Chapter 2

Dr. Hooke, 1684, remarked that steel or iron was magnetized when heated to redness and placed in the magnetic meridian. I have slightly varied this experiment by heating to redness three similar steel bars, two of which had been previously magnetized to saturation, and placed separately with contrary polarity as regards each other, the third being neutral. Upon cooling, these three bars were found to have identical and similar polarity. Thus the molecules of this most rigid material, cast steel, had become free at red heat, and rotated under the earth's magnetic influence, giving exactly the same force on each; consequently the previous magnetization of two of these bars had neither augmented nor weakened the inherent polarity of their molecules. Soft iron gave under these conditions by far the greatest force, its inherent polarity being greater than that of steel.

I have made numerous other experiments bearing upon the question of neutrality, but they all confirm those I have cited, which I consider afford ample evidence of the symmetrical arrangement of neutrality.

SUPERPOSED MAGNETISM.

Knowing that by torsion we can rotate or diminish magnetism, I was anxious to obtain by its means a complete rotation from north polarity to neutrality, and from neutrality to south polarity, or to completely reverse magnetic polarity by a slight right or left torsion.

I have succeeded in doing this, and in obtaining strong reversal of polarities, by superposing one polarity given while the rod is under a right elastic torsion, with another of the opposite polarity given under a left elastic torsion, the neutral point then being reached when the rod is free from torsion. The rod should be very strongly magnetized under its first or right-hand torsion, so that its interior molecules are rotated, or, in other words, magnetized to saturation; the second magnetization in the contrary sense and torsion should be feebler, so as only to magnetize the surface, or not more than one-half its depth; these can be easily adjusted to each other so as to form a complete polar balance of force, producing, when the rod is free from torsion, the neutrality as shown at B, Fig. 1.

The apparatus needed is simply a good compound horseshoe permanent magnet, 15 centimeters long, having six or more plates, giving it a total thickness of at least 3 centimeters. We need a sufficiently powerful magnet, as I find that I obtain a more equal distribution of magnetism upon a rod or strip of iron by drawing it lengthwise over a single pole in a direction from that pole, as shown in Fig. 2; we can then obtain saturation by repeated drawings, keeping the same molecular symmetry in each experiment.

In order to apply a slight elastic torsion when magnetizing rods or wires, I have found it convenient to attach two brass clamp keys to the extremities of the rods, or simply turn the ends at right angles, as shown in the following diagram, by which means we can apply an elastic twist or torsion while drawing the rod over the pole of the permanent magnet. We can thus superpose several and opposite symmetrical structures, producing a polar north or south as desired, greatly in excess of that possible under a single or even double magnetization, and by carefully adjusting the proportion of opposing magnetisms, so that both polarities have the same external force, the rod will be at perfect external neutrality when free from torsion.

If we now hold one end of this rod at a few centimeters distance from a magnetic directive needle, we find it perfectly neutral when free of torsion, but the slightest torsion right or left at once produces violent repulsion or attraction, according to the direction of the torsion given to the rod, the iron rod or strips of hoop-iron which I use for this experiment being able, when at the distance of five centimeters from the needle, to turn it instantly 90° on either side of its zero.

The external neutrality that we can now produce at will is absolute, as it crosses the line of two contrary polarities, being similar to the zero of my electric sonometer, whose zero is obtained by the crossing of two opposing electric forces.

This rod of iron retains its peculiar powers of reversal in a remarkable degree, a condition quite different to that of ordinary magnetization, for the same rod, when magnetized to saturation under a single ordinary magnetism, loses its evident magnetism by a few elastic torsions, as I have already shown; but when it is magnetized under the double torsion with its superposed magnetism, it is but slightly reduced by variations or numerous torsions, and I have found it impossible to render this rod again free from its double polar effects, except by strongly remagnetizing it to saturation with a single polarity. The superposed magnetism then becomes a single directive force, and we can then by a few vibrations or torsions reduce the rod to its ordinary condition.

The effects of superposed magnetism and its double polarity I have produced in a variety of ways, such as by the electro-magnetic influence of coils, or in very soft iron simply by the directive influence of the earth's magnetism, reversing the rod and torsions when held in the magnetic meridian, these rods when placed magnetic west showing distinctly the double polar effects.

It is remarkable, also, that we are enabled to superpose and obtain the maximum effects on thin strips of iron from ¼ to ½ millimeter in thickness, while in thicker rods we have far less effect, being masked by the comparatively neutral state of the interior, the exterior molecules then reaching upon those of the interior, allowing them to complete in the interior their circle of attractions.

I was anxious to obtain wires which would preserve this structure against the destructive influence of torsion and vibrations, so that I could constantly employ the same wires without the comparatively long and tedious process of preparation. Soft iron soon loses the structure, or becomes enfeebled, under the constant to and fro torsions requisite where we desire a constant change of polarity, as described later in the magnetic bells. Hard steel preserves its structure, but its molecular rigidity is so great that we obtain but mere traces of any change of polarity by torsion. I have found, however, that fine cast drill steel, untempered, of the kind employed by watchmakers, is most suitable; these are generally sold in straight lengths of 30 centimeters. Wires 1 millimeter in diameter should be used, and when it is desired to increase the force, several of these wires, say, nine or ten, should be formed into a single rod or bunch.

The wire as sold is too rigid to give its maximum of molecular rotation effect. We must therefore give it two entire turns or twists to the right, and strongly magnetize it on the north pole of the magnet while under torsion. We must again repeat this operation in the contrary direction, after restoring the wire to its previous position, giving now two entire turns to the left and magnetizing it on the south pole. On restoring the wire to its original place, it will be extremely flexible, and we may now superpose several contrary polarities under contrary torsions, as already described.

The power of these wires, if properly prepared, is most remarkable, being able to reverse their polarity under torsion, as if they were completely saturated; and they preserve this power indefinitely if not touched by a magnet. It would be extremely difficult to explain the action of the rotative effects obtained in these wires under any other theory than that which I have advanced; and the absolute external neutrality that we obtain in them when the polarities are changing, we know, from their structure, to be perfectly symmetrical.

I was anxious to show, upon the reading of this paper, some mechanical movement produced by molecular rotation, consequently I have arranged two bells that are struck alternately by a polarized armature put in motion by the double polarized rod I have already described, but whose position, at three centimeters distant from the axis of the armature, remains invariably the same. The magnetic armature consists of a horizontal light steel bar suspended by its central axle; the bells are thin wine glasses, giving a clear musical tone loud enough, by the force with which they are struck, to be clearly heard at some distance. The armature does not strike these alternately by a pendulous movement, as we may easily strike only one continuously, the friction and inertia of the armature causing its movements to be perfectly dead beat when not driven by some external force, and it is kept in its zero position by a strong directive magnet placed beneath its axle.

The mechanical power obtained is extremely evident, and is sufficient to put the sluggish armature in rapid motion, striking the bells six times per second, and with a power sufficient to produce tones loud enough to be clearly heard in all parts of the hall of the Society. As this is the first direct transformation of molecular motion into mechanical movement, I am happy to show it on this occasion.

There is nothing remarkable in the bells themselves, as they evidently could be rung if the armature was surrounded by a coil, and worked by an electric current from a few cells. The marvel, however, is in the small steel superposed magnetic wire producing by slight elastic torsions from a single wire, one millimeter in diameter, sufficient force from mere molecular rotation to entirely replace the coil and electric current.

ELASTIC NATURE OF THE ETHER SURROUNDING THE MAGNETIC MOLECULES.

During these researches I have remarked a peculiar property of magnetism, viz., that not only can the molecules be rotated through any degree of arc to its maximum, or saturation, but that, while it requires a comparatively strong force to overcome its rigidity or resistance to rotation, it has a small field of its own through which it can move with excessive freedom, trembling, vibrating, or rotating through a small degree with infinitely less force than would be required to rotate it permanently on either side. This property is so marked and general that we can observe it without any special iron or apparatus.

Let us take a flat rod of ordinary hoop iron, 30 or more centimeters in length. If, while holding this vertically, we give freedom to its molecules by torsions, vibrations, or, better still, by a few blows with a wooden mallet upon its upper extremity, we find, as is well known, that its lower portion is strongly north, and its upper south. If we reverse this rod, we now find it neutral at both extremities. We might here suppose that the earth's directing force had rotated the molecules to zero, or transversely, which in reality it has done, but only to the limit of their comparatively free motion; for if we reverse the rod to its original position, its previous strong polarity reappears at both extremities, thus the central point of its free motion is inclined to the rod, giving by its free motion great symmetrical inclination and polarity in one direction, but when reversed the inclination is reduced to zero.

In Fig. 3, D shows the bar of iron when strongly polarized by earth's magnetic influence, under vibrations, with a sufficient force to have rotated its elastic center of action. C shows the same bar with its molecules at zero, or transversal, the directing force of earth being insufficient without the aid of mechanical vibration to allow them to change. The dotted lines of D suppose the molecule to be in the center of its free motion, while at C the molecules have rotated to zero, as they are prevented from further rotation by being at the extreme end of its free motion.

If, now, we hold the rod vertically, as at C, giving neutrality, and give a few slight blows with a wooden mallet to its upper extremity, we can give just the amount of freedom required for it to produce evident polarity, and we then have equal polarity, no matter which end of the bar is below, the center of its free rotation here being perfect, and the rod perfectly neutral longitudinally when held east and west. If, on the other hand, we have given too much freedom by repeated blows of the mallet, its center of free motion becomes inclined with the molecules, and we arrive at its first condition, except that it is now neutral at D and polarized at C. From this it will be seen that we can adjust this center of action, by vibrations or blows, to any point within the external directing influence.

We can perceive this effect of free rotation in a limited space in all classes of iron and steel, being far greater in soft Swedish iron than in hard iron or steel. A similar phenomenon takes place if we magnetize a rod held vertically in the direction of earth's magnetism. It then gives greater polarity than if magnetized east or west, and if magnetized in a contrary sense to earth's magnetism, it is very feebly magnetized, or, if the rod is perfectly soft, it becomes neutral after strong magnetization. This property of comparative freedom, and the rotation of its center of action, can be demonstrated in a variety of ways. One remarkable example of it consists in the telephone. All those who are thoroughly acquainted with electro-magnetism, and know that it requires measurable time to charge an electro-magnet to saturation (about one-fifteenth of a second for those employed in telegraphy), were surprised that the telephone could follow the slightest change of timbre, requiring almost innumerable changes of force per second. I believe the free rotation I have spoken of through a limited range explains its remarkable sensitiveness and rapidity of action, and, according to this view, it would also explain why loud sounding telephones can never repeat all the delicacy of timbre that is easily done with those only requiring a force comprised in the critical limits of its free rotation. This property, I have found, has a distinct critical value for each class of iron, and I propose soon to publish researches upon the molecular construction of steel and iron, in which I have made use of this very property as a guide to the quality of the iron itself.

The elastic rotation (in a limited space) of a molecule differs entirely from that known as mechanical elasticity. In perfectly soft iron we have feeble _mechanical_ elasticity, while in tempered steel we have that elasticity at its maximum. The contrary takes place as regards _molecular_ elasticity. In tempered steel the molecules are extremely rigid, and in soft iron its molecular elasticity is at its maximum. Its free motion differs entirely from that given it by torsion or stress. We may assume that a molecule is surrounded by continuous ether, more of the nature of a jelly than of that of a gas; in such a medium a molecule might freely vibrate through small arcs, but a rotation extending beyond its critical limit would involve a much greater expenditure of force.

The discovery of this comparatively free rotation of molecules, by means of which, as I have shown, we can (without in any degree disturbing the external mechanical elasticity of the mass) change the axes of their free motion in any direction desired, has led me into a series of researches which have only indirectly any relation with the theory of magnetism. I was extremely desirous, however, of finding an experimental evidence which in itself should demonstrate all portions of the theory, and the following experiment, I believe, answers this purpose.

Let us take a square soft iron rod, five millimeters in diameter by thirty or more centimeters in length, and force the molecules, by aid of blows from a wooden mallet, as previously described, to have their centers of free motion in one direction; the rod will (as already shown) have polarity at both ends, when held vertically; but if reversed, both ends become completely neutral.

If now we turn the rod to its first position, in which it shows strong polarity, and magnetize it while held vertically, by drawing the north pole of a sufficiently powerful permanent magnet from its upper to its lower extremity, we find that this rod, instead of having south polarity at its lower portion, as we should expect from the direction of the magnetization, is completely neutral at both extremities, but if we reverse the rod its fullest free powers of magnetization now appear in the position where it was previously neutral. Thus, by magnetization, we have completely rotated its free path of action, and find that we can rotate this path as desired in any direction by the application of a sufficient directing power.

If we take a rod as described, with its polarities evident when held vertically, and its neutrality also evident when its ends are reversed in the same magnetic field, we find that its polarity is equal at both ends, and that it is in every way symmetrical with a perfect magnet. If we _gradually_ reverse the ends and take observations of its condition through each degree of arc passed over, we find an equal symmetrical diminution of evident external polarity, until we arrive at neutrality, when it has no external trace of inherent polarity; but its inherent polarity at once becomes evident by a simple return to its former position. Thus the rod has passed through all the changes from polarity to neutrality, and from neutrality to polarity, and these changes have taken place with complete symmetry.

The limits of this paper do not allow me to speak of the numerous theoretical evidences as shown by the use of my induction balance. I believe, however, that I have cited already experimental evidences to show that what has been attributed to coercive force is really due to molecular freedom or rigidity; that in inherent molecular polarity we have a fact admitted by Coulomb, Poisson, Ampere, De la Rive, Weber, Du Moncel, Wiedermann, and Maxwell; and that we have also experimental evidence of molecular rotation and of the symmetrical character of polarity and neutrality.

The experiments which I have brought forward in this paper, in addition to those mentioned in my paper read before the Royal Society, will, I hope, justify me in having advanced a theory of magnetism which I believe in every portion allows at least experimental evidences of its probable truth.

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THE WESTINGHOUSE BRAKE.

Below we illustrate the main parts of the Westinghouse brake as applied to a vehicle. The supplementary reservoir brake cylinder and triple valve are shown in position, and as fitted upon the engine, tender, and each vehicle of the train. Air compressed by a pump on the locomotive to, say, 70 lb. or 80 lb. to the square inch fills the main reservoir on the engine, and flowing through the driver's brake valve and main pipe, also charges the supplementary reservoirs throughout the train. When a train is running, uniform air pressure exists throughout its length--that is to say, the main reservoir on the engine, the pipe from end to end of train, the triple valves and supplementary reservoirs on each vehicle, are all charged ready for work, the brake cylinders being empty and the brakes off. The essential principle of the system is, that maintaining the pressure keeps the brakes off, but letting the air escape from the brake pipe, purposely or accidentally, instantly applies them. It follows, therefore, that the brake may be applied by the driver or any of the guards, or if necessary by a passenger, by the separation of a coupling, or the failure or injury to a vital part of the apparatus, whether due to an accident to the train or to the brake; and as the brake on each vehicle is complete in itself and independent, should the apparatus on any one carriage be torn off, the brake will nevertheless remain applied for almost any length of time upon the rest of the train.

The triple valve, as will be seen, is simply a small piston, carrying with it a slide valve, which can be moved up or down by increasing or decreasing the pressure in the brake pipe. As soon as the air from the main reservoir is turned into the brake pipe, by means of the driver's valve, the piston is pushed up into the position shown, and air is allowed to feed past it through a small groove into the reservoir. At the same time the slide valve covers the port to the brake cylinder, and is in such a position that the air from the latter may exhaust into the atmosphere. The piston has now the same air pressure on both sides; but if the pressure in the brake pipe is decreased, the piston and slide valve are forced down, thereby uncovering the passage through which air from the reservoir flows into the brake cylinder between the pistons, thus applying the brakes. The brake pipe is shut off as soon as the triple valve piston passes the groove. To release the brakes, the piston and slide valves are again moved into the position shown, by the driver turning air from the main reservoir into the brake pipe. The air in the brake cylinder escapes, and at the same time the reservoir is recharged.

Fig. 2 represents two Westinghouse couplings connected. They are exactly alike in all respects, and an air tight joint is made between them by means of the rubber washers. These couplings are so constructed that the air pressure within serves to tighten the joint, and they may be pushed apart by the separation of the train without any injury. Such an occurrence as already explained leads to the instant application of all the brakes on the train.

By closing the small tap shown between the brake pipe and the triple valve, the brake on any vehicle, if out of order, can be cut out of the system. A release valve is also placed upon each cylinder as shown, so that in the event of the brakes being applied by the separation of the train, or the breaking of a pipe, or when the locomotive is not attached, they can be released by allowing the air to escape from each brake cylinder direct. The Westinghouse brake has been made to comply thoroughly with the Board of Trade conditions. Many people, however, do not appear to understand all that is involved in the second requirement, which runs as follows: In case of accident, to be instantaneously self-acting. This clearly implies: First, that accident to the train, or to any of its vehicles, shall cause the instant application of the brakes to the wheels of every vehicle in the train without the intervention of the driver or guards. Secondly, that any injury, however caused, which may impair the efficiency of the brake apparatus, shall, in like manner, lead to the instant application of all the brakes on the train. It then becomes impossible for a driver to run his train in ignorance of any defect in his brake apparatus because such defect at once discloses itself by applying the brakes and stopping the train. Thirdly, that each vehicle shall carry its own brake power in such a manner that the destruction of the brake apparatus on one or more of the carriages shall not affect the efficiency of the brakes upon any of the others. No continuous brake which does not comply with such conditions can ever be satisfactory.--_The Engineer_.

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HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS AND MOTORS.

[Footnote: Read at Buffalo meeting of the American Water-Works Association May 15,1883.]

By B. F. JONES, Kansas City.