Chapter 1

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455

NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.

Scientific American established 1845

Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.

Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Gallisin, an Unfermentable Substance in Starch Sugar.

The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific Gravities of Elements and Compounds.

Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means of Ammonium Carbonate.

II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Petroleum as a Fuel in Locomotive Engines.--By THOMAS URQUHART.--Spray injector.--Driving locomotives.--Storage of petroleum.

Improved Gas Light Buoy.--2 figures.

Project for a Roadstead at Havre.--With map and views of different breakwaters.

Improved Catch Basin.--2 figures.

Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron Water Pipe.--By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.--Methods of conducting water and transmitting power.--Texas Creek pipe and aqueduct.--4 figures.

Parachute Hydraulic Motor.

Improved Shafting Lathe.--1 figure.

Power Straightening Machine.--1 figure.

Hydraulic Mining in California.--By GEO. O'BRIEN.

III. TECHNOLOGY.--Emerald Green: Its Properties and Manufacture.--Use in wall paper.--ROBERT GALLOWAY.

Charcoal Kilns.--Extra yield.--2 figures.

IV. ARCHITECTURE--Entrance, Tiddington House, Oxon.--An engraving.

V. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.--The Temperature of the Earth as shown by Deep Mines.

New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash Pile.--3 figures.

The Distribution of Electricity by Induction.--1 figure.

Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic Movements.--Apparatus for the study of horizontal and vertical seismic movements, etc.--8 figures.

New Accumulators.--3 figures.

Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc Accumulator.

The History of a Lightning Flash.--By W. SLINGO.

Researches on Magnetism.

VI. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Giraffe.--With engraving.

VII. MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.--The Treatment of Cholera--By Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.

Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their Relations to Health.--London deaths under 1 year in July, August, and part of September.

Consumption Spread by Chickens.

New Method of Reducing Fever.

VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Crown Diamonds of France at the Exhibition of Industrial Arts.

A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses of Management in Life Insurance.--By WALTER C. WRIGHT.

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THE GIRAFFE.

The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of the Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the _Illustrated London News_. Hunting the giraffe has long been a favorite sport among the more adventurous of British sportsmen, its natural range being all the wooded parts of eastern, central, and southern Africa, though of late years it has been greatly thinned out before the settlements advancing from the Cape of Good Hope.

The characteristics of this singular animal are in some particulars those of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes are beautiful, extremely large, and so placed that the animal can see much of what is passing on all sides, and even behind it, so that it is approached with the greatest difficulty. The animal when full grown attains sometimes a height of fifteen to seventeen feet. It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees principally, its immense length of legs and height at the withers rendering it difficult for the animal to graze on an even surface. It is not easily overtaken except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run down it can defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is said, often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder ones, but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch, the error having been caused by the great development and height of the withers, to give a proper base to the long neck and towering head. The color varies a good deal, the head being generally a reddish brown, and the neck, back, and sides marked with tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white divisions. Many specimens have been brought to this country, the animal being extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being very friendly to those who are kind to it.

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An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even with incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid any risk of fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and lighted by a current, the heat generated was sufficient to set fire to the paper, which burnt out and caused the lamp to explode.

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THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.

At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep mines, were presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B Dorsey. Mr. Smith said that the temperature of the earth varies very greatly at different localities and in different geological formations. There are decided exceptions to the general law that the temperature increased with the depth. At the New Almaden quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of about 600 feet the temperature was very high--some 115 degrees; but in the deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500 feet below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably less than 80 degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air 1,200 feet below the surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet below the surface. The normal temperature of the earth at a depth of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the mean annual temperature of the air at the particular place. At the Comstock mines, some years since, the miners could remain but a few moments at a time, on account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an experiment; it produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these mines, and drunk with apparently no bad results.

Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein, Nevada, were exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, the thermometer placed in a freshly drilled hole will show 130 degrees. Very large bodies of water have run for years at 155 degrees, and smaller bodies at 170 degrees. The temperature of the air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing in fresh air cooled over ice.

Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted annually from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and cold air forced in, as equal to that generated by the combustion of 55,560 tons of anthracite coal or 97,700 cords of wood. Observations were then given upon temperature at every 100 feet in the Forman shaft of the Overman mine, running from 53 degrees at a depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a depth of 2,300 feet. The temperature increased:

100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet. 100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet. 100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.

A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number of deep mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines or tunnels are in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont Cenis tunnel; and the two hottest are in trachyte and the "coal measures," namely, the Comstock mines in trachyte and the South Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey considered that experience showed that limestone was the coolest formation.

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GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.

C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of the unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and have succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give the name gallisin. The method of separation and purification which they made use of is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch sugar were allowed to ferment. At a temperature of 18-20° C. and with a solution containing 20 per cent. the fermentation was complete in five to six days. It was filtered; the perfectly clear, almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far as possible on the water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into a good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large excess of absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix with the alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh alcohol, and again shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been repeated several times, the sirup is finally changed to a yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought into a large mortar, and rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether. After some time the whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is quickly filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved in water and treated with bone-black. The solution is then evaporated to a sirup, and this poured into a mixture of equal parts of anhydrous alcohol and ether. In this way the new compound is obtained as a very fine, pure white powder which rapidly settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under the microscope it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much more rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.

Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the water-bath gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not ferment when treated in water solution with fresh yeast. The analyses led to the formula C_{12}H_{24}O_{10}. When treated under pressure with three times its weight of acetic anhydride at 130-140° it dissolves perfectly. From the solution a product was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing with the formula C_{12}H_{18}O_{10}(C_{2}H_{3}O)_{6}. The substance appears therefore to be hexacetylgallisin.

Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings demonstrated clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor indirectly any injurious effect on the health.--_Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 17, 1000; Amer. Chem. Jour._

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THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.

Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer, of New York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of Gas Lighting, from which the _American Gas Light Journal_ gives the following:

I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the elements and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and specific gravities. When the combining weight of any of these elements and compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor therefrom will always occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at 60° Fahr. and 30 inches barometer. If we divide this constant 377.07 by the combining weight of any of the substances, then the quotient will be the number of cubic feet per pound of the same. If we divide the combining weight of any of the substances given in the table by 2, then the quotient will give the density of the same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining weight of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as compared with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic weights which are now generally adopted by the majority of chemists.

| | |Cub. Ft.| | | | | per | | | Combi- |Cub. Ft.| Combi- |Specific| | ning | per | ning |Gravity | |Weight. | Pound. |Weight. |Air = 1.| ------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------| Hydrogen (H_{2}) | 2.00 | 188.53 | 377.07 | 0.0692 | Carbon vapour (C_{2}) | 23.94 | 15.75 | 377.07 | 0.8292 | Nitrogen (N_{2}) | 28.06 | 13.43 | 377.07 | 0.9719 | Oxygen (O_{2}) | 31.92 | 11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1056 | Chlorine (Cl_{2}) | 71.00 | 5.31 | 377.07 | 2.4593 | Bromine (Br_{2}) | 160.00 | 2.35 | 377.07 | 5.5420 | Flourine (F_{2}) | 38.00 | 9.92 | 377.07 | 1.3162 | Iodine (I_{2}) | 253.20 | 1.48 | 377.07 | 8.7703 | Sulphur (S_{2}) | 63.96 | 5.89 | 377.07 | 2.2154 | Phosphorus (P_{4}) | 123.84 | 3.04 | 377.07 | 4.2895 | Carbonic oxide (CO) | 27.03 | 13.50 | 377.07 | 0.9674 | Carbonic acid (CO_{2}) | 48.89 | 8.59 | 377.07 | 1.5202 | Water vapour (H_{2}O) | 17.06 | 20.99 | 377.07 | 0.6221 | Hydrogen sulphide (H_{2}S) | 33.08 | 11.09 | 377.07 | 1.1770 | Ammonia (H_{2}N) | 17.03 | 22.14 | 377.07 | 0.5898 | Sulphurous oxide (SO_{2}) | 63.90 | 5.90 | 377.07 | 2.2133 | Sulphuric oxide (SO_{3}) | 79.86 | 4.72 | 377.07 | 2.7662 | Cyanogen (C_{2}N_{2}) | 52.00 | 7.25 | 377.07 | 1.8011 | Bisulphide of carbon (CS_{2}) | 75.93 | 4.96 | 377.07 | 2.6300 | Ethyl alcohol (C_{2}H_{6}O) | 45.90 | 8.21 | 377.07 | 1.5898 | Ethyl ether (C_{4}H_{10}O) | 73.84 | 5.10 | 377.07 | 2.5576 | Methyl alcohol (CH_{4}O) | 31.93 | 11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1059 | Methyl chloride (CH_{3}Cl) | 50.47 | 7.47 | 377.07 | 1.7482 | Carbonyl chloride (COCl_{2}) | 98.93 | 3.81 | 377.07 | 3.4267 | Phosphine gas (PH_{3}) | 33.96 | 11.10 | 377.07 | 1.1769 | Hydrochloric acid (HCl) | 36.50 | 10.33 | 377.07 | 1.2642 | Methane (CH_{4}) | 15.98 | 26.61 | 377.07 | 0.5531 | Ethane (C_{2}H_{6}) | 29.94 | 12.50 | 377.07 | 1.0370 | Propane (C_{3}H_{8}) | 43.91 | 8.58 | 377.07 | 1.5209 | Butane (C_{4}H_{10}) | 57.88 | 6.51 | 377.07 | 2.0048 | Ethene (C_{2}H_{4}) | 27.94 | 13.49 | 377.07 | 0.9677 | Propene (C_{3}H_{6}) | 41.91 | 8.99 | 377.07 | 1.4516 | Butene (C_{4}H_{8}) | 55.88 | 6.74 | 377.07 | 1.9355 | Ethine (C_{2}H_{2}) | 25.94 | 14.53 | 377.07 | 0.8985 | Propine (C_{3}H_{4}) | 39.91 | 9.44 | 377.07 | 1.3824 | Butine (C_{4}H_{6}) | 53.88 | 6.98 | 377.07 | 1.8662 | Quintone (C_{5}H_{6}) | 65.85 | 5.72 | 377.07 | 2.2809 | Benzene (C_{6}H_{6}) | 77.82 | 4.84 | 377.07 | 2.6955 | Styrolene (C_{8}H_{8}) | 103.75 | 3.63 | 377.07 | 3.5936 | Naphtalene (C_{10}H_{8}) | 127.70 | 2.95 | 377.07 | 4.4232 | Turpentine (C_{10}H_{16}) | 135.70 | 2.77 | 377.07 | 4.7003 | Dry air | 28.87 | 13.06 | -- | 1.0000 |

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EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.[1]

[Footnote 1: This substance is also known by the name Schweinfurt green.]

By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.

The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green (aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in many journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another in different publications, especially medical ones; there has recently appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The Poisonous Effect of Wall-paper." As some years ago I became practically acquainted with its properties and manufacture, a few observations on these subjects may not be without interest.

In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous effect of this pigment cannot be _entirely_ due to its mere mechanical detachment from the paper. This writer therefore attributes the poisonous effects to the formation of the hydrogen compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted hydrogen (AsH_{3}); the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound, being generated, the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of moisture and organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls papers impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr. Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the _fermentation_ of the starch-paste employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is perfectly obvious that the fermentation of the starch-paste must cease after a time, and therefore the poisonous effects of the paper must likewise cease if its injurious effects are caused by the fermentation. I do not think that arseniureted hydrogen could be formed under the _conditions_, for the oxygen compound of arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound is in a dry solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two elements--arsenic and hydrogen--for each other are so exceedingly weak that they cannot be made to unite directly except they are both set free at the same moment in presence of each other. Further, for the formation of this hydrogen compound by the fermentation of the starch, or by the growth of minute fungi, the _entire_ compound must be broken up, and therefore the pigment would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of copper

(3CuAs_{2}O_{4}+Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2})

is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition, and is consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not unfrequently stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are due to the arsenious oxide volatilizing from the other constituents of the compound. This volatilization would likewise cause a breaking up of the entire compound, and would consequently cause a discoloration of the paper; but the volatilization of this arsenic compound is in every respect most improbable.

The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be due to its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever been conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the wall-paper of which is stained with emerald-green suffer from arsenical poisoning? If it does occur, then the effects of what may be termed homoeopathic doses of this substance are totally different from the effects which arise from larger doses. During the packing of this substance in its dry state in the factory, clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had to do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is any abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the delicate lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in this way it acts in large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as to its supposed poisonous effects when wall-paper is stained with it.

Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the manufacture of this pigment, but as they do not agree in every respect with the method which was followed in English color factories some years ago, it will be as well, for the full elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to briefly recite some of these methods before describing the one that was, and probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other, both in the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for producing it at a less cost.

It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is "prepared on a large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric acetate and water. Five parts of verdigris are made up to a thin paste, and added to a boiling solution of 4 parts or rather more of arsenious acid in 50 parts of water. The boiling must be well kept up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a yellow-green color, from the formation of copper arsenite; in that case acetic acid must be added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer. The precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt employed in its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would account, in my opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which it is obtained in France than can be produced by the English method of manufacturing it. Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe, in England--the much cheaper copper salt, the sulphate, being always employed.

In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by _boiling_ solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate, and adding to the mixture an equal bulk of _cold_ water." Why it should be recommended to add _cold water_, I am at a loss to understand.

In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and in the English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical Technology," edited by Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr. Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.," xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated in Wagner's work: "This pigment is prepared by first separately dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious acid and neutral acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these solutions while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent olive-green colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the supernatant liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the precipitate becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a beautiful green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration, and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode of preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised by M. Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are dissolved in the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with a boiling and concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa, so prepared as to contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is immediately formed a dirty greenish-colored precipitate which is converted into Schweinfurt green by the addition of some 15 liters of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having been done, the precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."

As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the manufacture of this pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is carried out pretty much according to Braconnot's method as described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one would infer, from reading his description of the manufacturing process, that the compound, aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately after the addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the formation. Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms more readily in an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or cannot be formed in a neutral one; now both these points are important to notice in describing its manufacture. As regards the former I shall notice it presently, and, as far as my knowledge extends, the pigment will not form when the solution is neutral.