Chapter 7

It is well known that we can discharge the storage battery _ad libitum_ at the rate of 2 amperes or 200 amperes. I can get out of a storage battery almost any horse power I like for a short space of time. I have not the least objection to the direct system. But when you come to run twenty or thirty or fifty cars on one line, you will require very large conductors or dangerously high electromotive force. The overhead system is applicable to its own particular purposes. Where there are only five or ten, or even twenty, cars running on one line, and that line runs through a suburb or a part of a city where there are not many houses, that system is to be preferred. The objection to the overhead system is not so much the want of beauty, but the want of practicability. You have to put your posts very high indeed, so as to let great wagon loads of hay and all sorts of things pass underneath. Most of the trouble comes in winter, and when it is snowing hard a great many difficulties arise. As regards the loss, suppose that the resistance of the overhead lines is one ohm. To draw one car it will take an average of 20 amperes, and the only loss will be 20 multiplied by 20, that is, 400 watts through line resistance. But if there are ten cars on that line, you get 40,000 watts loss of energy, unless you increase the conductor in proportion to the number of cars. If you do that, you get an enormous conductor, and have a sort of elevated railroad instead of a telegraph wire, as most people imagine an overhead conductor to be.

The current required to run a street car is about thirty amperes, and an electromotive force of about 180 volts. If cars are run in connection with an incandescent light station, we can arrange our apparatus so that we can use an E.M.F. say of 110 volts, and then we can put in a smaller number of cells with a larger capacity that will give a corresponding horse power. We can charge such larger cells with 50 or 60 amperes instead of thirty.

In regard to arc lighting machinery, the arc lighting dynamo should not be used to charge the accumulators. They can be used, but they require such constant attention as to make them impracticable. We can only use shunt-wound dynamos conveniently for that purpose.

In regard to using two motors on a car, there are several advantages in it. I use two motors on all my cars in Europe, and always have done so from the beginning. One of the advantages is that in case of an accident to one motor the other will bring the car home; secondly, with two motors we can vary the speed without changing the E.M.F. of the battery. If I want very much power, I put two motors in parallel, getting four times the power that I do with one machine, and an intermediate power of two motors.

There is another advantage of having two motors, and that is that we can use two driving axles instead of one, and we can go up grades with almost double the facility that way, because the adhesion would be double. These are the main advantages arising from the use of two or more motors.

Mr. Mailloux asked if I would give my experience in regard to the mechanical transmission between the motor and the car axle. I have used almost everything that was known at the time, but in order to give you a full and detailed account of the various modes of transmission which I have used I should have to give you figures to bear out certain experiments. I should only be able to do that in a lecture of at least five hours' duration, so I hope that you will kindly excuse me on that point.

With regard to the durability of plates, I have taken into consideration fifteen hours a day. In regard to the application of electrical brakes, I will say that that was one of the first ideas that entered my head when I began to use electric motors, and other people had that idea long before me. I have used an electric brake, using the motor itself as a brake--that is, as the car runs down a grade by momentum, it generates a current, but this current cannot be used for recharging a battery. It is utter nonsense to talk about that unless we have a steady grade four or five miles long. The advantages are very small indeed, and the complications which would be introduced by employing automatic cut-outs, governors, and so on, would counterbalance anything that might be gained. As regards going up an incline, of course stopping and starting again has to be done often, and anybody who at any time works cars by electricity, whether they have storage batteries or not, has to allow for sufficient motive power to overcome all the difficulties that any line might present.

One of the great mistakes which some of the pioneers in this direction made was that they did not put sufficient power upon the cars. You always ought to put on the cars power capable of exerting perhaps 20 to 40 per cent. more than is necessary in the ordinary street service, so that in case of the road being snowed up, or in the case of any other accident which is liable to occur, you ought to have plenty of power to get out of the scrape.

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BRISTOL CATHEDRAL.

An Augustinian monastery, founded by Robert Fitzhardinge in 1142, had its church, of Norman architecture, to which additions were made in the early English period. When Edmund Knowle was abbot, from 1306 to 1332, the Norman choir was replaced by that which now exists. His successor, Abbot Snow, built the chapels on the south side of the choir. Abbot Newland, between 1481 and 1515, enriched the transepts with a groined roof and with ornamental work of the decorated Gothic style, and erected the central tower. Abbot Elliott, who followed Newland, removed the Norman nave and aisles, intending to rebuild them; but this was prevented by his death in 1526 and by the dissolution of the monastery a few years afterward; he completed, however, the vaulting of the south transept. The church remained with a nave, and otherwise incomplete, until the modern restorations; after which, in 1877, it was reopened with a special service. Messrs. Pope & Bindon, of Bristol, were the architects employed. The exterior, of which we give an illustration, viewed from St. Augustine's Green, or Upper College Green, is not very imposing; from the Lower Green there is a good view of the central tower and the transept. The height of the tower is but 127 ft. It is of perpendicular Gothic architecture, but the piers supporting it are Norman. The interior presents many features of interest. The clustered triple shafts of the piers in the choir, with their capitals of graceful foliage, the lofty pointed arches between them, and the groined vaulting, have much beauty. The chancel is decorated with tracery of a peculiar pattern.

The Abbey of St. Augustine at Bristol was surrendered to King Henry VIII. in 1538, and became, in 1542, the cathedral of the new Episcopal see then created. The first Bishop of Bristol, Paul Bush, was deprived of his see by Queen Mary, being a married clergyman and refusing to part with his wife. Bishop Fletcher, in Queen Elizabeth's time, afterward Bishop of Worcester and of London, was twice married, at which this queen likewise expressed her displeasure. He was father of Fletcher, the dramatic poet; and he is said to have been one of the first English smokers of tobacco. Among noted Bishops of Bristol were Bishop Lake, afterward of Chichester, and Bishop Trelawny (Sir Jonathan Trelawny, Bart., of Cornwall), two of the "seven bishops"; imprisoned for disobeying an illegal order of James II. "And shall Trelawny die? Then twenty thousand Cornishmen will know the reason why." But the most eminent was Bishop Joseph Butler, the author of "The Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion" and of the "Sermons on Human Nature." He was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, and was educated as a Nonconformist. He was Bishop of Bristol from 1738 to 1750, when he was translated to Durham. In 1836, the see of Bristol was joined with that of Gloucester; and the Right Rev. Drs. J.H. Monk, O. Baring, W. Thomson (now Archbishop of York), and C.J. Ellicott have been Bishops of Gloucester and Bristol.--_Illustrated London News._

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WAVES.

In the first days of August, two startling announcements reached us from the United States. They were as follows:

(1.) "The commander of the Cunarder Umbria reports that at 3 o'clock on July 27, about 1,500 miles from Sandy Hook, the vessel was struck by a tidal wave 50 ft. high, which swept the decks, carried away a portion of the bridge and the forward hatch, and flooded the cabins and steerage."

(2.) "The captain of the Wilson line steamer Martello reports that at half-past 8 on the evening of July 25, when in lat. 49° 3' N., long. 31° W., an enormous wave struck the vessel, completely submerging the decks."

In view of these reports, and inasmuch as questions were asked on the subject in Parliament, though it is quite possible that, as regards the "tidal" character of the waves, there may be something of newspaper _gobemoucherie_ in the announcements, we offer a few remarks on _waves_ in general, which may be useful to some of our readers.

_Tidal phenomena_ present themselves under two aspects: as alternate elevations and depressions of the sea and as recurrent inflows and outflows of streams. Careful writers, however, use the word _tide_ in strict reference to the _changes of elevation_ in the water, while they distinguish the recurrent streams as _tidal currents_. Hence, also, _rise_ and _fall_ appertain to the tide, while _flood_ and _ebb_ refer to the tidal current.

The _cause of the tides_ is the combined action of the sun and moon. The relative effects of these two bodies on the oceanic waters are directly as their mass and inversely as the square of their distance; but the moon, though small in comparison with the sun, is so much nearer to the earth that she exerts the greater influence in the production of the great _tide wave_. Thus the mean force of the moon, as compared with that of the sun, is as 2¼ to 1.

The attractive force of the moon is most strongly felt by those parts of the ocean over which she is vertical, and they are, consequently, drawn toward her. In the same manner, the influence of the luminary being less powerfully exerted on the waters furthest from her than on the earth itself, they must remain behind. By these means, at the two opposite sides of the earth, in the direction of the straight line between the centers of the earth and moon, the waters are simultaneously raised above their mean level; and the moon, in her progressive westerly motion, as she comes to each meridian in succession, causes two uprisings of the water--two high tides--the one when she passes the meridian above, the other when she crosses it below; and this is done, not by drawing after her the water first raised, but by raising continually that under her at the time; this is the _tide wave_. In a similar manner (from causes already referred to) the sun produces two tides of much smaller dimensions, and the joint effect of the action of the two luminaries is this, that instead of four separate tides resulting from their separate influence, the _sun merely alters the form of the wave raised by the moon_; or, in other words, the greater of the two waves (which is due to the moon) is modified in its height by the smaller (sun's) wave. When the summit of the two happens to coincide, the summit of the combined wave will be at the highest. When the hollow of the smaller wave coincides with the summit of the larger, the summit of the combined wave will be at the lowest.

It is necessary to have a clear and distinct conception of the difference between the _motion_ of a _wave_ and that of a _current_. In the current there is a transfer of water; in the wave the transfer is no more than would be brought about by a particle of water impinging on another where that particle has a motion perpendicular to the surface, and a rising and falling results. The onward movement of the wave itself is always perceptible enough. That the water is not moving with the same velocity is also evident from watching the progress of any light body floating on its surface. This fact may be practically illustrated in the case of a ship at sea, sailing before the wind in the same direction as the waves are moving. When the crest of a wave is near the stern, drop a piece of wood on it. Almost instantly the wave will be seen shooting ahead of the vessel, while the wood is scarcely removed from the position where it fell on the water. The wave has moved onward, preserving its identity as a wave, the water of which it is formed being constantly changed; and thus the motion of the wave is one thing, that of the water in which the waves are formed is quite another thing.

Again, waves are formed by a force acting horizontally; but in the case of the tide wave, that force acts uniformly from the surface to the lowest depths of the ocean, and the breadth of the wave is that curved surface which, commencing at low water, passes over the summit of the tide down to the next low water--this is a wave of the first order. In waves of the second order, the force raising them acts only on the surface, and there the effect is greatest (as in the wind waves)--where one assists in giving to the water oscillating motion which maintains the next, and gradually puts the whole surface in commotion; but at a short distance down that effect entirely disappears.

If the earth presented a uniform globe, with a belt of sea of great and uniform depth encircling it round the equator, the tide wave would be perfectly regular and uniform. Its velocity, where the water was deep and free to follow the two luminaries, would be 1,000 miles an hour, and the height of tide inconsiderable. But even the Atlantic is not broad enough for the formation of a powerful tide wave. The continents, the variation in the direction of the coast line, the different depths of the ocean, the narrowness of channels, all interfere to modify it. At first it is affected with only a slight current motion toward the west--a motion which only acquires strength when the wave is heaped up, as it were, by obstacles to its progress, as happens to it over the shallow parts of the sea, on the coasts, in gulfs, and in the mouths of rivers. Thus the first wave advancing meets in its course with resistance on the two sides of a narrow channel, it is forced to rise by the pressure of the following waves, whose motion is not at all retarded, or certainly less so than that of the first wave. Thus an actual current of water is produced in straits and narrow channels; and it is always important to distinguish between the tide wave, as bringing high water, and the tidal stream--between the rise and fall of the tide and the flow and ebb.

In the open ocean, and at a distance from the land, the tide wave is imperceptible, and the rise and fall of the water is small. Among the islands of the Pacific four to six feet is the usual spring rise. But the range is considerably affected by local causes, as by the shoaling of the water and the narrowing of the channel, or by the channel opening to the free entrance of the tide wave. In such cases the range of tide is 40 to 50 feet or more, and the tidal stream is one of great velocity. It may under such circumstances even present the peculiar phenomenon called the _bore_--a wave that comes rolling in with the first of flood, and, with a foaming crest, rushes onward, threatening destruction to shipping, and sweeping away all impediments lying in its course.

It is certain that in the open ocean the _great tide wave_ could not be recognized as a wave, since it is merely a temporary alteration of the sea level.

_Waves_ which have their origin in the action of the wind striking the surface of the water commence as a series of small and slow undulations or wavelets--a mere ripple. As the strength, and consequently the pressure, of the wind increases, waves are formed; and a numerical relation exists between the length of a wave, its velocity of progress, and the depth of the water in which it travels.

The _height_ of a wave is measured from trough to crest; and though waves as seen from the deck of a small vessel appear to be "enormous" and "overwhelming," their height, in an ordinary gale, in deep water, does not exceed 15 to 20 feet. In a very heavy gale of some days' continuance they will, of course, be much higher.

Scoresby has observed them 30 ft. high in the North Atlantic; and Ross measured waves of 22 ft. in the South Atlantic. Wilkes records 32 ft. in the Pacific. But the highest waves have been reported off the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn, where they have been observed, on rare occasions, from 30 to 40 ft high; and 36 ft. has been given as the admeasurement in the Bay of Biscay, under very exceptional circumstances. In the voyage round the world the Venus and Bonite record a maximum of 27 ft., while the Novara found the maximum to be 35 ft. But waves of 12 to 14 ft. in shallow seas are often more trying than those of larger dimensions in deeper water. It is generally assumed that a distance from crest to crest of 150 to 350 ft. in the storm wave gives a velocity (in the change of form) of from 17 to 28 miles per hour. But what is required in the computation of the velocity is the period of passage between two crests. Thus a distance of 500 to 600 ft. between two crests, and a period of 10 to 11 seconds, indicates a velocity of 34 miles per hour.

The following table, by Sir G.B. Airy (late Astronomer Royal), shows the velocities with which waves of given lengths travel in water of certain depth:

Depth of | Length of the Wave in Feet.[1] the Water| | | | | | | in Feet. | 10 | 100 | 1,000 | 10,000 | 100,000 |1,000,000 |10,000,000 ---------+-----+------+-------+--------+---------+----------+---------- | | Corresponding Velocity of Wave per Hour in Nautical Miles. | 1 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 3.4 10 | 4.3 | 10.1 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 | 10.8 100 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 32.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 | 34.0 1,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 101.8 | 107.5 | 107.5 | 107.5 10,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 135.7 | 320.3 | 340.0 | 340.3 100,000 | 4.3 | 13.5 | 42.9 | 135.7 | 429.3 | 1013.0 | 1075.3 ---------+-----+------+-------+--------+---------+----------+----------

[Footnote 1: As an example, this table shows that waves 1,000 feet in length travel 43 nautical miles per hour in water 1,000 feet deep. The length is measured from crest to crest.]

From these numbers it appears that--

1. When the length of the wave is not greater than the depth of the water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only on its length, and is proportional to the square root of its length.

2. When the length of the wave is not less than a thousand times the depth of the water, the velocity of the wave depends (sensibly) only on the depth, and is proportional to the square root of the depth.

It is, in fact, the same as the velocity which a free body would acquire by falling from rest under the action of gravity through a height equal to half the depth of the water.

_Rollers_ are of the nature of a violent _ground swell_, and possibly the worst of them may be due to the propagation of an earthquake wave. They come with little notice, and rarely last long. All the small islands in the Mid-Atlantic experience them, and they are frequent on the African coast in the calm season. They are also not unknown in the other oceans. In discussing the meteorology of the equatorial district of the Atlantic, extending from lat. 20° to 10° S, Captain Toynbee observes that "swells of the sea are not always caused by the prevailing wind of the neighborhood. For instance, during the northern winter and spring months, northwesterly swells abound. They are sometimes long and heavy, and extend to the most southern limit of the district. Again, during the southern winter and spring months, southerly and southwesterly swells abound, extending at times to the most northern limit of the district. They are frequently very heavy and long."

The great _forced sea waves_, due to earthquakes, and generally to subterranean and volcanic action, have been known to attain the enormous height of 60 feet or more, and sweep to destruction whole towns situated on the shores where they have broken--as for example Lisbon and places on the west coast of America and in the island of Java. Though so destructive when they come in toward the land, and begin to feel the shelving sea bottom, it is not probable that, in the open ocean, this wave would do more than appear as a long rolling swell. It has, however, been observed that "a wave with a gentle front has probably been produced by gentle rise or fall of a part of the sea bottom, while a wave with a steep front has probably been due to a somewhat sudden elevation or depression. Waves of complicated surface form again would indicate violent oscillations of the bottom."

The altitude and volume of the great sea wave resulting from an earthquake depend upon the suddenness and extent of the originating disturbance and upon the depth of water at its origin. Its velocity of translation at the surface of the sea varies with the depth of the sea at any given point, and its form and dimensions depend upon this also, as well as upon the sort of sea room it has to move in. In deep ocean water, one of these waves may be so long and low as to pass under a ship without being observed, but, as it approaches a sloping shore, its advancing slope becomes steeper, and when the depth of water becomes less than the altitude of the wave, it topples over, and comes ashore as an enormous and overwhelming breaker.

Lastly, there is the _storm wave_--the result of the cyclone or hurricane--and, perhaps, the greatest terror to seamen, for it almost always appears in the character of a _heavy cross sea_, the period of which is irregular and uncertain. The disturbance within the area of the cyclone is not confined to the air, but extends also to the ocean, producing first a rolling swell, which eventually culminates in a tremendous pyramidal sea and a series of storm waves, the undulations of which are propagated to an extraordinary distance, behind, before, and on each side of the storm field.

Enough has now been said to show that whatever the character of the waves encountered by the Umbria and Martello in July last, they were in no sense "tidal," but, if approximating to the dimensions stated, they were either due to storm or earthquake, or, possibly, to a combination of both the last agents.

For those of our readers who may be interested in wave observations, we conclude by introducing Prof. Stokes' summary of the method of observing the phenomenon:

"_For a Ship at Sea._

"(1.) The apparent periodic time,[2] observed as if the ship were at rest.

"(2.) The _true_ direction from which the waves come, also the ship's _true_ course and speed per hour.

"(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves.

"(4.) The depth of the sea if it is known, but, at any rate, the position of the ship as near as possible, either by cross bearings of land or any other method, so that the depth may be got from charts or other sources.

"_For a Ship at Anchor._

"(1.) The periodic time.

"(2.) The true direction from which the waves come.

"(3.) A measure or estimate of the height of the waves.

"(4.) The depth of water where she is anchored."