Chapter 7

_Z. acuminata_ is one of the most useful and valuable of Japanese timber trees. It was found near Yeddo by the late Mr. John Gould Veitch, and was sent out by the firm of Messrs. J. Veitch & Sons. Maximowicz also found the tree in Japan, and introduced it to the Imperial Botanic Gardens of St. Petersburg, from whence both seeds and plants were liberally distributed. In the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ for 1862 Dr. Lindley writes as follows: "A noble deciduous tree, discovered near Yeddo by Mr. J. G. Veitch, 90 feet to 100 feet in height, with a remarkably straight stem. In aspect it resembles an elm. We understand that a plank in the Exotic Nursery, where it has been raised, measures 3 feet 3 inches across. Mr. Veitch informs us that it is one of the most useful timber trees in Japan. Its long, taper-pointed leaves, with coarse, very sharp serratures, appear to distinguish it satisfactorily from the P. Richardi of the northwest of Asia." There seems to be no doubt as to the perfect hardiness of the Japanese Zelkowa in Britain, and it is decidedly well worth growing as an ornamental tree apart from its probable value as a timber producer. A correspondent in the periodical just mentioned writes, in 1873, p. 1142, under the signature of "C.P.": "At Stewkley Grange it does fairly well; better than most other trees. In a very exposed situation it grew 3 feet 5 inches last year, and was 14 feet 5 inches high when I measured it in November; girth at ground, 8¾ inches; at 3 feet, 5 inches." The leaves vary in size a good deal on the short twiggy branches, being from 3 inches to 3½ inches in length and 1¼ inches to 1½ inches in width, while those on vigorous shoots attain a length of 5 inches, with a width of about half the length. They are slightly hairy on both surfaces. The long acuminate points, the sharper serratures, the more numerous nerves (nine to fourteen in number), and the more papery texture distinguish Z. acuminata easily from its Caucasian relative, Z. crenata. The foliage, too, seems to be retained on the trees in autumn longer than that of the species just named; in color it is a dull green above and a brighter glossy green beneath. The timber is very valuable, being exceedingly hard and capable of a very fine polish. In Japan it is used in the construction of houses, ships, and in high class cabinet work. In case 99, Museum No. 1 at Kew, there is a selection of small useful and ornamental articles made in Japan of Keyaki wood. Those manufactured from ornamental Keyaki (which is simply gnarled stems or roots, or pieces cut tangentially), and coated with the transparent lacquer for which the Japanese an so famous, are particularly handsome. In the museum library is also a book, the Japanese title of which is given below--"Handbook of Useful Woods," by E. Kinch. Professor at the Imperial College of Agriculture, at Tokio, Japan. This work contains transverse and longitudinal sections of one hundred Japanese woods, and numbers 45 and 46 represent Z. acuminata. It would be worth the while of those who are interested in the introduction and cultivation of timber trees in temperate climates to procure Kinch's handbook.

IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova acuminata, D.C. Prodr., xvii., 166; Z. Keaki, Maxim. Mel. biol. vol. ix, p. 21. Planera acuminata, Lindl. in Gard. Chron. 1862, 428; Regel, "Gartenflora" 1863, p. 56. P Japonica, Miq. ann. Mus. Ludg Bat iii., 66; Kinch. Yuyo Mokuzai Shoran, 45, 46. P. Keaki, Koch Dendrol. zweit. theil zweit Abtheil, 427. P. dentata japonica, Hort. P. Kaki, Hort.

_Z. cretica_ is a pretty, small foliaged tree, from 15 to 20 feet in height. The ovate crenate leaves, which measure from an inch or even less, to one inch and a half in length by about half the length in breadth, are leathery, dark green above, grayish above. They are hairy on both surfaces, the underside being most densely clothed, and the twigs, too, are thickly covered with short grayish hairs. This species, which is a native of Crete, is not at present in the Kew collection; its name, however, if given in M. Lavallee's catalogue, "Enumeration des Arbres et Arbris Cultives à Segrez" (Seine-et-Oise).

IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova cretica. Spach in Suit à Buff, ii, p. 121. Ulmus Abelicea, Sibth & Sm. Prod. Fl., Graeca, i., p. 172. Planera Abelicea Roem. & Schltz. Syst., vi. p. 304; Planch, in Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1848, p. 282. Abelicea cretica, Smith in Trans. Linn. Sov., ix., 126.

I have seen no specimens of the Zelkova stipulacea of Franchet and Savatier's "Enumeratio Plantarum Japonicarum," vol. ii., p. 489, and as that seems to have been described from somewhat insufficient material, and, moreover, does not appear to be in cultivation, I passed it over as a doubtful plant.

GEORGE NICHOLSON.

Royal Gardens, Kew.

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A NEW ENEMY OF THE BEE.

Prof. A.J. Cook, the eminent apiarist, calls attention to a new pest which has made its appearance in many apiaries. After referring to the fact that poultry and all other domestic animals of ten suffer serious injury from the attacks of parasitic mites, and that even such household stores as sugar, flour, and cheese are not from their ravages, he tells of the discovery of a parasitic pest among bees. He says:

"During the last spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause of their rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies were greatly reduced in number of bees, and upon close observation found that the diseased or failing colonies were covered with the mites. So small are these pests that a score of them can take possession of a single bee and not be crowded for room either. The lady states that the bees roll and scratch in their vain attempts to rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights, and finally, worried out, fall to the bottom of the hive, or go forth to die on the outside. Mites are not true insects, but are the most degraded of spiders. The sub-class _Arachnida_ are at once recognized by their eight legs. The order of mites (_Accorina_), which includes the wood-tick, cattle-tick, etc., and mites, are quickly told from the higher orders--true spiders and scorpions--by their rounded bodies, which appear like mere sacks, with little appearance of segmentation, and their small, obscure heads. The mites alone, of all the _Arachinida_, pass through a marked metamorphosis. Thus the young mite has only six legs, while the mature form has eight. The bee mite is very small, not more than one-fiftieth of an inch long. The female is slightly longer than the male, and somewhat transparent. The color is black, though the legs and more transparent areas of the female appear yellowish. All the legs are fine jointed, slightly hairy, and each tipped with two hooks or claws."

As to remedies, the Professor says that as what would kill the mites would doubtless kill the bees, makes the question a difficult one. He suggests, however, the frequent changing of the bees from one hive to another, after which the emptied hives should be thoroughly scalded. He thinks this course of treatment, persisted in, would effectually clean them out.

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CRYSTALLIZATION OF HONEY.

_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:

Seeing in your issue of October 13, 1883, an article on "Crystallization in Extracted Honey," I beg leave to differ a little with the gentleman. I have handled honey as an apiarist and dealer for ten years, and find by actual experience that it has no tendency to crystallize in warm weather; but on the contrary it will crystallize in cold weather, and the colder the weather the harder the honey will get. I have had colonies of bees starve when there was plenty of honey in the hives; it was in extreme cold weather, there was not enough animal heat in the bees to keep the honey from solidifying, hence the starvation of the colonies.

To-day I removed with a thin paddle sixty pounds of honey from a large stone jar where it had remained over one year. Last winter it was so solid from crystallization, it could not be cut with a knife; in fact, I broke a large, heavy knife in attempting to remove a small quantity.

As to honey becoming worthless from candying is a new idea to me, as I have, whenever I wanted our crystallized honey in liquid form, treated it to water bath, thereby bringing it to its natural state, in which condition it would remain for an indefinite time, especially if hermetically sealed. I never had any recrystallize after once having been treated to the water bath; and the flavor of the honey was in no way injured. I think the adding of glycerine to be entirely superfluous.

W.R. MILLER.

Polo, October 15.

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AN EXTENSIVE SHEEP RANGE.

The little schooner Santa Rosa arrived in port from Santa Barbara a few days ago. She comes up to this city twice a year to secure provisions, clothing, lumber, etc., for use on Santa Rosa Island, being owned by the great sheep raiser A.P. Moore, who owns the island and the 80,000 sheep that exist upon it. The island is about 30 miles south of Santa Barbara, and is 24 miles in length and 16 in breadth, and contains about 74,000 acres of land, which are admirably adapted to sheep raising. Last June, Moore clipped 1,014 sacks of wool from these sheep, each sack containing an average of 410 pounds of wool, making a total of 415,740 pounds, which he sold at 27 cents a pound, bringing him in $112,349.80, or a clear profit of over $80,000. This is said to be a low yield, so it is evident that sheep raising there, when taking into consideration that shearing takes place twice a year, and that a profit is made off the sale of mutton, etc., is very profitable. The island is divided into four quarters by fences running clear across at right angles, and the sheep do not have to be herded like those ranging about the foothills.

Four men are employed regularly the year round to keep the ranch in order, and to look after the sheep, and during the shearing time fifty or more shearers are employed. These men secure forty or fifty days' work, and the average number of sheep sheared in a day is about ninety, for which five cents a clip is paid, thus $4.50 a day being made by each man, or something over $200 for the season, or over $400 for ninety days out of the year. Although the shearing of ninety sheep in a day is the average, a great many will go as high as 110, and one man has been known to shear 125.

Of course, every man tries to shear as many as he can, and, owing to haste, frequently the animals are severely cut by the sharp shears. If the wound is serious, the sheep immediately has its throat cut and is turned into mutton and disposed of to the butchers, and the shearer, if in the habit of frequently inflicting such wounds, is discharged. In the shearing of these 80,000 sheep, a hundred or more are injured to such an extent as to necessitate their being killed, but the wool and meat are of course turned into profit.

Although no herding is necessary, about 200 or more trained goats are kept on the island continually, which to all intents and purposes take the place of the shepherd dogs so necessary in mountainous districts where sheep are raised. Whenever the animals are removed from one quarter to another, the man in charge takes out with him several of the goats, exclaims in Spanish, "Cheva" (meaning sheep). The goat, through its training, understands what is wanted, and immediately runs to the band, and the sheep accept it as their leader, following wherever it goes. The goat, in turn, follows the man to whatever point he wishes to take the band.

To prevent the sheep from contracting disease, it is necessary to give them a washing twice a year. Moore, having so many on hand, found it necessary to invent some way to accomplish this whereby not so much expense would be incurred and time wasted. After experimenting for some time, he had a ditch dug 8 feet in depth, a little over 1 foot in width, and 100 feet long. In this he put 600 gallons of water, 200 pounds of sulphur, 100 pounds of lime, and 6 pounds of soda, all of which is heated to 138°. The goats lead the sheep into a corral or trap at one end, and the animals are compelled to swim through to the further end, thus securing a bath and taking their medicine at one and the same time.

The owner of the island and sheep, A.P. Moore, a few years ago purchased the property from the widow of his deceased brother Henry, for $600,000. Owing to ill health, he has rented it to his brother Lawrence for $140,000 a year, and soon starts for Boston, where he will settle down for the rest of his life. He still retains an interest in the Santa Cruz Island ranch, which is about 25 miles southeast of Santa Barbara. This island contains about 64,000 acres, and on it are 25,000 sheep. On Catalina Island, 60 miles east of Santa Barbara, are 15,000 sheep, and on Clementa Island, 80 miles east of that city, are 10,000 sheep. Forty miles west of the same city is San Miguel, on which are 2,000 sheep. Each one of these ranches has a sailing vessel to carry freight, etc., to and fro between the islands and the mainland, and they are kept busy the greater part of the time.--_San Francisco Call_.

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THE DISINFECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

At the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, London, Dr. Robert J. Lee recently delivered a lecture on the above subject, illustrated by experiments.

The author remarked that he could not better open up his theme than by explaining what was meant by disinfection. He would do so by an illustration from Greek literature. When Achilles had slain Hector, the body still lay on the plain of Troy for twelve days after; the god Hermes found it there and went and told of it--"This, the twelfth evening since he rested, untouched by worms, untainted by the air." The Greek word for taint in this sense was _sepsis_, which meant putrefaction, and from this we had the term "antiseptic," or that which was opposed to or prevented putrefaction. The lecturer continued:

I have here in a test tube some water in which a small piece of meat was placed a few days ago. The test tube has been in rather a warm room, and the meat has begun to decompose. What has here taken place is the first step in this inquiry. This has been the question at which scientific men have been working, and from the study of which has come a valuable addition to surgical knowledge associated with the name of Professor Lister, and known as antiseptic. What happens to this meat, and what is going on in the water which surrounds it? How long will it be before all the smell of putrefaction has gone and the water is clear again? For it does in time become clear, and instead of the meat we find a fine powdery substance at the bottom of the test tube. It may take weeks before this process is completed, depending on the rate at which it goes on. Now, if we take a drop of this water and examine it with the microscope, we find that it contains vast numbers of very small living creatures or "organisms." They belong to the lowest forms of life, and are of very simple shape, either very delicate narrow threads or rods or globular bodies. The former are called bacteria, or staff-like bodies; the latter, micrococci. They live upon the meat, and only disappear when the meat is consumed. Then, as they die and fall to the bottom of the test tube, the water clears again.

Supposing now, when the meat is first put into water, the water is made to boil, and while boiling a piece of cotton wool is put into the mouth of the tube. The tube may be kept in the same room, at the same temperature as the unboiled one, but no signs of decomposition will be found, however long we keep it. The cotton wool prevents it; for we may boil the water with the meat in it, but it would not be long before bacteria and micrococci are present if the wool is not put in the mouth of the test tube. The conclusion you would naturally draw from this simple but very important experiment is that the wool must have some effect upon the air, for we know well that if we keep the air out we can preserve meat from decomposing. That is the principle upon which preserved meats and fruits are prepared. We should at once conclude that the bacteria and micrococci must exist in the air, perhaps not in the state in which we find them in the water, but that their germs or eggs are floating in the atmosphere. How full the air may be of these germs was first shown by Professor Tyndall, when he sent a ray of electric light through a dark chamber, and as if by a magician's wand revealed the multitudinous atomic beings which people the air. It is a beautiful thing to contemplate how one branch of scientific knowledge may assist another; and we would hardly have imagined that the beam of the electric light could thus have been brought in to illumine the path of the surgeon, for it is on the exclusion of these bacteria that it is found the success of some great operation may depend. It is thus easy to understand how great an importance is to be attached to the purity of air in which we live. This is the practical use of the researches to which the art of surgery is so much indebted; and not surgery alone, but all mankind in greater or less degree. Professor Tyndall has gone further than this, and has shown us that on the tops of lofty mountains the air is so pure, so free from organisms, that decomposition is impossible.

Now, supposing we make another experiment with the test tube, and instead of boiling we add to its contents a few drops of carbolic acid; we find that decomposition is prevented almost as effectually as by the use of the cotton wool. There are many other substances which act like carbolic acid, and they are known by the common name of antiseptics or antiseptic agents. They all act in the same way; and in such cases as the dressing of wounds it is more easy to use this method of excluding bacteria than by the exclusion of the air or by the use of cotton wool. We have here another object for inquiry--viz., the particular property of these different antiseptics, the property which they possess of preventing decomposition. This knowledge is _very_ ancient indeed. We have the best evidence in the skill of the Egyptians in embalming the dead. These substances are obtained from wood or coal, which once was wood. Those woods which do not contain some antiseptic substance, such as a gum or a resin, will rot and decay. I am not sure that we can give a satisfactory reason for this, but it is certain that all these substances act as antiseptics by destroying the living organisms which are the cause of putrefaction. Some are fragrant oils, as, for example, clove, santal, and thyme; others are fragrant gums, such as gum bezoin and myrrh. A large class are the various kinds of turpentine obtained from pine trees. We obtain carbolic acid from the coal tar largely produced in the manufacture of gas. Both wood tar, well known under the name of creosote, and coal tar are powerful antiseptics. It is easy to understand by what means meat and fish are preserved from decomposition when they have been kept in the smoke of a wood fire. The smoke contains creosote in the form of vapor, and the same effect is produced on the meat or fish by the smoke as if they had been dipped in a solution of tar--with this difference, that they are dried by the smoke, whereas moisture favors decomposition very greatly.

I can show why a fire from which there is much smoke is better than one which burns with a clear flame, by a simple experiment. Here is a piece of gum benzoin, the substance from which Friar's balsam is made. This will burn, if we light it, just as tar burns, and without much smoke or smell. If, instead of burning it, we put some on a spoon and heat it gently, much more smoke is produced, and a fragrant scent is given off. In the same way we can burn spirit of lavender or eau de Cologne, but we get no scent from them in this way, for the burning destroys the scent. This is a very important fact in the disinfection of the air. The less the flame and the larger the quantity of smoke, the greater the effect produced, so far as disinfection is concerned. As air is a vapor, we must use our disinfectants in the form of vapor, so that the one may mix with the other, just as when we are dealing with fluids we must use a fluid disinfectant.

The question that presents itself is this: Can we so diffuse the vapor of an antiseptic like carbolic acid through the air as to destroy the germs which are floating in it, and thus purify it, making it like air which has been filtered through wool, or like that on the top of a lofty mountain? If the smoke of a wood fire seems to act as an antiseptic, and putrefaction is prevented, it seems reasonable to conclude that air could be purified and made antiseptic by some proper and convenient arrangement. Let us endeavor to test this by a few experiments.

Here is a large tube 6 inches across and 2 feet long, fixed just above a small tin vessel in which we can boil water and keep it boiling as long as we please. If we fill the vessel with carbolic acid and water and boil it very gently, the steam which rises will ascend and fill the tube with a vapor which is strong or weak in carbolic acid, according as we put more or less acid in the water. That is to say, we have practically a chimney containing an antiseptic vapor, very much the same thing as the smoke of a wood fire. We must be able to keep the water boiling, for the experiment may have to be continued during several days, and during this time must be neither stronger nor weaker in carbolic acid, neither warmer nor colder than a certain temperature. This chimney must be always at the same heat, and the fire must therefore be kept constantly burning. This is easily accomplished by means of a jet of gas, and by refilling the vessel every 24 hours with the same proportions of carbolic acid and water.