Chapter 5

From our own most recent experiments, we have ascertained the following facts, which may guide every horse-owner in the application of electricity to an animal that is opposed to being shod: (1) To a horse that defends himself because he is irritable by temperament, and nervous and impressionable (as happens with animals of pure or nearly pure blood), the shock must be administered feebly and gradually before an endeavor is made to take hold of his leg. The horse will then make a jump, and try to roll over. The jump must be followed, while an assistant holds the bridle, and the action of the current must be at once arrested. After this the horse will not endeavor to defend himself, and his leg may be easily handled.

(2) Certain large, heavy, naturally ugly horses kick through sheer viciousness. In this case, while the current is being given it should be gradually increased in intensity, and the horse's foot must be seized during its action. In most cases the passage of a current through such horses (whose mucous membrane is less sensitive) produces only a slightly stupefied and contracted position of the head, accompanied with a slight tremor. The current must be shut off as soon as the horse's foot is well in one's hand, and be at once renewed if he endeavors to defend himself again, as is rarely the case. It is a mare of this nature that is represented in the annexed figures.

We know that this same system has been applied for bringing to an abrupt standstill runaway horses, harnessed to vehicles; but knowing the effect of a sudden stoppage under such circumstances, we believe that the remedy would prove worse than the disease, since the coachman and vehicle, in obedience to the laws of inertia, would continue their motion and pass over the animals, much to their detriment.--_Science et Nature._

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ESTEVE'S AUTOMATIC PILE.

Mr. Esteve has recently devised a generator of electricity which he claims to be energetic, constant, and always ready to operate. The apparatus is designed for the production of light and for actuating electric motors, large induction bobbins, etc.

We give a description of it herewith from data communicated by its inventor.

The accompanying cut represents a battery of 6 elements, with a reservoir, R, for the liquid, provided at its lower part with a cock for allowing the liquid to enter the pile. The vessels of the different elements are of rectangular form. At the upper part, and in the wider surfaces of each, there are two tubes. The first tube of the first vessel receives the extremity of a safety-tube, A, whose other extremity enters the upper part of the reservoir, R. This tube is designed for regulating the flow of the liquid into the pile. When the cock, r, is too widely open, the liquid might have a tendency to flow over the edges of the vessel; but this would close the orifice of the tube, A, and, as the air would then no longer enter the reservoir, R, the flow would be stopped automatically. The second tube of the first vessel is connected with a lead tube, 1, one of the extremities of which enters the second vessel. The other tubes are arranged in the same way in the other vessels. The renewal of the liquids is effected by displacement, in flowing upward from one element over into another; and the liquids make their exit from the pile at D, after having served six times. The electrodes of the two first elements are represented as renewed in the cut, in order to show the arrangement of the tubes.

_Dimensions._--The zinc, 2, has a superficies of 15×20 centimeters, and is cut out of the ordinary commercial sheet metal. It may be turned upside down when one end has become worn away, thus permitting of its being entirely utilized. The negative electrode is formed of four carbons, which have, each of them, a superficies of 8×21 centimeters. These four carbons are less fragile and are more easily handled than two having the same surface. Their arrangement is shown at the left of the figure. They are fixed to a strip of copper, a, to which is soldered another strip, L, bent at right angles. There are thus two pairs of carbon per element, and these are simply suspended from a piece of wood, as shown in the figure. Upon this wooden holder will be seen the two strips, LL, that are designed to be put in contact with the zinc of the succeeding element by means of pinchers that connect the electrodes with one another. This arrangement permits the pile to be taken apart very quickly.

_Charging, Work, and Duration of the Pile._--The inventor has made a large number of experiments with solutions of bichromate of potash of various degrees of saturation, and has found the following to give the best results:

Bichromate of potash. 1 kilogramme. Sulphuric acid 2 liters. Water 8 "

When a larger quantity of the salt is used, crystallization occurs in the pile.

Constants and work Constants and work of an element of a round Bunsen having a zinc of element, 20×30 cm. 16×20 cm.

Volts. 1.9 1.8 Resistance. 0.05 0.24 Work disposable in the external circuit. 1.839 k. 0.344 k.

The work disposable in the external circuit is deduced from the formula:

T = E²/(4R × 9.81)

It will be seen that an element thus charged gives as much energy as 5.3 large Bunsen elements.

The battery is charged with 10 liters of solution, and is capable of furnishing for 5 hours a current of 7 amperes with a difference of potential of 9 volts at the pile terminals. The work, according to the formula (EI)/g, equals 6.422 kilogram-meters; with a feebler resistance in the external circuit it is capable of producing a current of 19 amperes for an hour and an half. In this case the resistance of the external circuit equals the interior resistance of the pile. Upon immersing the electrodes in new liquid, and with no resistance in the external circuit, the current may reach 100 amperes. On renewing the liquids during the operation of the pile, a current of 7 amperes is kept up if about a liter of saturation per hour be allowed to pass into the battery. For five hours, then, only 5 liters are used instead of the 10 that are necessary when the liquid is not renewed while the pile is in action.--_La Nature._

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WOODWARD'S DIFFUSION MOTOR.

The energy produced by the phenomena of diffusion is exhibited in lecture courses by placing a bell glass filled with hydrogen over a porous vessel at whose base is fixed a glass tube that dips into water. The hydrogen, in diffusing, enters the porous vessel, increases the internal pressure, and a number of bubbles escapes from the tube. On withdrawing the bell glass of hydrogen, the latter becomes diffused externally, a lower pressure occurs in the porous vessel, and the level of the water rises.

The arrangement devised by Mr. C.J. Woodward, and recently presented to the Physical Society of London, is an adaptation of this experiment to the production of an oscillating motion by alternations in the internal and external diffusion of the hydrogen.

The apparatus, represented herewith, consists of a scale beam about three feet in length that supports at one end a scale pan and weights, and, at the other, a corked porous vessel that carries a glass tube, c, which dips into a vessel containing either water or methylic alcohol. Three or four gas jets, one of which is shown at E, are arranged around the porous vessel, as close as possible, but in such a way as not to touch it during the oscillation of the beam. These gas jets communicate with a gasometer tilled with hydrogen, the bell of which is so charged as to furnish a jet of sufficient strength. Experience will indicate the best place to give the gas jets, but, in general, it is well to locate them at near the center of the porous vessel when the beam is horizontal.

It is now easy to see how the device operates. When the hydrogen comes in presence of the porous vessel it becomes diffused therein, and the pressure exerted in the interior then produces an ascent. When the bottom of the porous vessel gets above the jets, the internal diffusion ceases and the hydrogen becomes diffused externally, the internal pressure diminishes, and the vessel descends. The vessel then comes opposite the jets of hydrogen and the same motion occurs again, and soon indefinitely. The work produced by this motor, which has purely a scientific interest, is very feeble, and much below that assigned to it by theory. In order to obtain a maximum, it would be necessary to completely surround the porous vessel each time with hydrogen, and afterward remove the jets to facilitate the access of air. All the mechanical arrangements employed for obtaining such a result have failed, because the friction introduced by the maneuvering parts also introduces a resistance greater than the motor can overcome. There is therefore a waste of energy due to the continuous flow of hydrogen; but the apparatus, for all that, constitutes none the less an original and interesting device.--_La Nature._

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SOME RELATIONS OF HEAT TO VOLTAIC AND THERMO-ELECTRIC ACTION OF METALS IN ELECTROLYTES.[1]

[Footnote 1: Read before the Royal Society, Nov., 1883.]

By G. GORE, F.R.S., LL.D.

The experiments described in this paper throw considerable light upon the real cause of the voltaic current. The results of them are contained in twenty tables; and by comparing them with each other, and also by means of additional experiments, the following general conclusions and chief facts were obtained.

When metals in liquids are heated, they are more frequently rendered positive than negative in the proportion of about 2.8 to 1.0; and while the proportion in weak solutions was about 2.29 to 1.0, in strong ones it was about 3.27 to 1.0, and this accords with their thermo-electric behavior as metals alone. The thermo-electric order of metals in liquids was, with nearly every solution, whether strong or weak, widely different from the thermo-electric order of the same metals alone. A conclusion previously arrived at was also confirmed, viz., that the liquids in which the hot metal was thermo-electro-positive in the largest proportion of cases were those containing highly electro-positive bases, such as the alkali metals. The thermo-electric effect of _gradually_ heating a metal in a liquid was sometimes different from that of _suddenly_ heating it, and was occasionally attended by a reversal of the current.

Degree of strength of liquid greatly affected the thermo-electric order of metals. Increase of strength usually and considerably increased the potential of metals thermo-electro-negative in liquids, and somewhat increased that of those positive in liquids.

The electric potential of metals, thermo-electro-positive in weak liquids, was usually about 3.87 times, and in strong ones 1.87 times, as great as of those which were negative. The potential of the strongest thermo-electric couple, viz., that of aluminum in weak solution of sodic phosphate, was 0.66 volt for 100° F. difference of temperature, or about 100 times that of a bismuth and antimony couple.

Heating one of the metals, either the positive or negative, of a voltaic couple, usually increased their electric difference, making most metals more positive, and some more negative; while heating the second one also usually neutralized to a large extent the effect of heating the first one. The electrical effect of heating a voltaic couple is nearly wholly composed of the united effects of heating each of the two metals separately, but is not however exactly the same, because while in the former case the metals are dissimilar, and are heated to the same temperature, in the latter they are similar, but heated to different temperatures. Also, when heating a voltaic pair, the heat is applied to two metals, both of which are previously electro-polar by contact with each other as well as by contact with the liquid; but when heating one junction of a metal and liquid couple, the metal has not been previously rendered electro-polar by contact with a different one, and is therefore in a somewhat different state. When a voltaic combination, in which the positive metal is thermo-negative, and the negative one is thermo-positive, is heated, the electric potential of the couple diminishes, notwithstanding that the internal resistance is decreased.

Magnesium in particular, also zinc and cadmium, were greatly depressed in electromotive force in electrolytes by elevation of temperature. Reversals of position of two metals of a voltaic couple in the tension series by rise of temperature were chiefly due to one of the two metals increasing in electromotive force faster than the other, and in many cases to one metal increasing and the other decreasing in electromotive force, but only in a few cases was it a result of simultaneous but unequal diminution of potential of the two metals. With eighteen different voltaic couples, by rise of temperature from 60° to 160° F., the electromotive force in twelve cases was increased, and in six decreased, and the average proportions of increase for the eighteen instances was 0.10 volt for the 100° F. of elevation.

A great difference in chemical composition of the liquid was attended by a considerable change in the order of the volta-tension series, and the differences of such order in two similar liquids, such as solutions of hydric chloride and potassic chloride, were much greater than those produced in either of those liquids by a difference of 100° F. of temperature. Difference of strength of solution, like difference of composition or of temperature, altered the order of such series with nearly every liquid; and the amount of such alteration by an increase of four or five times in the strength of the liquid was rather less than that caused by a difference of 100° F. of temperature. While also a variation of strength of liquid caused only a moderate amount of change of order in the volta-tension series, it produced more than three times that amount of change in the thermo-electric tension series. The usual effect of increasing the strength of the liquid upon the volta-electromotive force was to considerably increase it, but its effect upon the thermo-electro-motive force was to largely decrease it. The degree of potential of a metal and liquid thermo-couple was not always exactly the same at the same temperature during a rise as during a fall of temperature; this is analogous to the variations of melting and solidifying points of bodies under such conditions, and also to that of supersaturation of a liquid by a salt, and is probably due to some hinderance to change of molecular movement.

The rate of ordinary chemical corrosion of each metal varied in every different liquid; in each solution also it differed with every different metal. The most chemically positive metals were usually the most quickly corroded, and the corrosion of each metal was usually the fastest with the most acid solutions. The rate of corrosion at any given temperature was dependent both upon the nature of the metal and upon that of the liquid, and was limited by the most feebly active of the two, usually the electrolyte. The order of rate of corrosion of metals also differed in every different liquid. The more dissimilar the chemical characters of two liquids, the more diverse usually was the order of rapidity of corrosion of a series of metals in them. The order of rate of simple corrosion in any of the liquids examined differed from that of chemico-electric and still more from that of thermo-electric tension. Corrosion is not the cause of thermo-electric action of metals in liquids.

Out of fifty-eight cases of rise of temperature the rate of ordinary corrosion was increased in every instance except one, and that was only a feeble exception--the increase of corrosion from 60° to 160° F. with different metals was extremely variable, and was from 1.5 to 321.6 times. Whether a metal increased or decreased in thermo-electromotive force by being heated, it increased in rapidity of corrosion. The proportions in which the most corroded metal was also the most thermo-electro-positive one was 65.57 per cent. in liquids at 60° F., and 69.12 in the same liquids at 160° F.; and the proportion in which it was the most chemico-electro-positive at 60 F. was 84.44 per cent, and at 160° F. 80.77 per cent. The proportion of cases therefore in which the most chemico-electro-negative metal was the most corroded one increased from 15.56 to 19.23 per cent, by a rise of temperature of 100° F. Comparison of these proportions shows that corrosion usually influenced in a greater degree chemico-electric rather than thermo-electric actions of metals in liquids. Not only was the relative number of cases in which the volta-negative metal was the most corroded increased by rise of temperature, but also the average relative loss by corrosion of the negative to that of the positive one was increased from 3.11 to 6.32.

The explanation most consistent with all the various results and conclusions is a kinetic one: That metals and electrolytes are throughout their masses in a state of molecular vibration. That the molecules of those substances, being frictionless bodies in a frictionless medium, and their motion not being dissipated by conduction or radiation, continue incessantly in motion until some cause arises to prevent them. That each metal (or electrolyte), when unequally heated, has to a certain extent an unlike class of motions in its differently heated parts, and behaves in those parts somewhat like two metals (or electrolytes), and those unlike motions are enabled, through the intermediate conducting portion of the substance, to render those parts electro-polar. That every different metal and electrolyte has a different class of motions, and in consequence of this, they also, by contact alone with each other at the same temperature, become electro-polar. The molecular motion of each different substance also increases at a different rate by rise of temperature.

This theory is equally in agreement with the chemico-electric results. In accordance with it, when in the case of a metal and an electrolyte, the two classes of motions are sufficiently unlike, chemical corrosion of the metal by the liquid takes place, and the voltaic current originated by inherent molecular motion, under the condition of contact, is maintained by the portions of motion lost by the metal and liquid during the act of uniting together. Corrosion therefore is an effect of molecular motion, and is one of the modes by which that motion is converted into and produces electric current.

In accordance with this theory, if we take a thermo-electric pair consisting of a non-corrodible metal and an electrolyte (the two being already electro-polar by mutual contact), and heat one of their points of contact, the molecular motions of the heated end of each substance at the junction are altered; and as thermo-electric energy in such combinations usually increases by rise of temperature, the metal and liquid, each singly, usually becomes more electro polar. In such a case the unequally heated metal behaves to some extent like two metals, and the unequally heated liquid like two liquids, and so the thermo-electric pair is like a feeble chemico-electric one of two metals in two liquids, but without corrosion of either metal. If the metal and liquid are each, when alone, thermo-electro-positive, and if, when in contact, the metal increases in positive condition faster than the liquid by being heated, the latter appears thermo-electro-negative, but if less rapidly than the liquid, the metal appears thermo-electro-negative.

As also the proportion of cases is small in which metals that are positive in the ordinary thermo-electric series of metals only become negative in the metal and liquid ones (viz., only 73 out of 286 in weak solutions, and 48 out of the same number in strong ones), we may conclude that the metals, more frequently than the liquids, have the greatest thermo-electric influence, and also that the relative largeness of the number of instances of thermo-electro-positive metals in the series of metals and liquids, as in the series of metals only, is partly a consequence of the circumstance that rise of temperature usually makes substances--metals in particular--electro-positive. These statements are also consistent with the view that the elementary substances lose a portion of their molecular activity when they unite to form acids or salts, and that electrolytes therefore have usually a less degree of molecular motion than the metals of which they are partly composed.

The current from a thermo-couple of metal and liquid, therefore, may be viewed as the united result of difference of molecular motion, first, of the two junctions, and second, of the two heated (or cooled) substances; and in all cases, both of thermo- and chemico-electric action, the immediate true cause of the current is the original molecular vibrations of the substances, while contact is only a static permitting condition. Also that while in the case of thermo-electric action the sustaining cause is molecular motion, supplied by an external source of heat, in the case of chemico-electric action it is the motion lost by the metal and liquid when chemically uniting together. The direction of the current in thermo-electric cases appears to depend upon which of the two substances composing a junction increases in molecular activity the fastest by rise of temperature, or decreases the most rapidly by cooling.

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AIR REFRIGERATING MACHINE.