Chapter 3

The magnificent collections in natural history that were collected on this cruise, and during those of preceding years made by the Travailleur, are, in a few days, to be exhibited at the Museum of Natural History. We think we shall be doing a service to the readers of this journal, in giving them some details as to the organization of the Talisman expedition as well as to the manner in which the dredgings were performed.

The vessel, as shown by her plan in Fig. 2, had to undergo important alterations for the cruise that she was to undertake. Her deck was almost completely freed from artillery, since this would have encumbered her too much. Immediately behind the bridge, in the center of the vessel, there were placed two windlasses, one, A, to the right, and the other, B, to the left (Fig. 2). These machines, whose mode of operation will be explained further along, were to serve for raising and lowering the fishing apparatus. A little further back there were constructed two cabins, G and HH. The first of these was designed to serve as a laboratory, and the second was arranged as quarters for the members of the mission.

The sounding apparatus, the Brothergood engine for actuating it, and the electric light apparatus were placed upon the bridge. The operating of the sounding line and of the electric light was therefore entirely independent of that of the dredges. On the foremast, at a height of about two meters, there was placed a crane, F, which was capable of moving according to a horizontal plane. Its apex, as may be seen from the plan of the boat, was capable of projecting beyond the sides of the ship, to the left and right. To this apex was fixed a pulley over which ran the cable that supported the dredges or bag-nets, which latter were thus carried over the boat's sides.

The preliminary operation in every submarine exploration consists in exactly determining the depth of the sea immediately beneath the vessel. To effect this object different sounding apparatus have been proposed. As the trials that were made of these had shown that each of them possessed quite grave defects, Mr. Thibaudier, an engineer of the navy, installed on board the Talisman last year a new sounding apparatus which had been constructed according to directions of his and which have given results that are marvelous. The apparatus automatically registers the number of meters of wire that is paid out, and as soon as the sounding lead touches bottom, it at once stops of itself. This apparatus is shown in Fig. 4, and a diagram of it is given in Fig. 3, so that its operation may be better understood. The Thibaudier sounding apparatus consists of a pulley, P (Fig. 3), over which is wound 10,000 meters of steel wire one millimeter in diameter. From this pulley, the wire runs over a pulley, B, exactly one meter in circumference; from thence it runs to a carriage, A, which is movable along wooden shears, runs up over a fixed pulley, K, and reaches the sounding lead, S, after traversing a guide, g, where there is a small sheave upon which it can bear, whatever be the inclination of the boat. The wheel, B, carries upon its axle an endless screw that sets in motion two toothed wheels that indicate the number of revolutions that it is making. One of these marks the units and the other the hundredths (Fig. 5). This last is graduated up to 10,000 meters. As every revolution of the wheel, B, corresponds to one meter, the number indicated by the counter represents the depth. Upon the axle of the winding pulley there is a break pulley, p. The brake, f, is maneuvered by a lever, L, at whose extremity there is a cord, C, which is made fast to the carriage, A. When, during the motions due to rolling, the tension of the steel wire that supports the lead diminishes or increases, the carriage slightly rises or falls, and, during these motions, acts more or less upon the brake and consequently regulates the velocity with which the wire unwinds. When the lead touches bottom, the wire, being suddenly relieved from all weight (which is sometimes as much as 70 kilos), instantly stops.

The maneuver of this apparatus may be readily understood. The apparatus and its weights are arranged in the interior of the vessel. A man bears upon the lever, L (Fig. 3), and the counter is set at zero. All being thus arranged, the man lets go of the break, and the unwinding then proceeds until the lead has touched bottom. During the operation of sounding, the boat is kept immovable by means of its engine, so that the wire shall remain as vertical as possible. The bottom being reached, the unwinding suddenly ceases, and there is nothing further to do but read the indication given by the differential counter, this giving the depth.

Near the winding pulley, there is a small auxiliary engine, M, which is then geared with the axle of the said pulley, and which raises the sounding apparatus that has been freed from its weight by a method that will be described further along.

We have endeavored in Fig. 4 to show the aspect of the bridge at the moment when a sounding was about being made. From this engraving (made from a photograph) our readers may obtain a clear idea of the Thibaudier sounding apparatus, and understand how the wheel over which the wire runs is set in motion by the Brothergood engine.--_La Nature_.

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CABLE GRAPNEL.

Some improvements have recently been made by Mr. Alexander Glegg and the inventor in the well-known Jamieson grapnel used for raising submerged submarine cables. The chief feature of the grapnel is that the flukes, being jointed at the socket, bend back against a spring when they catch a rock, until the grapnel clears the obstruction, but allow the cable to run home to the crutch between the fluke and base, as shown in the figures. In the older form the cable was liable to get jammed, and cut between the fixed toe or fluke and the longer fluke jointed into it. This is now avoided by embracing the short fluke within the longer one. The shank, formerly screwed into the boss, is now pushed through and kept up against the collar of the boss, by the volute spring, which at the same time presses back the hinged flukes after being displaced by a rock. The shank can now freely swivel round, whereas before it was rigidly fixed. The toes or flukes are now made of soft cast steel, which can be straightened if bent, and the boss is made of cast steel or gun-metal.

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WRETCHED BOILERMAKING.

_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:

As long as I have been a reader of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN I have been pleased with the manner in which you investigate and explain the cause of any boiler explosion which comes to your knowledge; and I have rejoiced when you heaped merited censure upon the fraudulent boilermaker. In your paper in December last you copied a short article on "Conscience in Boilermaking," in which the writer, after speaking of the tricks of the boilermaker in using thinner iron for the center sheets than for the others, and in "upsetting" the edges of the plates to make them appear thicker, goes on to say: "We call attention to this, because the discovery of such practice has made serious trouble between the boilermaker and the steam user. We would not believe that there were men so blind to the duties and obligations which rest upon them as to resort to such practice, but the careful inspector finds all such defects, and in time we come to know whose work is carefully and honestly done, and whose is open to suspicion. In States and cities where inspection laws are in force that give the methods and rules by which the safe working pressure of a boiler is calculated, there is no alternative except to follow the rules; and if certain requirements regarding construction are a part of the law, there is no authority or right to depart from it, and yet there are boilermakers who try to force their boilers into such localities when their work is not up to the requirements of the law."

Now, if some boilermakers are so dishonest as to try and impose upon the locomotive engineer, who they know will carefully examine every part of his boiler, and who is able to detect any flaw, it is not to be expected that the farmer will escape. Nor does he. The great number of explosions of boilers used in thrashing and in other farm work proves that there are boilermakers who "force their boilers into such localities when their work is not up to the requirements of the law." And the boilermaker, if he be dishonest, is doubly tempted if the broad width of a continent intervenes between him and the farmer for whom his work is intended, and if in the place where the boiler is to be used there are no inspection laws in force. The farmer who lives many miles from a city, and who has no means of testing any boiler he may purchase, is wholly at the mercy of the boilermaker, and must run it until it explodes or time proves it to have been honestly made. Then, again, there are boilermakers who, although making boilers of good iron and of the proper thickness, finish them off so badly that the farmer is put to great inconvenience and expense to put them in working order. Two years ago I purchased a straw-burning engine and boiler made by an Eastern firm. Before it had run ten days the boiler began to leak at the saddle-bolt holes. The engineer tightened the nuts as far as possible, but could not stop the leaks, which at last became so bad that we had to stop work and take the engine to the shop. Upon taking off the saddle and taking out the bolts it was discovered that they were too small for the holes in the boiler, and that they had been wrapped with candle wick and white lead to make them fill the holes, and that a light washer had been put on each bolt between the head and the inside of the boiler. This washer kept the lead in its place, and prevented the boiler from showing a leak when first fired up. The water pipes in the fire-box soon gave out and became utterly useless. Upon inquiring of the patentee of this straw-burning device, who was supposed to have put it in my boiler, he stated that he had had nothing to do with it, but that it was put in by the firm selling these engines, and "as cheaply as possible." Before I got this boiler and engine in fair running order I had spent hundreds of dollars and had to do entirely away with the water grates.

Last summer, needing another tharshing engine, I was induced to buy one of the same make as my old one, but with a different straw-burning device. The firm who sold it to me agreed that it should have none of the faults of the old one. Well, I got it, and, upon hauling it out to my ranch, and getting up steam, I found it to be much worse than the first one I had bought. The boiler leaked at nearly every hole where a tap had been screwed into it. It took an engineer, a boilermaker, a blacksmith, and a fireman several days to get it in shape so that we could use it at all; and after we did start up, the boilermaker had to be sent for several times to stop new leaks that were continually showing themselves.

I send you by this mail for your inspection one of the saddle bolts and one of the bolts taken out of the piston, and also the certificates of the engineer, boilermaker, and machinist who repaired the boiler. In justice to my fellow-farmers I ought to publish these certificates and the names of these boilermakers to the world, but, for the present at least, I refrain from so doing. These boilermakers will see this article and they will know, if the public does not, for whom it is intended. If it has the effect of making them exercise more care in the construction and fitting up of their engines and boilers, I have not written in vain.

D. FREEMAN.

Los Angeles, Cal., March 7,1884.

[The two bolts and the certificates above referred to accompany the letter of Mr. Freeman. We can only wonder how it was that, after having been treated as he relates in the first instance, he should have had any further business with parties who would send out such boilers, for the testimony of the engineer and workmen make the case even stronger than Mr. Freeman has put it.--ED.]

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A THREADED SET COLLAR.

There are cases where a long screw must be rotated with a traversing nut or other threaded piece traveling on its thread a limited and variable distance. At one time the threaded nut or piece may be required to go almost the entire length of the screw, and at another time a much shorter traverse would be required. In many instances the use of side check nuts is inconvenient, and in some it is impossible. One way of utilizing the nut as a set collar is to drill through its side for a set screw, place it on its screw, pour a little melted Babbitt metal, or drop a short, cold plug of it into the hole, tap the hole, and the tap will force the Babbitt into the threads.

Insert the set screw, and when it acts on the Babbitt metal it will force it with great friction on to the thread without injuring the thread; and when the set screw tension is released, the nut turns freely. A similar and perhaps a better result may be obtained by slotting the hole through the nut as though for the reception of a key. Secure a key (preferably of the same material as the nut) by slight upsetting at its ends, and then thread the nut, key, and all. Place a set screw through the nut over the threaded key, and the job is complete.

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PNEUMATIC MALTING.

The lethargy in the malting trade, and in all matters relating to malting processes, induced by two centuries of restrictive legislation, is being gradually shaken off by the malting industry under the new law. For many years nearly all improvements in malting processes originated abroad, as numberless Acts of Parliament fettered every process and the use of every implement requisite in a malt-house in this country. The entire removal of these legislative restrictions gives an opportunity for improved processes, which promises to open up a considerable field for engineering work, and to develop a very backward art by the application of scientific principles. The present time is, therefore, one of more material change than malting has ever experienced.

Of the numerous improvements effected in the past few years, those made by M. Galland in France, and more recently by M. Saladin, are by far the most prominent. M. Galland originated what is known as the pneumatic system eight or nine years ago. This system is carried out at the Maxéville brewery, near Nancy.

Since that time further improvements have been made by M. Galland; but more recently great advances have been made in the system by M. Saladin. He has developed the practice of the leading principle, and in conjunction with Mr. H. Stopes, of London, has added improved kilns and various mechanical apparatus for performing the work previously done by hand. He has also devised a very ingenious machine for cooling the moist air by which the process is carried on.

At the recent Brewery Exhibition, some of the machinery used in these new maltings was shown in action by Messrs. H. Stopes & Co., together with drawings of a malting constructed at Troyes for M. Bonnette under M. Saladin's instructions. This malting is the third constructed for the same firm, the others being at Nancy. That at Troyes we now illustrate. We will not occupy space by a general description of the pneumatic system, one great feature in which is the continuous manufacture of malt throughout the year instead of only from five to eight months of the year, as it will be gathered from the following description of the Troyes malting:

In our engravings, Figs. 1, 2, and 3, the letter A indicates the germinating cases; B, Saladin's patent turning screws; C A, air channels; D, passages; E R, main driving shafts; e, pulleys; F, metal recesses to fit turning screws; G, elevators; H, trap doors; I, air channels; J, openings to growing floor for air; K S, engines and fan room; L N, fans, supply and exhaust; T, boiler; U, chimney; f, well. The capacity of the malting is 130 qr. malt every day. This is equivalent to an English house of 520 qr. steep. The whole space occupied is the area necessary for kilns, malt and barley stores, engine and boiler house, and fans. No additional area is required for germinating floors, as ten germinating cases, A, are placed in the basement below the kilns and stores. The building is of brick, with the internal walls below the ground line resting upon cast iron columns and rolled joists. The germinating cases, A A, are of iron; the bottoms are double. One of perforated plate is placed 6 inches above the bottom. These plates admit of draining the corn if the germinating case is used as a steeping cistern also. Their chief object is, however to admit of ready circulation of the air by the means presently to be described. Large channels, A a, serve as drains for moisture and to convey the air to or from the growing corn. Between each case is a passage, D, enabling the maltster to have free access to the corn at all points.

With the exception of the driving shaft, E, all the machinery is in duplicate, so that the possibility is remote of any breakdown that would seriously affect the working of the house. This is necessary, as should the fans, L N, be stopped for twenty-four hours the corn germinating at a depth exceeding 30 inches would heat and impair its vitality. The boilers, T, and engines, S, are of the common type of 20 horse power nominal. The fans, L N, are the Farcot patent, illustrated a short time since in our pages. The lower floors of the kilns are provided with the Schlemmer patent mechanical turners. The turners, Fig. 4, in the germinating cases are Saladin's patent.

The germination of the grain is effected by means of cool moist air provided by the fan described and the cooler and moistener--Figs. 5, 6, and 7, herewith--known as an _echangeur_. As the germinating grain has a depth of from 30 inches to 40 inches some pressure is required, and mechanical means are necessary for efficient and economical turning. The _echangeur_ is a very ingenious application of the well understood rapidity of evaporation of any liquid when spread out in very thin layers over large surfaces and exposed to a current of air. It consists of a cylinder, or series of cylinders, of increasing diameter, placed one within another. Each consists of finely perforated sheet iron. They are placed in a trough of water, just sufficiently immersed to insure complete wetting. When rotated at a slow speed, the surfaces of all the cylinders are kept just wetted. A volume of air is either driven or drawn through, as may be required for any particular purpose. In the model malting, as shown at Fig. 4, taken from that shown at the Brewery Exhibition, the air was driven through the _echangeur_ and thence through the germinating barley. Here or as employed in the malting illustrated, the air in its passage comes first into contact with the moistened cylinders, and if hot and dry it becomes moist and cool, for the constant evaporation upon the cylinders has a very considerable refrigerating effect.

This was well known to the Egyptians over four thousand years ago, and the porous bottle--_gergeleh_--of Esnch has been made until the present day, to keep the drinking water cool and fresh. The _echangeur_ is like a gigantic gergeleh, and by increasing the size and number of the cylinders, and causing the water in the moistening trough to circulate, any volume of air can be wetted to the saturation limit corresponding to its temperature. It will be seen that this apparatus gives the maltster complete control of the humidity and heat as well as volume of the air driven through germinating corn.

The turning apparatus is shown by Fig. 4, and consists, as will be seen, of a cylindrical frame provided with rollers which run on rails at the edge of the germinating cases. It is carried to and fro from either end of the case by compensating rope gearing which at the same time gives motion to the gearing actuating the turning screws. These screws do not quite touch the bottom of the germinating case, but are provided with a pair of small brushes, as shown in the annexed engraving, Fig. 8, which just skim it. The apparatus shown has but three of these screws, but the cases are generally made wide enough for six. The kilns are double, each possessing two floors, and worked upon the Stopes' system. The construction of the furnaces is of the ordinary French pattern. The arrangement of the house permits of great regularity in working. Every day 130 qrs. of barley is screened, sorted, cleaned, and passed into a steeping cistern. When sufficiently steeped it runs through piping into the germinating case, which, in the natural order of working, is empty. Here it forms the couch. When it is desirable to open couch a small amount of air is forced through the grain by opening the trap door connected with the main air channel. This furnishes the growing corn with oxygen, removes the carbonic acid gas, and regulates temperatures of the mass of grain. Later the Saladin turner is put in motion about every eight to twelve hours. The screws in rotating upon their axes are slowly propelled horizontally. They thus effectually turn the grain and leave it perfectly smooth. This turning prevents matting of the roots, the regulation of temperature and exposure to air being effected by means of the cold air from the _echangeur_. When the grain is sufficiently grown it is elevated to the kilns. For forty hours it remains upon the top floor. It is then dropped upon the bottom floor, a further charge of green corn following upon the top floor. The benefit is mutual. The bottom floor is maintained at an even temperature, being virtually plunged in an air bath; free radiation of heat is prevented; the top surface of the malt is necessarily nearly as warm as that next the wires, which in its turn is subject to lower heats than would be necessary if free radiation from the surface was allowed. The top floor is by the intervention of the layer of malt between it and the fire prevented it from coming into direct contact with heat of a dangerous and damaging degree. The same heat which is used to dry one floor, and in an ordinary kiln passes at once into the air as waste, is the best possible description of heat, namely, very slightly moistened heated air, to remove the moisture from the second layer of malt at a low temperature. It is of vital importance to retain this green malt at a low heat so long as any percentage of moisture exceeding, say, 15 per cent, is retained by the corn.

The regulation of temperature is shown by the diagrams, Figs. 9 and 10: