Chapter 6

The parts that we have just enumerated are inclosed in a tin box covered with a wooden casing, P. Between the two there is inserted a sheet of hard rubber in order to prevent a loss of electricity; the whole is held in place by strong springs.

In order to show the normal state of the condenser, a scale consisting of 15 metallic buttons to give the dimensions of the sparks, is arranged at X. This scale is capable of being connected with the rings, _q_ and _t_, by means of chains; when the spark obtained after 15 or 20 revolutions considerably exceeds the intervals of the scale, it is a sure thing that the machine is in a proper state.

In order to prepare the apparatus for carriage, the winch is taken off and placed in the compartment, _m_, which is closed by means of a door, Q.

Figs. 5 and 6 show the arrangement of the dynamite cartridges and wires in the blast hole. Figs. 7 to 10 show different arrangements of the igniting wires. Figs. 11 and 12 give the general arrangement for igniting a number of cartridges simultaneously by means of the electric machine. Fig. 13 shows the arrangement where powder is employed. Fig. 14 shows the arrangement of a horizontal hole.--_Annales Industrielles._

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IMPROVED ELECTRIC FIRE ALARM.

The object of this apparatus is to close an electric circuit when the temperature of a room rises above a certain point. Many devices have been invented for effecting this object, each of which have their own advantages or disadvantages. The invention of Mr. Pritchett enables the required result to be obtained in a very satisfactory manner. The apparatus consists (as shown by the figure) of a long glass vessel containing air; connected to this vessel there is a glass tube filled with mercury. The whole is mounted on a metal cradle, which turns on pivots. According to the position which the glass vessel and its adjuncts occupy in the cradle (this position being adjustable by means of a thumb-screw, seen at the upper part of the cradle), so will the same have a tendency to rock longitudinally over to one side or the other. Now, if we suppose the position to be such that the right hand end of the glass vessel is depressed, and the left hand end raised, then if the vessel becomes subjected to an elevation of temperature, the air inside the same will become expanded, and the mercury column in the tube will be driven over to the left, and will rise in the turned up end of the tube. This will cause the left hand branch of the glass vessel, and its attachments, to become increased in weight, while the right hand branch will become proportionally lighter; the consequence of this will be that the vessel and its cradle will cant over, and by falling on an electrical contact will close a circuit and sound an alarm. It is obvious that the apparatus is equally well adapted for indicating a diminution as well as an increase of temperature, for if the electrical contact be placed under the right hand portion of the cradle, and the latter be adjusted so that in its normal position its left hand portion is depressed, then when the glass vessel becomes cooled, the air in it will contract, and the mercury will fall in the turned-up portion of the tube before referred to, and will rise in the limb connected to the vessel, consequently the cradle and glass vessel will cant over in the reverse way to that which it did in the first case.

Owing to the surface which the glass vessel exposes, the air inside quickly responds to any external change of temperature, consequently the apparatus is very sensitive. Another important feature is the fact that the cradle and vessel in canting over acquires a certain momentum, and thus the contact made becomes very certain.

Mr. Pritchett proposes that his apparatus shall give external evidence outside the house by ringing a gong, and by dropping a semaphore arm released by an electromagnet. He also proposes (as has often been suggested) that a water supply shall be automatically turned on.--_Electrical Review._

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A STANDARD THERMOPILE.

Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S., has invented an improved thermopile for measuring small electromotive forces. It consists of about 300 pairs of horizontal, slender, parallel wires of iron and German silver, the former being covered with cotton. They are mounted on a wooden frame. About 1½ in. of the opposite ends of the wires are bent downward to a vertical position to enable them to dip into liquids at different temperatures contained in long narrow troughs; the liquids being non-conductors, such as melted paraffin for the hot junctions, and the non-volatile petroleum, known as thin machinery oil. The electromotive force obtained varies with the temperature; a pile of 295 pairs having a resistance of 95.6 ohms at 16 deg. Cent. gave with a difference of temperature of 100 deg. Cent. an electromotive force of 0.7729 volts, or with 130 deg. Cent. an electromotive force of 1.005 volt. Each element, therefore, equaled 0.0000262 volt for each degree Cent. difference of temperature. On having been verified with a standard voltaic cell the apparatus becomes itself a standard, especially for small electromotive forces. It is capable of measuring the 1/34861 part of a volt. For higher electromotive forces than a volt, several of these piles would have to be connected in series. The fractional electromotive force is obtained by means of a sliding contact which cuts out so many pairs as is required.

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TELEPHONIC TRANSMISSION WITHOUT RECEIVERS.

The annual meeting of the French Society of Physics, the success of which is continually increasing, took place this year in the salons of the Observatory, which were kindly placed at the Society's disposal by Admiral Mouchez.

There were three consecutive sessions, the one of Tuesday, April 15, being set apart for the members of the Association, the one of the 16th for the invited guests of Admiral Mouchez, and that of the 17th for the invited guests of the Society. The salons were partially lighted by the Siemens differential arc, continuous current lamps, and partially by the Swan incandescent lamp supplied by a distributing machine that permitted of the lamps being lighted and extinguished at will without changing the normal operation of all the rest. Many apparatus figured at this exhibition, but we shall on the present occasion merely call attention to those that presented a certain character of novelty or of originality.

Among the apparatus that we shall reserve a description of for the present was Messrs. Richard Bros.' registering thermometer designed for the Concarneau laboratory, an instrument which, when sunk at one mile from the coast, and to a depth of 40 meters, will give a diagram of the temperature of the ocean at that depth; and Mr. Hospitalier's continuous electrical indicators, designed for making known from a distance such mechanical or physical phenomena as velocities, levels, temperatures, pressures, etc.

Among the most important of the apparatus exhibited we must reckon Mr. Cailletet's devices for liquefying gases, and those of Mr. Mascart for determining the ohm. The results obtained by Mr. Mascart (which have been submitted to the Committee on Unities of the Congress of Electricians now in session at Paris), are sensibly concordant with those obtained independently in England by Lord Rayleigh. Everything leads to the hope, then, that a rapid and definite solution will be given of this important question of electric unities, and that nothing further will prevent the international development of the C.G.S. system.

Mr. Jules Duboscq made a number of very successful projections, and we particularly remarked the peculiar experiment made in conjunction with Mr. Parinaud, that gave in projection two like spectra produced by the same prism, and which, through superposition, were capable of increasing the intensity of the colors, or, on the contrary, of reconstituting white light.

Among the optical applications we may cite Mr. Leon Laurent's apparatus for controlling plane, parallel, perpendicular, and oblique surfaces, and magic mirrors obtained with an ordinary light; Mr. S.P. Thompson's apparatus for demonstrating the propagation of electro-magnetic waves in ether (according to Maxwell's theory), as well as some new polarizing prisms; and a mode of lighting the microscope (presented by Mr. Yvon), that was quite analogous to the one employed more than a year ago by Dr. Van Heurck, director of the Botanical Garden of Anvers.

Acoustics were represented by an electro-magnetic brake siren of Mr. Bourbouze; Konig's apparatus for the synthesis of sounds; and Mr. S.P. Thompson's cymatograph--a pendulum apparatus for demonstrating the phenomena of beats.

It was electricity again that occupied the largest space in the programme of the session.

Apparatus for teaching are assuming greater and greater importance every day, and the exhibit of Mr. Ducretet included a large number of the most interesting of these. The house of Breguet exhibited on a reduced scale the magnificent experiments of Gaston Plante, wherein 320 leaden wire secondary elements charged for quantity with 3 Daniell elements, and afterward coupled for tension, served to charge a rheostatic machine formed of 50 condensers coupled for quantity. These latter, coupled anew for tension, furnished upon being discharged a spark due to a difference of potential of about 32,000 volts that presented all the characters of the spark produced by induction coils on the machines so improperly called "static." Finally, we may cite the apparatus arranged by Mr. S.P. Thompson for studying the development of currents in magneto-electric machines. The inventor studies the influence of the forms of the inductors and armatures of machines by means of an arrangement that allows him to change the rings or armatures at will and to take out the induced bobbins in order to sound every part of the magnetic field. Upon giving the armature an angular motion limited by two stops, there develops a certain quantity of electricity that may be measured by causing it to traverse an appropriate ballistic galvanometer. Messrs. Deprez and D'Arsonval's galvanometer answers very well for this purpose, and its aperiodicity, which causes it quickly to return to zero as soon as the induced current ceases, permits of a large number of readings being taken within a very short space of time.

Measuring apparatus were represented by a new and very elegant arrangement of Sir William Thomson's reflecting galvanometers, due to Mr. J. Carpentier. The mounting adopted by Mr. Carpentier permits of an easy removal of the bobbins and of an instantaneous substitution therefor. The galvanometric part, composed of the needles and mirror, therefore remains entirely free, thus allowing of its being verified, and making it convenient to attach the silken fiber. Mr. Carpentier has, moreover, adopted for all the minor apparatus a transparent celluloid scale which simplifies them, facilitates observations, and renders the use of reflection almost industrial.

We shall complete our enumeration of the measuring apparatus by citing Ducretet's non-oscillating galvanometer, Sir William Thomson's amperemeters, voltameters, ohmmeters, and mhosmeters, constructed and exhibited by Breguet, and a new aperiodic galvanoscope of Mr. Maiche. Mr. Baudot exhibited the recent improvements that he has made in his multiplex printing telegraph, and M. Boudet of Paris showed a new system of telephone transmission by submarine cables.

Finally, we shall conclude our enumeration by referring to the curiosities. The house of Siemens exhibited a miniature electric railway actuated by a new model of Reynier accumulators; M. Maiche operated a system of musical telephonic auditions that differed only in detail from those instituted by Mr. Ader at the exhibition of 1881; and Mr. Hospitalier presented a new form of an experiment devised by Mr. Giltay, consisting of a telephonic transmission of sounds without the use of receivers. Mr. Giltay's experiment is nothing but Mr. Dunand's speaking condenser without the condenser. A glance at Fig. 1 will show how things are arranged for the experiment. The transmitting system comprises two distinct circuits, viz.: (1) one formed of a pile, P, of 2 or 3 Leclanche elements, or of 1 or 2 small sized accumulators, an Ader microphane transmitter, M, and the inducting wire of a small induction coil, B; and (2) the other formed of the induced wire of the coil, B, of a pile, P', of 10 or 12 Leclanche elements, and of a line whose extremities terminate at R, in two ordinary electro-medical handles. With this arrangement the experiment performed is as follows: When any one speaks or sings in front of the transmitter, T, while two persons, A and B, each having one hand gloved, are holding the handles in the ungloved hand, it is only necessary for A to place his gloved hand upon B's ear, or for the latter to place his hand upon A's, or for each to place his hand on the other's ear simultaneously, in order that A or B, or A and B simultaneously, may hear a voice issuing from the glove. Under these circumstances, Mr. Giltay's experiment is explained like Dunand's speaking condenser--the hand of A and the ear of B here constituting the armature of an elementary condenser in which the glove performs the role of dielectric.

Upon repeating this experiment at the laboratory of the School of Physics and Industrial Chemistry of Paris, it has been found that the glove maybe replaced by a sheet of plain or paraffined paper. In this case, when two persons are holding the handles, and have their ears applied, one against the other, if a sheet of paper be interposed, airs or words will be heard to proceed therefrom. Finally, it has been found possible to entirely suppress the paper, or dielectric, and to hear directly, by simply interposing the auditor or auditors in the circuit. One of the most curious forms of the experiment is the one shown in Fig. 2. Here a third person, C, hears the hands of A and B speak when a circuit is formed by means of three persons, A, B, and C, the two former, A and B, each holding one of the wires of the circuit and applying his free hand to the ear of C. Although the experiment is one that requires entire silence, and could not on that account be performed at the laboratory, a sort of telephonic chain can be formed in which five or six persons may hear at the same time. A, putting his hand on the ear of B, the latter putting his to that of C, and so on up to the last person, who closes the circuit by grasping one of the handles, the other one being held by A.

It is difficult in the present state of science to explain very clearly how these telephonic transmissions are effected without a receiver. All that we can conclude from it so far is that the ear is an instrument of incomparable delicacy and of exquisite sensitiveness, since it perceives vibrations in which the energy developer, particularly in the telephonic chain, is exceedingly feeble.

Without any desire to seek an application for an experiment that is simply curious, we yet believe that there is here a phenomenon of a nature to be studied by physicists. Discoveries in telephony and microphony have certainly opened up to science, as regards both theory and practice, new horizons that still promise other surprises for the future. But to return to the observatory: The success obtained by the exhibition of the French Society of Physics shows that these reunions respond to a genuine need--that of instructing in and popularizing science. While warmly congratulating the organizers of these meetings, we may express a wish that the good example set by the Society of Physics may be followed by other societies. We are convinced in advance that an equal success awaits them.--_La Nature._

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ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF GROUND CONDUCTORS.

In telegraphy, as well as in the question of lightning rods, attention has been but incidentally paid to the improvement of ground conductors, and this point has not been the object of that careful study that has been bestowed upon the establishment of aerial lines. It is only recently that the interest created by lightning rods has given rise to new forms of conductors differing from those formerly used. The publications of the Prussian Academy of Sciences of from 1876 to 1880 contain some information of special importance in regard to this. It is stated therein that the effect of ground conductors may be notably increased by the division of the earth plates and the use of metallic rods, without necessitating a greater output of material. These facts, however, have not as yet been put to profit in practice for the reason, perhaps, that the considerations, which have remained general, have not at once permitted of obtaining forms what could be employed with perfect knowledge of the results. This is what led Mr. Ulbricht, of Dresden, to make calculations for a few forms of conductors, and to test their approximate values. The results of these researches are printed in the _Elektrotechnischen Zeitschrift_ for 1883 (p. 18).

The equations found show, in the first place, that there exist three means of obtaining a considerable effect, as regards the ground conductor, with a slight expenditure of material: The cylindrical electrode may be drawn out into the form of a bar or wire; the plate may be rendered narrow, and elongated in the form of a ribbon; and, besides, the annular plate may be enlarged in lessening the metallic surface.

Finally, a short, open cylinder with a vertical axis may be formed by curving a narrow plate or ribbon. It is not necessary to see the formula to recognize the fact that this cylinder must behave like a ribbon and a flat ring. The radius increasing, and the surface remaining constant, the resistance of the earth here likewise approaches zero.

As the resistance of the earth is inversely proportional to the diameter of the plates, the zero resistance can also be reached by dividing a plate _ad infinitum_. As the parts of the plate may be brought quite close to each other without perceptibly interfering with the action, a _network_ has finally been reached by a division carried very far, yet limited, and by connecting the parts with one another by conducting cylinders.

If we seek to determine what forms of ground conductors are efficient and economical under given conditions, we shall have to begin by informing ourselves as to the choice of material to be used for the electrode, and shall then have to ascertain whether putting it in the ground will or will not necessitate much outlay. The most suitable material is copper, which may be used with advantage, in that it lasts pretty well underground, and that the facility which it may be worked permits of easily giving it more appropriate forms than those that can be obtained with cast iron, which is of itself less costly.

If the burying in the ground requires little or no labor, as when there exist ponds, rivers, and wells, or subterranean strata of water near the surface of the earth, elongated forms of conductors will be employed, such as the solid or hollow cylinder, the wire, the ribbon, the narrow ring, and the network. Plates approaching a square or circular shape are not advantageous. But if the ground has to be dug deeply in order to sink the conductor, the form of the electrode must be more condensed, and selected in such a way that the necessary action may be obtained with a minimum output of copper and labor. For great depths, and when the ground will permit of boring, an elongated and narrow cylinder will be used. Such a system, however, can only be employed when the cylinder is surrounded by spring water, since, without that, an intimate contact with earth that is only moist, cannot be obtained with certainty. In earth that is only moist and for moderate depths, preference may be given to an electrode laid down flat. The digging necessary in this case is onerous, it is true, but it permits of very accurately determining the state of the earth beneath and of obtaining a very perfect adherence of the electrode therewith. Two forms, the annular ribbon or the flat ring and the network, present themselves, according to calculations, as a substitute for copper plates, which are so expensive; and these forms are satisfactory on condition that the labor of digging be not notably increased. These forms should always have a diameter a little greater than that of the plate. The flat ring and the network, however, offer one weak point, which they possess in common with the plate, and that is, their dimensions cannot be easily adapted to the nature of the ground met with without a notable increase in the expense. Now, if the ground should offer a conductivity less than what was anticipated, and it were desired to increase the plate, say by one-third, it would be impossible to do so as a consequence of the closed form.

One important advantage is realized in this respect by combining the ring and the network in the form of a reticulated ring having a diameter of from 1 to 1½ meters. On cutting this ring at a given place and according to a certain radius we obtain the reticulated ribbon shown in the accompanying figure. The thickness of the wires is 2.5 mm., and their weight is 0.475 kilo. per meter. L, L, and L are the points at which the conducting cable is soldered. A reticulated ribbon of copper can be made in advance of any length whatever, and, according to local exigencies, it may be easily curved and given the form of a flat or cylindrical ring of varying width. Even though the ribbon has already been cut for a ring of given diameter, it may be still further enlarged by drawing it out and leaving a bit of the ring open, so as to thus obtain a nearly corresponding diminution in the resistance. Such a resistance may be still further diminished by rendering the ring higher, that is to say, by employing an annular cylindrical form.

After assuring himself, by experiments on a small scale, that calculation and observation gave concordant results for the flat ring, the author made an experiment on a larger scale with the annular network. For practical reasons he employed for this purpose a copper wire 2.5 mm. in diameter, which may be expected to last as long as one of iron plate 2 mm. in thickness. Calculation showed that in a ribbon 160 mm. wide, meshes 40 mm. in breadth were advantageous and favorable as regards rigidity. A reticulated ribbon like this, 4 meters in length, was made and formed into a flat ring having an external diameter of 1.42 m. and an internal one of 1.10 m. The resistance of this ring was found to be W = 0.3485 (1/_k_), and that of a plate one meter square, W0 = 0.368 (1/_k_).

As the conductivity of the earth is very variable, and as we cannot have an absolute guarantee that the ramming will be uniform, it seemed proper to make the measurements of the resistance by fixing the plate and the ring in succession to the lower surface of a small raft, in such a way that the contact with the water should correspond as well as possible to the suppositions made for the calculation. As a second ground conductor, a system of water pipes was used, and, after this, a lightning rod conductor, etc.

Repeated and varied experiments gave, for the calculation of the values of the resistances, equations so concordant that the following results may be considered very approximate.