Chapter 4

I have made some estimates myself for water motors, basing rates upon the number of hours it was claimed the motors would be in use, and afterward supplied the same motors by meter measurement; in every case found that at least twice as much water was used as had been estimated. Although estimates were carefully made upon what was believed to be a reliable basis, these repeated similar results have led me to the conclusion that the only way to supply motors is to make it an object to the users of them to be economical. In other words, I believe the way to supply water motors is upon an estimate that they will run 24 hours per day and 365 days per year, or, more properly still, supply them only by meter measurement. At all events this is henceforth my policy; or, in other words, "on this rock I stand," believing it the only equitable way out of this difficulty.

That class of motors or water engines operated by water pressure in close cylinders upon pistons as with steam in a steam engine, I believe could be easily supplied by measurement of water without a meter. This could be accomplished by the use of "revolution counters" or indicators, as the amount of water required per revolution could be readily determined, and when once computed the cylinders would measure out the water as accurately as a meter. The only objection to this plan is the expense of counters, which is considerable; and as to indicators, it may have been observed that I have little faith in their reliability. With cheap revolution this class of motors would be free from many of the objections raised in regard to motors generally.

The practical conclusion that I would draw from a consideration of this subject is that the question of whether the supply of hydraulic elevators and motors is desirable in its effects upon the water supply is one that hinges so delicately upon their being carefully governed, connected, and restricted, that while on the one hand they may be made the source of large profit, and at the same time a public benefit, on the other hand, unless all the details of their supply be carefully guarded by the wisest rules and greatest watchfulness, their capacities for waste are so great and the rates charged necessarily so low, that they may become the greatest source of loss with which we have to contend. I therefore trust that this discussion will be continued until an interest is felt that will result in our all receiving much useful information upon two most important factors of our business.

As this paper has been long for the information contained, I will close with the earnest wish that it may at least be of service in bringing these important but often neglected subjects to the attention of the thinking and intelligent body of men, of whom many have had much longer and more general experience in relation to these matters, and whose views when expressed will consequently be of more interest and have greater weight. Thus as a result may we all derive the benefit of whatever useful information there is to be gained by this annual interchange of experiences in the all-important business of public water supply.

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WATER SUPPLY OF SMALL TOWNS.

We now describe the new waterworks lately erected for supplying the town of Cougleton, Cheshire. The population is about 12,000, and the place is a seat of the silk manufacture. After various expensive plans had been suggested, in the year 1879 a complete scheme for the supply of the town with water was devised by the then borough surveyor, Mr. Wm. Blackshaw, now borough surveyor of Stafford. These we now illustrate above by a general drawing, and a separate drawing of the tower. With respect to the mechanical arrangements, the Corporation called in Mr. W. H. Thornbery, of Birmingham, consulting engineer, to decide on the best design of those submitted, and this, with modifications made by him, was carried out under his inspection. The water, for the supply by pumping, is obtained from springs situated at the foot of Crossledge Hill, about a mile from the town. It does not at present require filtering, but space enough has been allowed for the construction of duplicate filtering beds without in any way interfering with the present appliances. These filter beds are shown in our perspective illustration, but they are not yet built or required.

The waterworks are situated very near the springs, from which they are only separated by a road, under which the collecting pipes run. There are two circular collecting tanks of brickwork, two pumping wells, engine-house, boiler-house, chimney stack, and engine-driver's dwelling-house, all inclosed by a wall. On the top of Crossledge Hill is erected a circular brick water tower 35 ft. high to the underside of the service tank, which is of cast iron 30 ft. internal diameter, supported on rolled girders. The tank is capable of containing 50,000 gallons of water, and it is provided with the usual rising and service mains, overflow and washout pipes. There is an arrangement for pumping direct into the mains in case the tank should require cleaning or repairing.

The pumping machinery is in duplicate, and each set consists of a horizontal condensing engine, with cylinder 18 in. diameter, stroke 30 in., fitted with Meyer's expansion gear, governor, fly-wheel 12 ft. diameter, weighing 4 tons, jet condenser with a single acting vertical air pump, situated below the engine room floor, and between the end of the cylinder and the main pump. Each main pump is 10 in. diameter, horizontal, double-acting, worked by a prolongation backward of the piston-rod. The valves and seats are of gun metal, 8½ in. diameter. The capacity is 350 gallons per minute, raised 206 ft. The air vessel is 21 in. internal diameter and 6 ft. high, and is fitted with a hand pump for renewing the supply of air if necessary. The rising main from the air vessel to the service tank is 9 in. diameter, and 307 yards long, laid up the steep slope of the hill on which the water tower is built. The boilers, two in number, are of the ordinary Cornish single-flued type, 5 ft. diameter by 18 ft. long, with flue 2 ft. 9 in. diameter, with three Galloway tubes. They were made by Messrs. Hill & Co., of Manchester. The engines and pumps were made by Mr. Albert Scragg, of Congleton, and the brick, stone, and builder's work was executed by Mr. Thomas Kirk. The waterworks were opened in the autumn of 1881, and since then have constantly afforded an abundant supply of water. There is also an independent gravitation system, also arranged by Mr. Blackshaw, for supplying an outlying part of the town. The cost of the works was exceedingly moderate, being not more than £12,000, including the water mains for distribution.

PROCESS FOR SOFTENING HARD WATER.

The available water of many villages and small towns is that of the chalk beds, but it is invariably very hard, and should be softened. We have received so many inquiries respecting a simple means of carrying out Clarke's water-softening process, that the following description of a set of apparatus devised for this purpose by Messrs. Law and Chatterton, MM.I.C.E., may interest many besides those who contemplate the construction of small waterworks supplied by the chalk springs.

The apparatus, as made in various sizes by Messrs. Bowes, Scott, and Read, of Broadway-chambers, Westminster, we illustrate by the accompanying engravings.

_Softening hard water_.--The disadvantages attending the use of hard water either for drinking purposes, steam generation, lavatory purposes, and for many manufacturing purposes, are well known, but as there are several methods of softening waters which are hard in different degrees by different substances, we may be pardoned if we here reproduce, for the convenience of some of our readers, a few passages from the sixth report of the River Pollution Commission, 1874, pages 21 and 201-16, which give some very valuable information on the relative merits of hard and soft waters in domestic and trade uses. "Some of the mineral substances which occur in solution in potable waters communicate to the latter the quality of hardness. Hard water decomposes soap, and cannot be efficiently used for washing. The chief hardening ingredients are salts of lime and magnesia. In the decomposition of soap these salts form curdy and insoluble compounds containing the fatty acids of the soap and the lime and magnesia of the salts. So long as this decomposition goes on the soap is useless as a detergent, and it is only after all the lime and magnesia salts have been decomposed at the expense of the soap, that the latter begins to exert a useful effect. As soon as this is the case, however, the slightest further addition of soap produces a lather when the water is agitated, but this lather is again destroyed by the addition of a further quantity of hard water. Thus the addition of hard water to a solution of soap, or the converse of this operation, causes the production of the insoluble curdy matter before mentioned. These facts render intelligible the process of washing the skin with soap and hard water. The skin is first wetted with the water and then soap is applied; the latter decomposes the hardening salts contained in the small quantity of water with which the skin is covered, and there is then formed a strong solution of soap which penetrates into the pores, and now the lather and impurities which it has imbibed require to be removed from the skin by wiping the lather off with a towel or by rinsing it away with water. In the former case the pores of the skin are left filled with soap solution; in the latter they become clogged with the greasy, curdy matter which results from the action of the hard water upon the soap solution which had previously gained possession of the pores of the cuticle. As the latter process of removing the lather is the one universally adopted, the operation of washing with soap and hard water is analogous to that used by the dyer and calico printer for fixing pigments in calico, woolen, or silk tissues. The pores of the skin are filled with insoluble greasy and curdy salts of the fatty acids contained in the soap, and it is only because the insoluble pigment produced is white, or nearly so, that so repulsive an operation is tolerated. To those, however, who have been accustomed to wash in soft water, the abnormal condition of skin thus induced is for a long time extremely unpleasant.

Of the hardening salts present in potable water, carbonate of lime is the one most generally met with, and to obtain a numerical expression for this quality of hardness a sample of water containing 1 lb. of carbonate of lime, or its equivalent of other hardening salts, in 100,000 lb.--10,000 gallons--is said to have 1° of hardness. Each degree of hardness indicates the destruction and waste of 12 lb. of the best hard soap by 10,000 gallons of water when used for washing. Hard water frequently becomes softer after it has been boiled for some time. When this is the case, a portion at least of the original hardening effect is due to the bicarbonate of lime and magnesia. These salts are decomposed by boiling into free carbonic acid, which escapes as gas, leaving carbonates of lime and magnesia; the latter being nearly insoluble in water, ceases to exert more than a very slight hardening effect, and produces a precipitate. As the hardness resulting from the carbonates of lime and magnesia is thus removable by boiling the water, it is designated temporary hardness, while the hardening effect which is due chiefly to the sulphates of lime and magnesia, and cannot be got rid of by boiling, is termed permanent hardness. The total hardness of water is therefore commonly made up of temporary and permanent hardness. A constant supply of hot water is now almost a necessity in every household, but great difficulties are thrown in the way of its attainment by the supply of hard water to towns forming thick calcareous crusts in the heating apparatus.

Waters with much temporary hardness are most objectionable in this respect, and the evil is so great where the heating is effected in a coil of pipe, as practically to prevent, in towns with hard water, the use of this most convenient method of heating water. The property of being softened by boiling which temporarily hard water possesses is not of much domestic use, for water is, as a rule, either not raised to a sufficiently high temperature or not kept at it for a long enough time. Seeing then the disadvantages attendant on the use of hard water, it remains to be considered how best to soften it. Four processes are known to the arts. They are: Distillation, carbonate of soda, boiling, lime. Of these processes the first and second are the most effective, but owing to their expense are not applicable on a large scale. The third and fourth processes are efficient only with certain classes of water, rendered hard by the presence of the bicarbonate of lime, magnesia, or iron. The fourth is, however, a very cheap process, and is easily applicable to the vast volumes of water supplied to large cities, provided the hardening ingredients are of the character described.

_Softening by distillation_.--By evaporation, water is completely separated from all fixed saline matters, and consequently from all hardening matters. Distilled water, however, has a vapid and unpleasant taste, due partly to deficient aeration and partly to the presence of traces of volatile organic matter; and though filtration through animal charcoal will remove this, and the aeration can begin chemically, the process is too expensive, except in certain cases, as on board ship, or at military or naval stations where no potable water exists.

_Softening by carbonate of soda_.--The hardness of water, as already explained, being principally due to the presence in solution of bicarbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia, can be reduced by addition of carbonate of soda, which decomposes these salts slowly in cold water but quickly in hot, forming insoluble compounds of lime and magnesia, which are slowly precipitated as a fine mud, leaving the water charged, however, with a solution of bicarbonate and sulphate of soda. This process, on account of expense, is only applicable on a small scale to the water for laundry purposes, as the water acquires an unpleasant taste from the presence of the soda salts. For laundry purposes it is, however, valuable, as it effects a great saving of soap.

_The softening of water by boiling_.--That portion of the hardness of water due to the presence of bicarbonate of lime, magnesia, or iron, is corrected by boiling the water for half an hour. During ebullition the bicarbonates, which are soluble, become carbonates, which are insoluble, giving off their carbonic acid as gas, rendering--by the precipitate produced, but not allowed in a boiler time to settle--the water muddy, but incapable of decomposing soap. To raise the temperature of 1,000 gallons of water to the boiling point and to maintain it for half an hour requires the consumption of about 2½ cwt. of coal, or by the wasteful appliances found in households, probably three times that amount. Softened by boiling, then, 1,000 gallons of water would cost about 7s. 6d., while the cost of softening the same amount by soap is 9s., at £2 6s. 6d. per cwt.

_The softening of water by lime_.--The economy which carbonate of soda exhibits in comparison with soap as a softening material is far surpassed by the use of lime. Lime costs about 8d. per cwt., and this weight of lime will soften the same volume of water as would require the use of 20¼ cwt. of soap. From the above it is evident--so soon as it is conceded that there is an advantage in using soft water--that the lime process is by far the most economical. Besides the chemical action affecting the hardness, it has another most important mechanical action, in consequence of the weight of each particle composing the precipitate produced by it. These particles during subsidence become attached to the almost microscopical organic impurities present in all river water, and drag them down to the bottom of the settling tank, whereby the water is rendered, after some eight hours, clear as crystal. The average cost of the water supplied by the leading metropolitan water companies is £10 10s. 9¾d. per million gallons. The charge made by the companies to consumers is about 6d. per 1,000 gallons, or £25 per million gallons. It has been found that water can on a large scale be softened from 14° hardness to 5° at a cost of 20s. per million gallons--that is, 10 per cent. on the cost of the water to the companies, or 4 per cent. as the price charged to consumers. This estimate does not take into account the value of the precipitated chalk, which has a market price, and is used for many purposes, being, in fact, whiting of the purest quality. The operations necessary in Clarke's process are four in number: (1) The preparation of milk of lime; (2) the preparation of a saturated solution of lime; (3) the mixture of this solution with the water to be softened; (4) the classification of the softened water by the separation of the precipitated substances Messrs. Law and Chatterton effect these processes by simple mechanical means which are so far automatic that they only require the presence of a person, without technical knowledge, once in each twenty-four hours. No filtering medium whatever is required, which is a great advantage for the following reasons: (1) Filtering materials require periodical cleaning and renewal, which not only occasion much trouble and mess, but are also frequently inefficiently performed. (2) Experience has shown that the filtering material, whether cloth, charcoal, or other substance, is extremely liable to become mouldy or musty, which makes the wafer both unwholesome and unpalatable. This system is especially adapted for small water supplies and for use in country houses, there being no operation to perform requiring either technical, chemical, or mechanical knowledge, nor producing dust or dirt.

The following is a description of this apparatus as fitted at the Hoo, Luton, Bedfordshire, for the supply of Mr. Gerard Leigh's house, grounds, and home farm. The mixing of the lime and the subsequent stirring of the water is effected by water power obtained from a turbine. The whole of the apparatus and tanks occupy a space 60 ft. square, 3,600 ft. area, and soften a daily supply of 50,000 gallons.

A pump driven from the turbine forces the water to a reservoir in the park and on to the house, an ingenious automatic arrangement worked by the overflow from the cistern throwing the pump out of gear when the tank is full. A, B, and C. Figs. 1 to 6 herewith, are three tanks in which the water remains to be softened, each capable of holding one day's supply. D and E are two smaller tanks in which the lime water is prepared; X is the automatic valve apparatus by which the connections between the several tanks are effected in the order and at the times required; H and H show the positions in which two pumps should be placed, the former for pumping unsoftened water into the tanks, the latter to pump the softened water into the supply cistern. J is the pipe from the well or other source of supply--in case the supply is at a higher level, one pump can be dispensed with. The operation consists in adding to the water to be softened a certain quantity of lime water, depending upon the degree of hardness, and in then allowing the mixture to rest in a state of perfect quiescence until the whole of the lime has been deposited and the water has become perfectly clear. The tank, A, has been filled with unsoftened water. Tank B contains the water and lime in process of clarification by subsidence after mechanical agitation by the screw. Tank C contains the softened water--and the precipitate--in process of removal for consumption. The mode of working is as follows: The milk of lime, prepared by slaking new lime in a "Michele mixer"--not shown. One of the tanks, D, having been filled with softened water, run by gravity from one of the tanks, A, B, or C, the requisite amount of milk of lime is allowed to flow into it from the lining machine, and the whole having been thoroughly mixed by the patent agitator, G, is left in a quiescent state for some hours, when the superabundant lime falls to the bottom, and the tank contains a perfectly clear and saturated solution of lime. The requisite quantity of lime water is then suffered to flow by gravity into whichever of the three tanks is empty. In the mean while, the softened water is being withdrawn by pumping or gravitation, as the case may be, from the tank C, until, upon the water being lowered to within a certain distance of the bottom, an automatic arrangement shifts the valve, X, so that the supply then commences from B, the unsoftened water flows into C, and the water is in process of clarification in A, and thus the operation proceeds continuously. Where the water can be supplied by gravitation, and the tanks can be placed at a sufficient elevation to command the service cistern, no pumps are required, the softening process, in fact, in no way necessitating pumping. The space occupied by the whole of the tanks and apparatus is 60 ft. square, 3,600 ft. area, and softens 50,000 gallons per day. For the daily softening of quantities less than 1,000 gallons, the tanks are made of galvanized sheet iron, and the whole apparatus and tanks are self-contained, so as only to require the making of the necessary connections with the existing supply and delivery pipes, and fixing in place. No expensive foundations are required, and the entire cost of an apparatus--see Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6--capable of softening 500 gallons per day is about £75. Annexed is a more detailed description of the manner of fixing and working the smaller apparatus.