Chapter 4

It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of but the same length of the two threads.

It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_.

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APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES.

The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all grouped upon a cast-iron column.

The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced.

The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas.

The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_.

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APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.

Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, y.

When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced.

The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by means of a gauge (Fig. 3).

The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder very perfectly.

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SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS.

For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n.

At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L.

A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows out through the tubes, v.

The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation may then proceed at once.

The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and afterward flows into the vessel, N.

The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S.

There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_.

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FIELD KITCHENS.

We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, London.--_Iron_.

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A NEW COP-WINDER.

In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a mean velocity until it is finished.

In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished.

Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of the screw.

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[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.]

THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.

[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.]

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885.

BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER.

The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance under this head.

Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and 1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective.

His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed then served to admit the solution under pressure.

This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting down trees), as the solution would freeze.

On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this country.

RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS.

SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE.

--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- | | | | Material |Subsequent| | No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. --+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans | | | | ties | | | 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad | | | | | | to 1875 | 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden | | | | blocks | | | 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney | | | | | | | 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore | | | | | | | 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart | | | | | | | 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. | | | | | | 1882 | Co. 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson | | | | | | | 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock | Mass | | | | | | 10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton | | | | | | | 11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln | | | | | | | 12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | 13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton | Michigan | | | | | | | Southern R.R.| | | | | | 14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | 15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | 16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph | Ohio | | | | | | 17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt | R.R. | | | | | | 18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd --+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+---------------

COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS.

The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable condition.

We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process.

Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, and left it nearly in its primitive condition."

He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by that process.