times before it finally disappeared. Flamsteed's star, No. 11 of Vulpecula, has been supposed to be identical with Anthelm's star, but Baily could not find that such a star exists. A small star has, however, been observed at Greenwich within one minute of arc of the place assigned to the temporary star by Picard's observations.

Variability has been suspected in this faint star, and according to Hind it has a hazy, ill-defined appearance about it, which may perhaps suggest that it may be a small planetary nebula, similar to Schmidt's new star of 1876 in Cygnus. A small new star was observed by Hind in Ophiuchus on April 28, 1848. When first noticed it was about the fifth magnitude. It afterward rose to about fourth magnitude, but very soon faded away, and, although still visible in the telescope, has become very faint in recent years. A new star of seventh magnitude was found by Pogson on May 28, 1860, in the well-known star cluster known as 80 Messier in Scorpio. The light of the star when first seen obscured the light of the nebula. On June 10 the star had nearly disappeared, and the nebula was again seen shining with great brilliancy.

A very interesting temporary star--known as the "Blaze Star"--suddenly appeared in Corona Borealis in May, 1866. It was first seen by the late Mr. Birmingham, of Tuam, Ireland, on the night of May 12, when it was of the second magnitude and equal in brightness to Alphecca, the brightest star in the well-known "Coronet." It must have made its appearance very suddenly, for Dr. Schmidt, the director of the Athens observatory, stated that he was observing this region of the heavens a few hours previously, and noticed nothing unusual. It rapidly diminished in brightness, and on May 24 of the same year was reduced to nearly the ninth magnitude. It was soon discovered that the star had been previously observed, and its place registered by the great German astronomer, Argelander, as of magnitude 9½, so that it is possibly a variable star of irregular period and fitful variability. When near its maximum brilliancy, its light was examined by Dr. Huggins with the spectroscope, which showed the bright lines of incandescent hydrogen gas in addition to the ordinary stellar spectrum. This implies that the great increase in its light was due to a sudden outburst of hydrogen in the star's atmosphere. Some observers remarked that when viewed with the naked eye it decidedly twinkled more than other stars in the neighborhood, which rendered a correct estimate of its relative brightness somewhat difficult. During the years 1866 to 1876, Schmidt detected variations of light which seemed to show a period of about 94 days, and these observations were confirmed by Schonfeld.