Chapter 7

However, ornamental and architectural forms frequently do convey a meaning, which we term symbolism in art. If this symbolism does not detract from the first object of ornament--viz., to beautify--it is perfectly legitimate and proper. It is impossible to fully appreciate many phases of art, as, for instance, the Egyptian and the early Christian, if we leave out of sight the symbolism which pervades them.

While beauty, or capacity for pleasing the eye, may be very definitely said to be the aim of ornamental art, it is difficult to arrive at a universal standard as to what constitutes beauty. What pleases one person will not always please another. The child loves glittering objects and gaudy combinations, which the mature taste of the man declares extravagant and unharmonious. Savages decorate their weapons, utensils, and their own persons with ornaments that appear uncouth and barbarous to civilized people.

Besides these differences in taste, which are due to different degrees of mental development, and which can consequently be easily disposed of, we find among highly civilized and cultured nations, at different periods, a great diversity of tastes. These varying and sometimes apparently conflicting products of ornamental art we designate as styles, viz., Egyptian style, Greek style, Gothic style, etc. So marked are the differences between them that we can sometimes tell at a glance to what period and to what style a small fragment of decoration belongs.

Notwithstanding these differences, which at first may appear very great, a careful study of the best styles--those that achieved the greatest and most lasting popularity--will reveal the fact that they are all based upon certain fundamental laws and principles, and that all are good, bad, or indifferent according as they conform to or violate these principles. These essentials having been preserved, the opportunities for the exercise of individual or national taste are almost boundless.

II. _Position of Ornament._--The position that ornament occupies is necessarily a secondary one, as it cannot exist independently, but is always applied to objects created for some purpose entirely independent of their capacity for pleasing. This gives us one of the great underlying principles that should characterize all ornament, viz., _it must be subordinate to the object which it adorns, and must not detract from its use_. We often see this rule violated in personal, household, and architectural decoration--windows so overloaded with projecting cornices and lattice work as to almost exclude light and air; knife handles carved so elaborately that it is impossible to grasp them firmly; styles of dress in form or color that impede the motions of the wearer, and make the clothes, rather than the personality of the wearer, the most noticeable feature. From this principle there is but a step to another: _All ornament should be modest and moderate_. It must not obtrude itself, and a great profusion and ostentation in its application is always a sign of degeneracy and bad taste. Of course some objects, from their nature, position, and use, will admit of greater and more elaborate ornament than others.

Ornament, being entirely subordinate, should not conceal the construction of the object. In architecture it should follow the leading lines of the building, and should emphasize, or at least suggest, the construction. If architectural in character, it should so enter into the construction of the building that it could not be taken away without injuring it.

We must feel that a column, no matter how beautiful, is supporting something. A floor, always a plane surface, must not be tiled or decorated in any way to express relief. This would apparently destroy the essential constructive quality of a floor, viz., flatness. For the same reason, all shams, such as painted arches, pillars, etc., are not legitimate. As long as they do not actually exist, they are evidently not necessary to the construction, and have no purpose save an imaginary decorative one, and in the words of Owen Jones, _construction must be decorated--not decoration constructed_.

III. _Scope of Ornament._--The scope of ornamental art is almost boundless. It is applied to objects large and small, adapted to the most various uses, constructed of the most different materials. As the ornamentation is always to be subordinate to the object, considerations regarding size, use, position, material, etc., must govern it. An ornament that would be admirable applied to one object, might be detestable if applied to another. A design cannot be made without reference to its future application.

First: The material must be considered. Heavy and hard materials, such as wood and stone, will not admit of as delicate curves and lines as textile fabrics, such as cotton and woolen goods, laces, etc.

Second: The manner in which the article is to be made, whether by weaving, cutting, carving, casting, etc.

Third: The position the object is to occupy. If elevated or otherwise remote from the eye, elaborate finish and minute detail are useless. Ornamental art, from time immemorial, has attained its greatest excellence and exercised its greatest influence in connection with architecture.

In fact, the study of ornament is inseparable from that of architecture. It is upon architectural forms that the greatest artists have in all ages expended their greatest efforts and skill, and in a treatise on historic ornament they are decidedly the most interesting and important object of study.

IV. _Material of Ornament._--The two great sources of ornament are geometry and nature. The latter includes the former; for not only must natural forms, in order to be available as material for ornament, be first conventionalized, or reduced to regular, symmetrical, geometric outlines, but any and all designs, whether the unit of repetition be geometric or conventional, must be founded upon geometric construction. This refers to the regularity, repetition, and distribution of parts; so that every good design, if reduced to its principal lines of construction, would exhibit but a few geometric lines and inclosing spaces. Many designs are not only geometric in their basis or plan, but make use of geometric figures as the units or materials of design. Such designs, however, rank lower than those in which natural forms conventionalized are taken as the subjects of repetition; and as the ornament rises in the scale toward perfection, even the geometric basis becomes less and less apparent, and sinks into a decidedly subordinate position; so that in many of the most perfect specimens it can be traced only in a few leading lines of the composition. Its presence, however, is necessary, and is the foundation, if not the most important element, of beauty in the design.

RELATION BETWEEN NATURE AND ORNAMENTAL ART.

While the natural world, including leaves, flowers, animals, etc., is the greatest source of ornament, it is generally the opinion of the best authorities, derived from the study of the best styles and by a consideration of the principles of fitness and propriety which underlie the entire physical and moral world, that natural forms in ornamental and decorative art should not be literally copied or imitated. That is the aim of painting, sculpture, and the other representative arts, where the object is to present something to the eye which will suggest at once the actual presence of the object. To produce that effect, the object, whether animal or vegetable, is represented as much as possible in the actual circumstances of its existence, surrounded by the necessary conditions of its well-being and growth. A frame is placed around it, to shut it off as much as possible from other surroundings, and thus help us delude ourselves that we are in the presence of the real thing, either as it would impress us through our senses or our imagination.

But in ornamental art the case is entirely different. As it is to be applied and consequently subordinated to something, and does not exist for itself, it would be impossible, except in very rare instances, to introduce in a design a natural object in a realistic manner and not violate some important law of its growth or the conditions of its well-being. For instance, to exactly repeat a certain rose, with all the accidents of its growth, many times in a carpet is not natural. Nature never repeats herself. Moreover, to tread on that which is supposed to suggest to us real roses is barbarous. It would really be outraging and distorting nature while pretending to be her faithful disciple and imitator.

We not only derive from nature the most important materials for our designs, but also the various modes of arranging this material. Various modes of repetition--radical, bilateral, etc.--were all probably suggested by some natural arrangement observed in flowers, leaves, etc. Of these different arrangements it is curious to note that the bilateral is more characteristic of the higher forms of nature and the radiating of the lower. The leading principles of ornament--symmetry, proportion, rhythm, contrast, unity, variety, repose, etc.--are all exemplified in natural forms. The latter have also suggested many of the most important architectural forms. The Gothic cathedral, with its clustered columns branching and forming pointed arches overhead, was probably suggested by a grove of trees with overarching branches and boughs. The idea of the column was derived from the papyrus plant, a species of reed growing in the river Nile. The bud or flower suggested the capital of the column; the stalk, the shaft; and the bulbous root, the pedestal. The blue vault of the sky undoubtedly suggested the dome, etc.

The following are a few of the leading principles of ornamental art as set forth by Owen Jones in his _Grammar of Ornament_, a fine work, magnificently illustrated, whose perusal could hardly fail to delight the most indifferent:

"All good ornamental art should possess fitness, proportion, harmony, the result of all which is repose."

"Construction should be decorated. Decoration should never be purposely constructed."

"All ornament should be based upon geometrical construction."

"Harmony of form consists in the proper balancing and contrast of the straight, the inclined, and the curved."

"In surface decoration all lines should flow out of a parent stem. Every part, however distant, should be traced to its branch or root. Natural law."

"All junctions of curved lines with each other, or with straight lines, should be tangential to each other. Natural law."

"Natural forms, as subjects of ornament, should not be imitated, but should be conventionalized."

HISTORIC ORNAMENT.

The origin of all attempts at decorating or beautifying objects lies in the universal love of mankind for the beautiful. Once the necessaries of life provided for, man instinctively, the world over, turns his attention toward gratifying this feeling, by improving and decorating the forms around him--his arms, utensils, dwelling, or his own person. The history of every nation proves this, and no matter how rude, and even ugly, their efforts may seem to us, we are bound to recognize in them the same motives that actuated the builders of the Parthenon or of St. Peter's at Rome. This awakening and gratification of the æsthetic sense seems to be the first advance from a condition of mere animal existence, in which food, shelter, and comfort are the only considerations, to tastes and desires that are higher and, consequently, more impersonal.

The term historic ornament is applied to the various styles of ornamental art which have flourished at various periods in the world's history, from the Egyptian, dating from the 14th century B.C., to those that exist at the present day. Their number is, consequently, almost unlimited, and we will confine ourselves to the consideration of a few of the principal ones only--those that have achieved the most enduring fame, or those that exercised the most marked influence upon succeeding styles.

In considering the various styles, we must always bear in mind that, with the exception of the Egyptian, all show very markedly the influence of the styles that preceded them, being very often merely an outgrowth or development of a preceding one. Thus the Greeks borrowed many forms from the Egyptians. The Romans simply adapted and elaborated the Greek style, etc. So that while each style is usually known by certain prominent characteristics, it does not follow that these characteristics are peculiar to it alone.[1] They may be found in other styles, though not to such a great extent. While similar features will thus be seen to run through many styles, each will usually be found to possess an individuality of its own. Every nation, like every individual, possesses different wants and capabilities, and will develop itself accordingly. Differences in religion, climate, manners, customs, etc., will cause differences in their art and literature, the most lasting monuments of their morals, taste, and feelings.

[Footnote 1: "Rudiments of Architecture and Building," through courtesy of H.C. Baird.]

It is rather by the study of the art and literature of a people that we arrive at a true knowledge of them than from the perusal of mere historic facts concerning them--when they lived, who conquered them, etc.

THE STYLES.

ANCIENT OR CLASSIC. 1400 B.C.--300 A.D.

_Egyptian._--Characteristics: symbolic, severe, simple, grand, massive. Conventional forms of lotus, papyrus, etc. Oblique lines.

_Greek._--Characteristics: æsthetic, simple, harmonious, beautiful. Conventional forms, anthemion, acanthus. Ellipse.

_Roman._--Characteristics: elaborate, rich, costly. Conventional forms, acanthus scroll, monsters. Circle.

MEDIEVAL. 300 A.D.--1300 A.D.

_Byzantine._--Symbolic, rich, elaborate. Conventional forms, principal architectural feature--dome.

_Saracenic._--Gorgeous coloring, graceful curves. Forms entirely geometric. Arabesque, geometrical tracery, interlacing.

_Gothic._--Imposing, grand. Pointed arches, clustered columns, vaulted roof, spire buttress. Forms both natural and conventional. Stained glass.

MODERN OR RENAISSANCE. 1300 A.D.--1900 A.D.

_Renaissance._--Mixture of classic and mediæval elements. Result not generally good.

_Cinquecento._--Æsthetic, revival of true classic principles. Beautiful curves, fine proportions and distribution. Conventional animal and plant forms. Human figure.

_Louis Quatorze._--Sparkling, glittering. Absence of color, want of symmetry.

I. ANCIENT OR CLASSIC ART.

Ancient art is also known as classic, a term which, in architecture, sculpture, painting, and music, is almost synonymous with _good_ and _admirable_. Taken as a whole and at its best, classic art has never been surpassed. The designs of the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, and even the forms of their buildings, are still copied at the present day.

The horizontal line is a marked feature of classic art. It is visible in the leading lines of their architecture, in the frequency of horizontal borders, friezes, etc. It accords admirably with the constructive features of classic architecture, and thus conforms to the important decorative principle that ornament should emphasize rather than disguise construction.

1. _Egyptian Art._--The oldest of which we have any record dates from 1800 B.C. Egyptian art is symbolic, that is to say, the forms were chosen not so much on account of their beauty as for the purpose of conveying some meaning. The government of Egypt being almost entirely in the hands of the priests, these symbols were generally of a religious character, signifying power and protection. The principal ones were: The lotus, signifying plenty, abundance; the zigzag, symbolic of the river Nile; the winged globe or scarabæus, signifying protection and dominion, usually placed over doors of houses; the fret, type of the Great Labyrinth, with its three thousand chambers, which was, in its turn, symbolic of the life of a human soul.

The column originated with the Egyptians. It was at first heavy, broad compared to its length, and was usually covered with hieroglyphics. The architecture of Egypt, of which the principal forms are pyramids, sphinxes, obelisks, and temples, is characterized by massiveness of material, grandeur of proportion, and simplicity of parts--a style well suited to its flat, sandy soil, though it would look heavy and out of place in a country where nature had herself supplied the elements of grandeur and massiveness in the form of lofty mountains or mighty forests. Egyptian art greatly influenced all the succeeding styles, and to this time is unsurpassed in many of its qualities.

2. _Greek Art._--The next great historic style is the Greek. Its spirit differed entirely from the Egyptian, being æsthetic and not symbolic. Its sole aim was to create beautiful forms, without any thought of attaching to them a meaning. It adopted many Egyptian forms, such as the lotus, fret, and scroll, but divested them of all symbolism or significance. The most characteristic feature of Greek ornament is the anthemion, a conventionalized flower form resembling our honeysuckle bud, which was usually alternated with the lotus or lily form bud. The Greeks also borrowed the column and flat arch from the Egyptians, but changed it to a more slender, graceful form. The three principal orders of Greek architecture are named from the style of the column used that characterized them, viz., the Corinthian, the Doric, the Ionic. Of these the Doric is the simplest and the Corinthian the most elaborate.

For harmony of proportions, elegance of form, and simplicity of detail, Greek architecture and ornament has probably never been surpassed. These qualities are admirably displayed in the Parthenon, a temple in Athens, dedicated to Venus. Though in ruins, it is still one of the greatest attractions to travelers in Greece. A very fine collection of fragments taken from it is to be seen in the British Museum. They are known as the Elgin marbles.

The most flourishing period of Greek art, as will be found in the history of almost all nations, was identical with the most flourishing period of its literature and general welfare.

3. _Roman Art._--In the 6th century B.C. the Greeks, already on the decline, were conquered by the Romans, a nation hardier and more powerful, though ruder and less civilized than themselves. The conquerors recognized this, and immediately set to work to copy or steal from their vanquished foes everything that might enhance the beauty and splendor of their own city. Greek artists were transported to Rome and placed in charge of the most important public works. Roman art is, consequently, but a development or adaptation of the Greek. It is noticeable, however, that it almost completely ignored the most characteristic and popular of the Greek forms--for example, the anthemion--and adapted those, such as the acanthus and the scroll, which had been considered of minor importance among the Greeks. They added another to the three orders of the Greek architecture, viz., the Composite, the most elaborate of all, being a combination of the Ionic and the Corinthian. This leads us to consider the leading features of Roman ornament--richness and profusion. With the acanthus and scroll as their principal units of design, they elaborated and enriched every form that would admit of it. The most elaborate Greek example cannot compare in this respect to the simplest Roman. The Roman style of architecture was very similar to the Greek, though more massive in its proportions, probably on account of the larger number of people to be accommodated. The details were also bolder and the curves fuller. They used the round arch to a great extent. The column of Trajan and the Forum are fine examples of their architecture.

II. MEDIÆVAL ART.

The Roman empire, after having reigned as mistress of the world for upward of five centuries, commenced to show signs of decay. Its people had gradually lost the sturdy spirit of independence, endurance, and courage which had characterized their forefathers, and had degenerated into a race of effeminate slaves and cowards. Ostentation became the feature of their art; immorality and luxury, of their mode of living. They thus fell an easy prey to the rude but vigorous barbarians of the North. The latter, rude and uncivilized as they were, extended the contempt they had for the nation they had conquered to their works of art as well, and mutilated or destroyed them whenever they could lay hands on them.

This spirit of antagonism was strengthened upon their conversion to Christianity, and everything that savored of paganism in art or literature was severely proscribed. For the heathen forms, whose only aim and object was beauty, were substituted religious symbols, the cross and other implements of the passion, the lily, the fish, the aureole, etc., whose object was to recall to the faithful the mysteries of religion. Gradually, however, as the artistic feelings of the new people became awakened, principles of beauty commenced to be regarded, and, while symbolism remained an important feature of European art until the period of the Renaissance, and even then was not entirely superseded, magnificent artistic results were obtained.

1. _Byzantine Art._--The principal of the early mediæval art developments was the Byzantine. It flourished principally in the eastern part of Europe. In the west it was known, with a few variations, as the Lombard and the Norman. All three are often included under the term Romanesque.

Byzantine art was essentially Christian in its spirit and motives. It used religious symbols extensively, but incorporated in its ornament a few pagan elements, such as the acanthus and the scroll. Natural forms were always conventionally treated. Its coloring was rich and gorgeous. The principal features of its architecture were the dome and round arch. The plan of the churches was often in the form of a Greek or Latin cross, with the dome placed over the intersection of the two arms. The church of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, is the most magnificent example of Byzantine architecture and ornament. Although now a Mohammedan mosque, it is, probably, in the motive and spirit that actuated its construction, the most Christian building in the world.

2. _Saracenic Art._--Developed from the Byzantine by the Moors and the Saracens. It differs from it, however, in one important respect. While the Byzantine makes use of numerous conventionalized plant and animal forms, the Saracens and Moors were forbidden by their religion, the Mohammedan, to copy in any manner the form of any living thing, animal or vegetable. They were thus limited entirely to geometric forms, which, however, often fall insensibly into flower and leaf forms. Interlacing bands and curves of intricate pattern, and exhibiting the peculiar Moorish curve, are very characteristic of Saracenic ornament. Inscriptions were frequently interwoven in this tracery.

The coloring was gorgeous, consisting principally of blue, red, and gold.

The principal arches used were the pointed and the horseshoe arch. The Alhambra Palace in Spain is the most famous example of Saracenic ornament and architecture.

3. _Gothic Art._--Gothic art grew out of the Byzantine, all the symbolic elements being retained. It is divided into many different varieties.