Chapter 8

The various positions which it assumed in making an attack upon a portion of decomposed matter were also shown, the movements quite fascinating the observer by their rhythmical character. The supposed action of the flagella in the production of the movements observed was explained, distinct evidence being afforded of a remarkable spiral motion, at least of those behind. The process of fission was illustrated in all its observed stages from the first appearance of a construction to that of final and complete separation, the whole being performed within the space of eight or nine minutes. A description of the process of fusion from the simple contact of two organisms to their entire absorption into each other followed, as well as their transformation into a granular mass, which gradually decreased in size in consequence of the dropping of a train of granules in it wake as it moved across the field. The development of these granules was traced from their minute semi-opaque and spherical form to that of the perfect flagellate organism first shown, the entire process being completed in about an hour. Experiments as to their thermal death-point showed that, while the adults could not be killed by a temperature less than 146° F., the highest point endured by the germs was 190° F. Illustrations of a variety of other modes of fission discovered in previous researches on similar forms were given, showing the mode of multiple division and a similar process in the case of an organism contained in an investing envelope. The President concluded his address, which was listened to throughout with the greatest attention, by remarking that, though the processes could be seen and their progress traced, the _modus operandi_ was not traceable. Yet the observer could not fail to be impressed with the perfect concurrent adaptation of these organisms to the circumstances of their being; they were subject to no caprices, their life-cycles were as perfect as those of a crustacean or a bird, and while the action of the various processes was certain, their rapidity of increase and the shortness of their life history were such that they afforded a splendid opportunity of testing the correctness of the Darwinian law.

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WINTER AND THE INSECTS.

For a number of years previous to 1878 we had in Pembroke but little or no severe cold, owing to the prevalence of southeast, south, west, and especially southwest winds. In many places, fuchsias that were left in the ground for the entire year had not been frozen to the root within the memory of man. Some of these plants had grown to be trees five or six yards in height, and with a trunk the size of one's leg. Now, during the same series of years, many insects that are common throughout the rest of Great Britain did not cease to be rare with us, or rather were confined to certain circumscribed limits. Thus, the Noctuellae, with the exception of a few species abundant everywhere, were almost wanting, and I know of no other country where the dearth of common species of nocturnal butterflies was so great. But during the winter of 1878 there supervened a radical change. Persistent winds from the northwest, driving back the currents of warm air from the south, brought on an intense cold that froze everything; or, when some variation occurred in them, clouds formed and dissolved into a rain that immediately froze, so that the large roads remained for weeks covered with a layer of rime from two to four inches thick.

The winters of 1879 and 1880 were equally cold; we may even say that the latter was the severest that had been experienced in fifty years. This year the sea-sand, along with the ice and snow, formed a thick crust all along the tide-line--this being something rarely seen along our coast. The first of these three winters (1878-1879) killed all the arborescent veronicas and a few sumacs. As for the fuchsias and myrtles, they were frozen down to the level of the soil.

I now come to the effects of this severe cold upon the insects.

The Lepidoptera, which before were rare, became more and more common in 1879, 1880, and 1881, and so much so that during the last named year they abounded; and species that had formerly been detected only at certain favored points spread over the entire coast and into the interior of the country. The geometers appeared in numbers that were unheard of. But this change was especially striking as regards the Noctuellae, in view of the previous rarity of the individuals belonging to this family.

We have here an example of the direct relation of cause to effect, although I am not in a position to assert that the effect is always produced in the same way. To me there is no question as to the fact that the constitution of those insects which nature has accorded the faculty of liberating is strengthened, and that their chances of life are increased, if the cold of winter is intense enough to plunge them into an absolute rest, and is not unseasonably affected by warm, spring-like days. It is certain that such cold is capable of contributing largely to the multiplication of the individuals of such species as hibernate in the egg state, and it also has a beneficent influence upon those species which, like the small social larvae, pass this season upon the earth enveloped in a silken envelope, or, like the larvae of the Noctuellae, between dead leaves or upon the ground itself.

On another hand, it cannot be doubted that mild winters greatly contribute to the bringing about of a destruction of larvae and chrysalids in two ways: First, they favor the development of mould, which, as well known, attacks the larvae of insects when these have been enfeebled by an excess of rain or dampness; and second, they permit beasts of prey to continue to exercise their activity. Now, these latter are numerous. Moles, instead of burying themselves deeply, then continue to excavate near the surface, and shrew mice are constantly in search of food. These small mammals, which abound in this district, destroy a large number of chrysalids of Lepidoptera.

It is the same with birds. As soon as severe cold begins to prevail in the north and east, they come in troops to the open fields and the sheltered slope of the hills of our district. But it is scarcely worth while to stop to tell of the skill and perseverance of these destroyer of larvae. We may mention, the woodpecker, however, as a skillful searcher for insects that lie hidden in places where the sun has melted the snow. The carnivorous Coleoptera and the Forficulae are likewise generally in motion during mild winters. Doubtless these last-named do not make very large inroads in the ranks of larvae and chrysalids every day; yet, having no other food, they destroy a goodly number of them. But I believe that the devastations made in the army of insects by all these enemies united do not equal those made by certain crustaceans--the wood lice.

During mild winters these pests multiply, eat, and prosper out of bounds, and to such a point that, in a climate like ours, they become a true scourge that prevails everywhere, out of doors and within. Once in a place, they begin to look for larvae and chrysalids, which they devour. The severe cold seems to have destroyed a certain number of them, since they are now not so numerous by far; and it has at least certainly put a stop to their devastations at an epoch when the larvae are more particularly exposed to the attacks of their enemies. It is to this cause, as well as to the preceding, that I am led to attribute the extraordinary multiplication of so many species during the three last summers, which were separated by severe winters. Last winter was mild, and there is therefore no reason to expect that there will be another multiplication; but I hope that the harm done by such a season will be slight. It is the progressive multiplication of the destroyers, joined to the correlative disappearance of the victims caused by a series of temperate seasons, that is to be feared.

In support of the proposition that I maintain, I may mention still another fact. While this district (Pembroke, Wales) is relatively poor in species whose larvae feed and hibernate in the open air a few species of Noctuellae, whose larvae live buried in the earth, are always abundant. The country is relatively rich in spices of _Tortrix_, which develop and hibernate in the stalks or roots of plants. It is also worthy of remark that very few of our species seem to be incapable of enduring a severe winter.--_C.G. Barret, in Science et Nature_.

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SILK WORM EGGS.

Prof. C.V. Riley, entomologist, announces that the Department of Agriculture, Washington, will purchase during the coming summer such quantities of silk worm eggs as may be deemed necessary for the distribution that it is proposed to make for the season of 1886. So far as found practicable, the eggs will be purchased of American producers. There are certain precautions, however, that must be taken to insure purchase. Eggs of improved races only (preferably of the French or Italian Yellow Races) will be bought, and the producer should send one or two samples of pierced cocoons with the eggs. In addition to this the producer must conform to certain rules to be hereafter explained, so that an examination may be made that will serve to show the degree of purity of the eggs. No silk culturist should use his crop for the production of eggs unless the worms have shown, until they began the spinning of their cocoons, every sign of perfect, robust health. Any indication of the disease called _flacherie_, from which the worms so often die after the fourth moult and turn black from putrefaction, or of any other disease from which silk worms suffer, should be considered as ample reason for not using the cocoons for the purpose in question. They should, on the other hand, be sold for the filature. If the worms have all the indications of health until the spinning period, then the cocoons may be used for the production of eggs. The following brief instructions will prove of service to those who which to secure sound eggs:

For each ounce of eggs to be produced, about three-quarters of a pound of fresh cocoons from the finest and firmest in the lot should be chosen. These should be strung in sets upon a thread, care being taken not to pierce the chrysalis, and the strings hung in a cool, darkened room. The moths generally emerge from the cocoons early in the morning, and will be seen crawling about over these, the males being noticeable by their smaller abdomens, more robust antennae, and by their greater activity. The moths should be placed, regardless of sex, on a table, where they will soon find their mates and couple. As soon as formed, the couples should be removed to another table, that they may not be disturbed by the flutterings of the single moths.

There should be prepared for each ounce of eggs to be produced, about one hundred small bags of fine muslin, made in the following manner: Cut the cloth in pieces 3×6 inches. Then fold one end over so as to leave a single edge of about three-quarters of an inch, as shown in the accompanying cut. This should be sewn up into a bag with the upper end open, and then turned inside out, so that the seams will cause the sides to bulge. Thus completed they are called "cells." The cells should be strung on a cord stretched across the room.

The moths couple as a rule about eight o'clock in the morning. About four in the afternoon they should be separated by taking them by the wings and drawing them gently apart. Each female should now be placed by herself in a cell, which is then closed by a pin as shown in the figure. Here she will lay her eggs and in due time die. The males may as a rule be thrown away, but it is wise to keep a few of the more active ones, in case there should be a superabundance of females the following day.

When the females have finished laying their eggs, which operation occupies about thirty-six hours, they are ready to be shipped to this office. The cells, with their inclosed moths and eggs, should be placed in a strong box of wood or tin, being packed in such a manner that they will not be crushed, and mailed to the entomologist at the department. By using the inclosed return penalty slip, payment of postage may be avoided. The name of the sender should be placed in each box. The moths, as soon as received, will be examined microscopically, and the eggs of those which are found to be free from disease will be weighed and paid for at the rate of $2.50 per ounce of 25 grammes (about 6-7 of an ounce avoirdupois). Silk culturists are advised not to attempt the production of eggs unless they are adepts at the industry, and have had at least one season's experience. We would advise each person desiring to sell, to send a sample first, with a statement of the quantity offered.

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Dr. Zintgraff of Bonn has taken a phonograph with him to Africa. He intends to bring home phonograms of the savage dialects which he will hire the natives to speak into the machine.

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[NATURE.]

DETERMINING THE MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH.

In _Nature_ for March 5 (p. 408) Prof. Mayer suggests an improvement in our method of determining the mean density of the earth, from which it appears that our plan has not been properly understood. This misunderstanding, no doubt, has arisen from the incomplete description of our method given in the _Nature_ (Jan. 15. p. 260) report of the _Proceedings_ of the Berlin Physical Society, which report was probably the only source of information accessible to Prof. Mayer. We are led therefore to give a short description of our method.

Let H I K L represent a section of a cubical block of lead, about two meters in the edge, and weighing 100,000 kilos. The balance, A B C, is placed in the middle of the upper horizontal surface. It bears the scale-pans, D and E. Under these scale-pans the block is bored vertically through, and two other scale-pans, F and G, are suspended below the block, attached to the balance by means of rods passing through these openings.

A weight D is brought into equilibrium by weights in G. The weight in D is acted upon by the earth's attraction + that of the block, and that in G by the earth's attraction - that of the block. The weights in G are then greater than that in D by twice the attraction of the block. The weight in D in now removed to F, and counterbalanced by weights in E. The weight in E will be less than that in F by twice the attraction of the block. The difference of the two weighings gives therefore four times the attraction of the block. A correction must be introduced for the variation in the earth's attraction due to the different heights of D, E and F, G.

In order to obtain as great a deflection of the balance by the method suggested by Prof. Mayer, each of the mercury spheres must exert the same attraction as our lead block. This would require spheres having radii of about one meter. The length of the beam of the balance would be necessarily at least two meters. Besides, each mass of mercury, would exert some attraction on the weight on the other side, and thus lessen the deviation of the balance.

The method given by Prof. Mayer, except for the suggested employment of mercury, is then no improvement on ours. If we should use mercury, we would construct a cubical vessel to contain it, and use it as we propose to use the lead block. The advantage of using mercury is, however, counterbalanced by the difficulty of obtaining it in such large quantities as would be necessary.

ARTHUR KONIG.

FRANZ RICHARZ.

Berlin, Physical Institute of the University, March 15.

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PHYSICS WITHOUT APPARATUS.

_The Porosity and Permeability of Bodies._--Take two tumblers of the same size, place one of them upon a table, and pour into it a small quantity of nearly boiling water. Cover this glass with a sheet of cardboard, and invert the other one upon it. This second tumbler must be previously wiped so as to have it perfectly dry and transparent. In a few seconds the steam from the lower tumbler will traverse the cardboard (which will thus exhibit its permeability), and will gradually fill the upper tumbler, and condense and run down its sides. Wood and cloth may be experimented with in succession, and will give the same results; but there are other substances that are _impermeable_, and will not allow themselves to be traversed. Such, for example, is the vulcanized rubber of which waterproofs are made. This experiment explains to us why fog is, as has been well said, so _penetrating_. It traverses the tissue of our overcoat and of our flannel, and comes into contact with our body. On the contrary, a rubber coat preserves us against its action.

_A Hot Air Balloon_.--Make a hollow cylinder of small diameter out of a sheet of paper such as is used for cigarette packages, and turn in the ends slightly so that it shall preserve its form. If the cylinder seems too difficult to make, a cone may be substituted. Now set fire to the cylinder or cone at its upper part. The paper will burn and become converted into a thin sheet of ashes, which will contract and curl inward. This light residuum of ashes, being filled with air rarefied by combustion, will suddenly rise to a distance of two or three yards. Here we have a Montgolfier balloon.--_La Nature_.

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THE CASINO AT MONTE CARLO.

The little city is situated about half way between Nizza and Mentone, and it formerly was the chief city of a principality that belonged to the family Grimaldi. Prince Florestan sold in 1860 his royal prerogatives to the Emperor Napoleon, for three million francs, consequently the land came under the jurisdiction of the French republic, but the city remained in the Prince's possession, who, however, gave to the gambler Blanc the privilege of erecting a gambling house upon the rocky shore of the sea.

Enormous sums of money were spent to give this isolated cliff its present appearance, covered as it is with beautiful buildings, hotels, and villas, besides the magnificent Casino building, which was erected in 1862. Directly facing the sea, there is a succession of most beautiful gardens and terraces.

But this establishment, which seems like paradise, has had a most disastrous effect upon thousands of persons, and for a long time the subject of influencing the French government to put a stop to this gambling house has been agitated. It can scarcely be imagined how much misery it has already caused. It is evident to every one that the keeper of the bank makes considerable profit, as the chances are 63 times greater in his favor than those of the player.

It is admitted that the profits amount every year to 17 million francs. One can well imagine how many fortunes have been consumed every year to make this profit; but the number cannot be determined.

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ON AN EXPRESS ENGINE.

It is a somewhat unpromising morning--the river is dark with fog and the huge arch of the station nearly hidden by mist and steam. A cold, damp wind makes the passengers hurry into the carriages, and strikes us sharply as we step on to the foot-plate of the engine, which has just joined the train. But as we get behind the shelter of the screen, we feel a generous and slightly unctuous sensation of warmth very comforting to a chilly man. The brasswork of the engine shines brilliantly, the footboard has been newly scrubbed, and the driver and stoker stand waiting for the signal. The needle shows that the steam is just below the pressure at which it would begin to blow off; the water in the gauge glass is just where it ought to be; in fact, the engine is in perfect condition and ready for a start. The line is clear, the guard's whistle is answered by our own, and we glide almost imperceptibly past the last few yards of the platform. The driver opens the regulator till he is answered by a few sounding puffs from the funnel, and then stands on the lookout for signals so numerous that one wonders how he can tell which of the many waving arms is raised or lowered for his guidance.