Chapter 1

Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, and Distributed Proofreaders

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 447

NEW YORK, JULY 26, 1884

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 447.

Scientific American established 1845

Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.

Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. CHEMISTRY.--The Bitter Substance of Hops.--By Dr. H. BUNGENER. --What gives hops their bitter taste?--Processes for obtaining hop-bitter acid.--Analysis of the same.

II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improvements in the Harbor of Antwerp.--With engraving of caisson for deepening the river.

Progress of Antwerp.--Recent works in the harbor.

Bicycles and Tricycles.--By C.V. BOYS.---Advantages of the different machines.--Manner of finding the steepness of a hill and representing same on a map.--Experiments on ball bearings.-- The Otto bicycle.

The Canal Iron Works, London.

Marinoni's Rotary Printing Press.--With 2 engravings.

Chenot's Economic Filter Press.--With engraving.

Steel Chains without Welding.--Method and machines for making same.--Several figures.

III. TECHNOLOGY.--Some Economic Processes connected with the Cloth Making Industry.--By Dr. WM. RAMSAY.--How to save and utilize soap used in wool scouring.--To recover the indigo from the refuse.--Extraction of potash from _suint_.--Use of bisulphide of carbon.

IV. PHYSICS. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Thury's Dynamo Electric Machine. --5 figures.

Breguet's Telephone.

Munro's Telephonic Experiments.--9 figures.

Apparatus for Maneuvering Bichromate of Potassa Piles from a Distance.--2 figures.

Magnetic Rotations.--By E.L. VOICE.--1 figure.

Lighton's Immersion Illuminator.--1 figure.

Foucault's Pendulum Experiments.--By RICHARD A. PROCTOR. --4 figures.

V. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--St. Paul's Vicarage, Forest Hill, Kent.--2 engravings.

Designs for Iron Gates.--An engraving.

VI. ASTRONOMY.--A New Lunarian.--By Prof. C.W. MACCORD. --With 3 figures.

VII. GEOLOGY.--Coal and its Uses.--By JAMES PYKE.--Formation of carboniferous rocks and the coal in the same.--Processes of nature.--Greatness of this country due to coal.--Manufacture of gas.--Products of the same.

VIII. NATURAL HISTORY, BOTANY. ETC.--The Wine Fly.--The egg.--Larva.--Pupa and fly.

The "Potetometer." an Instrument for Measuring the Transpiration of Water by Plants.--1 figure.

Bolivian Cinchona Forests.

Ferns.--Nephrolepis Davillioides Furcans and Nephrolepis Duffi. --2 engravings.

IX. PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.--The Upright Attitude of Mankind. --Review of a lecture by Dr. S.V. CLEVENGER, in which he tries to prove that man must have originated from a four footed being.

Our Enemies, the Microbes.--Affections caused by the same.-- Experiments of Davaine, Pasteur, and others.--How to prevent bacterides from entering the body.--5 figures.

X. BIOGRAPHY.--Gaston Plante, the Scientist.--With portrait

Warren Colburn, the American Mathematician.

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IMPROVEMENTS IN THE HARBOR OF ANTWERP.

The harbor of Antwerp, which, excepting those of London and Liverpool, is the largest in Europe, has been improved wonderfully during the last decade. Before 1870 it was inferior to the harbor at Havre, but now it far surpasses the same. The river Scheldt, which is about 1,500 ft. wide, was badgered out up to the vertical walls of the basin, so that the largest ships can land at the docks. The river was deepened by the use of caissons, in the lower parts of which the workmen operated in compressed air. The annexed cut shows that part of one of the caissons which projects above the surface of the water. The depth of the river at low tide is about 26 ft., and at high tide about 39 ft. Some of the old sluices, channels, basins, etc., which were rendered useless by the improvements made in the river Scheldt have been filled up, and thereby the city has been enriched by several handsome and elegant squares.--_Illustrirte Zeitung_.

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PROGRESS OF ANTWERP.

Antwerp is now the chief port on the Continent. Since 1873 the progress has continued, and made very rapid advances. In 1883 the tonnage of the port reached 3,734,428 registered tons. This marvelous development is partly due to the position of Antwerp as the embarking point from the Continent of Europe to America, and partly also to the recent additions and changes which have been carried out there, and which, now nearly completed, have made this cosmopolitan port one of the best organized in the world. This is so well known that vessels bound for Switzerland with a cargo of corn from Russia pass Marseilles and go two thousand miles out of their way for the purpose of unloading at Antwerp. No other port, in fact, offers the same facilities. There is not another place in the world where fifty vessels of 3,000 tons can come alongside as easily as the penny boats on the Thames run into the landing.

Since the opening of the St. Gothard Tunnel nearly all the alimentary provisions that Italy sends to the British Isles pass through Antwerp. In 1882 82,000,000 eggs and 30,000 pounds of fruit were shipped there for England. The greater part of these came from Italy. Antwerp has become also an important port for emigrants; 35,125 embarked in 1882, out of which number 3,055 were bound for New York. The city was always destined, from its topographical position, to be at the head of a very considerable traffic; political reasons alone for many years prevented this being the case. These have happily now disappeared, and, since 1863, when the "Scheldt was liberated," the progress of commerce has been more rapid than even the most ardent Antwerp patriot dared hope. At that date the toll of 1s. 11d. on all vessels going up the river, and of 7½d. on vessels going down, was abolished, and reforms were introduced among the taxes on the general navigation; the tax on tonnage in the port itself was abolished, and the pilot tax was lowered. The results of these measures became immediately apparent. Traffic increased with such rapidity that in 1876 the crowding on the quays was such that the relation of the tonnage to the length of the quay was about 270 tons per yard, which is four times as great as at Liverpool.

A few words now, briefly, as to the nature of the important works[1] completed at Antwerp. They were commenced in 1877, and have opened for the port an era of prosperity such as was never experienced even during the sixteenth century, the zenith of her splendor. These works have cost £4,000,000, and have necessitated the employment of 12,000 tons of wrought iron, of 490,000 cubic yards of brickwork and concrete, of 32,000 cubic yards of masonry, and of more than 3,300,000 cubic yards of earthwork in filling and dredging, etc. The quay walls run the whole length of the town, a distance of rather more than two miles. It rests on a foundation laid without timber footings, and giving a depth of twenty-six feet at low water, sufficient drawing for the largest ships afloat. Beyond this wall are the real quays, which consists of first a line of rails reserved for hydraulic cranes serving to unload vessels and deposit their cargo railway trucks; secondly, a second line of rails parallel with the first, on which these trucks are stationed; thirdly, sheds extending toward the town for a width of one hundred and fifty feet, and covered with galvanized iron sheetings. A third line of rails parallel with the two others runs from end to end of these sheds, and a number of lines placed transversely with this one connect it by means of spring bridges with, fourthly, four more lines also parallel with the quays, whence the goods start for the different stations, and thence to their destinations. The total width of these immense constructions is about three hundred and twenty feet. Such is their magnitude that about six hundred houses had to be pulled down to make place for them. A railing running along their entire length cuts them off from the town.

[Transcribers note 1: changed from 'words']

During the course of last year 4,379 vessels entered the port of Antwerp, gauging a total of 3,734,428 tons, which places Antwerp, as I have already stated, at the head of European ports. In 1882 the tonnage of Havre was only 2,200,000, that of Genoa 2,250,000, and of Bilboa 315,000, owing to its iron ore exports. Among the English ports a few only exceed Antwerp. London is still the first port in the world, with a tonnage of 10,421,000 tons, and Liverpool the second, with 7,351,000 tons; Newcastle follows with 6,000,000 tons, also in excess of Antwerp, but both Hull and Glasgow are below, with respectively 1,875,000 and 2,110,000 tons.--_Pall Mall Gazette_.

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BICYCLES AND TRICYCLES.

[Footnote: A recent lecture before the Society of Arts, London.]

By C.V. BOYS.

The subject of this paper is one of such wide interest, and of such great importance, that it is quite unnecessary for me to make any apology for bringing it to your notice. Exactly two months ago, I had the honor of dealing with the same subject at the Royal Institution. On that occasion I considered main principles only, and avoided anything in which none but riders were likely to take an interest, or which was in any way a matter of dispute. As it may be assumed that the audience here consists largely of riders, and of those who are following those matters of detail, the elaboration, simplification, and perfection of which have brought the art of constructing cycles to its present state of perfection, I purpose treating the subject from a totally different point of view. I do not intend, in general, to describe anything, assuming that the audience is familiar with the construction of the leading types of machines, but rather to consider the pros and cons of the various methods by which manufacturers have striven to attain perfection. As a discussion on the subject of this paper will doubtless follow--and I hope makers or riders of every class of machine will freely express their opinion, for by so doing they will lend an interest which I alone could not hope to awaken--I shall not consider it necessary to assume an absolutely neutral position, which might be expected of me if there were no discussion, but shall explain my own views without reserve.

The great variety of cycles may be grouped under the following heads:

1. The Bicycle unmodified. 2. The Safety bicycle, a modification of 1. 3. The Center-cycle. 4. The Tricycle, which includes five general types: (a.) Rear steerer of any sort. (b.) Coventry rotary. (c.) Front steerer of any sort (except e). (d.) Humber pattern. (e.) The Oarsman. 5. Double machines: sociables and tandems. 6. The Otto.

It is perfectly obvious that not one machine is superior to all others in every respect, for if that were the case, the rest would rapidly become extinct. Not one shows any signs of becoming extinct, and, therefore, it may be assumed that each one possesses some points in which it is superior to others, the value of which is considered by its riders to far outweigh any points in which it may be inferior. The widely varying conditions under which, and purposes for which, machines are used and the very different degrees of importance which differently constituted minds attach to the peculiarities of various machines, will, probably, prevent any from becoming extinct. Nevertheless, the very great advantages which some of these possess over others will, no doubt, in time become evident by the preponderance of the better class of machines.

The bicycle, which surpasses all other machines in simplicity, lightness, and speed, will probably, for these reasons, always remain a favorite with a large class. The fact that it requires only one track places it at a great advantage with respect to other machines, for it is common for a road which is unpleasant from mud or stones to have a hard, smooth edge, a kind of path, where the bicyclist can travel in peace, but which is of little advantage to other machines. Again, the bicycle can be wheeled through narrow gates or door ways, and so kept in places which are inaccessible to tricycles. One peculiarity of the bicycle, and to a certain extent of the center-cycle, is that the plane of the machine always lies in the direction of the resultant force, that the machine leans over to an amount depending on the velocity and the sharpness of the curve described. For this reason all lateral strain on the parts is abolished, and if we except the slipping away of the wheel from under the rider, which can hardly occur on a country road, an upset from taking a curve too quickly is impossible. This leaning to either side by the machine and rider gives rise to that delightful gliding which none but the bicyclist or the skater can experience. In this respect the bicycle has an enormous advantage over any machine, tricycle or Otto, which must at all times remain upright, and which must, therefore, at a high speed, be taken round a curve with discretion.

The perfect and instantaneous steering of the bicycle, combined with its narrowness, counteract, to a great extent, the advantage which the tricyclist has of being able to stop so much more quickly, for the bicyclist can "dodge" past a thing for which the rider of the three-wheeler must pull up. In one other respect the bicyclist has an advantage which, though of no real importance, has great weight with many people. The bicycle well ridden presents a picture of such perfect elegance that no one on anything else need expect to appear to advantage in comparison.

The chief disadvantage of the bicycle is the fact that a rider cannot stop for any purpose, or go back a little, without dismounting. For town riding, where a stoppage is frequently necessitated by the traffic, this perpetual mounting and dismounting is not only tiresome, but wearying, so much so that few bicyclists care to ride daily in town.

The position of the rider on a bicycle, with respect to the treadles, is by no means good, for if he is placed sufficiently far forward to be able to employ his weight to advantage without bending himself double, he will be in so critical a position that a mere touch will send him over the handles. He has, therefore, to balance stability and safety against comfort and power; the more forward he is, the more furiously he can drive his machine, and the less does he suffer from friction and the shaking of the little wheel; the more backward he is, the less is he likely to come to grief riding down hill, or over unseen stones. The bicyclist is no better off than the rider of any other machine with a little wheel, the vibration from which may weary him nearly as much as the work he does. The little wheel as a mud-throwing machine engine is still more effective on the bicycle than it is on any tricycle, for in general it is run at a higher speed.

I now come to the usual complaint about the bicycle. There is a fashion just now to call it dangerous and the tricycle safe. But the difference in safety has been much exaggerated. The bicyclist is more likely to suffer from striking a stone than his friend on three wheels, but then he should not strike one where the tricyclist would strike a dozen. Properly ridden, neither class of machine can be considered dangerous; an accident should never happen except it be due to the action of others. People, carts, cattle, and dogs on the road are liable to such unexpected movements, that the real danger of the cyclist comes from the outside; to danger from absolute collapse, due to a hidden flaw in the materials employed, every one is liable, but, the bicyclist more remotely than the tricyclist, owing to the greater simplicity of his machine. The bicyclist, though he has further to fall in case of an accident from any of these causes, is in a better position than the tricyclist, for he is outside instead of inside his machine; he can in an instant get clear.

It would appear that many tricyclists consider accidents of the kind next to impossible, for in several machines the rider is so involved that an instantaneous dismount without a moment's notice, at any speed, is absolutely impossible. There remains one objection, which, however, should be of next to no importance--the difficulty of learning the bicycle prevents many from taking to the light and fast machine, because they are afraid of a little preliminary trouble.

The chief objections to the bicycle, then, are the liability of the rider to go over the handles, the impossibility of stopping very quickly, and the inability to remain at rest or go backward, and the difficulty of learning.

The first two of these are, to a large extent, overcome in the safety bicycles, but not without the introduction of what is in comparison a certain degree of complication, or without the loss of the whole of the grace or elegance of the bicycle. On almost all of these safety bicycles the rider is better placed than on the unmodified bicycle, but though safer, I do not think bicyclists find them complete in speed, though, no doubt, they are superior in that respect to the tricycle. Though they do not allow the rider to stop without dismounting, the fatigue resulting from this cause is less than it is with a bicycle, owing to the fact that with the small machines the rider has so small a distance to climb. Of these machines, the Extraordinary leaves the rider high up in the air on a full-sized wheel, but places him further back and more over the pedals. The motion of these is peculiar, being not circular, but oval, a form which has certain advantages.

In the Sun and Planet and Kangaroo bicycles a small wheel is "geared up," that is, is made to turn faster than the pedals, so as to avoid the very rapid pedaling which is necessary to obtain an ordinary amount of speed out of a small wheel. In each of these the pedals move in a circular path, and their appearance is in consequence less peculiar than that of the Facile, which, in this respect, does not compare favorably with any good machine. The pedal motion on the Facile is merely reciprocating. Riders of machines where circular motion is employed, among them myself, do not believe that this reciprocating motion can be so good as circular, but I understand that this view is not held by those who are used to it. Of course, the harmonic motion of the Facile pedal is superior to the equable reciprocating motion employed in some machines where speed is an object, especially with small wheels.

If I have overlooked anything typical in the modified bicycle class, I hope some one will afterward supply the omission, and point out any peculiarities or advantages.

That very peculiar machine, the center-cycle, seems to combine many of the advantages of the bicycle and tricycle. On it the rider can remain at rest, or can move backward; he can travel at any speed round curves without an upset being possible; he can ride over brickbats, or obstructions, not only without being upset, but, if going slowly, without even touching them. As this machine is very little known, a few words of explanation may be interesting.

In the first place, the rider is placed over the main wheel, as in the bicycle, but much further forward. There are around him, on or near the ground, four little wheels, two before and two behind, supported in a manner the ingenuity of which calls for the utmost admiration. Turning the steering handle not only causes the front and rear pairs to turn opposite ways, but owing to their swiveling about an inward pointing axis, the machine is compelled to lean over toward the inside of the curve; not only is this the case, but each pair rises and falls with every inequality of the road, if the rider chooses that they run on the ground; but he can, if he pleases, arrange that in general they ride in the air, any one touching at such times as are necessary to keep him on the top of the one wheel, on which alone he is practically riding. He can, if he likes, at any time lift the main wheel off the ground and run along on the others only. The very few machines of the kind which I have seen have been provided with foot straps, to enable the rider to pull as well as push, which is a great advantage when climbing a hill, but this is on every machine except the Otto, of which I shall speak later, considered a dangerous practice.

Some of the objections to the bicycle to which I have referred were sufficient to prevent many, especially elderly men, from dreaming of becoming cyclists. So long as the tricycle was a crude and clumsy machine, there was no chance of cycling becoming a part, as it almost is and certainly soon will be, of our national life. The tricycle has been brought to such a state of perfection that it is difficult to imagine where further progress can be made.

Perhaps it will be well to mention what is necessary in order that a three-wheeled machine may be made to roll freely in a straight line, and also round curves. At all times each wheel must be able to travel in its own plane in spite of the united action of the other two. To run straight, the axes of all the wheels must obviously be parallel. To run round a curve, the axis of each must, if continued, pass through the center of curvature of the curve. If two wheels have a common axis, the intersection of the two lines forming the axes can only meet in one point. To steer such a combination, therefore, the plane of the third wheel only need be turned. If the axis of no two are common, then the planes of two of the wheels must be turned in order that the three axes may meet in a point.

Not only does free rolling depend on the suitable direction of the planes of the wheels, each wheel must be able to run at a speed proportional to its distance from the point of intersection of the three axes, i.e., from the ever-shifting center of curvature.

The most obvious way, then, of contriving a three wheeler is to drive one wheel, steer with another, and leave the third, which must be opposite the driver, idle. The next in simplicity is to drive with one wheel, and steer with the other two, having one in front and the other behind. So far then, the single driving rear-steerer and the Coventry rotary pattern are easily understood. The evils of single driving, minimized, it is true, to a large extent, in the Coventry rotary, have led to the contrivance of means by which a wheel on each side may be driven without interfering with their differential motion in turning a corner.

Three methods are commonly used, but as only two are employed on tricycles, I shall leave the third till I come to the special machine for which it is necessary. The most easy to understand is the clutch, a model of which I have on the table. If each main wheel is driven by means of one of these, though compelled to go forward by the crankshaft, it is yet free to go faster without restraint. By this means "double driving" is effected in several forms of tricycle.

Differential gear, which is well understood, and of which there are several mechanically equivalent forms, divides the applied driving power, whether forward or backward, between the main wheels, equally if the gear is perfect, unequally if imperfect. To understand the effect of the two systems of driving, and of single driving, let us place on grooves a block which offers resistance to a moving force. If we wish to move it, and apply our force at the end of one side, it will tend to turn round as well as move forward, and much friction will be spent on the guides by their keeping it straight.