Chapter 3

Such confidence as existed in the first years, however, was not to exist for ever. The tunnel advanced, the heading deepened, but at the price of what troubles, and especially of how many expenses! Day by day one could soon count the probable deficit in the affair and the silent partners began to get a glimpse of the loss of the eight millions of securities that had had to be deposited with the Swiss Federal Council. For Favre personally the failure of the enterprise would have been ruin for his fortune was not so large as has been stated. To fears which Favre possessed more on account of the associates that he had engaged in the enterprise than for himself, came to join themselves those troubles with the Germans that he had spoken to me about on the first day. The St. Gothard Company, whose troubles are so celebrated, and whose inactivity lasted until the reconstruction of the affair, was seemingly undertaking to make Favre, who was directing the only work then in activity, bear all the insults that it had itself had to endure. And yet, amid these multiple cares, the contractor of the tunnel did not allow himself to become disheartened. Constantly at the breach he lived at his works, going from the gigantic adit of Goschenen to the inundated one of Anolo, constantly on the mountain, having no heed of the icy and perilous crossing, and passing days in the torrential rain that was flooding the tunnel. Who of us does not picture him in mind as he reached the inn at night, with his high boots still soaking wet, and his gray beard full of icicles to take his accustomed seat at the table, and, between courses, to tell some story full of mirth, some joke from the other works whence he had come, which made us laugh immoderately, and brought a smile to the faces of the German engineers.

It is a singular coincidence that this confidence in his own work, despite all the struggles borne, was shared likewise by another man than Favre--by Germano Sommeiller, the creator of the Mont Cenis Tunnel. When the work of the first piercing of the Alps was yet in the period of attacks and incredulity, Sommeiller wrote his brother the following letter: "Always keep me posted my dear Leander, as to what the laughers are saying and remember the proverb that 'he will laugh well who laughs last!' The majority of the people, even engineers, are rubbing their hands in expectation of the colossal fiasco that awaits us, and it is for that that the envious keep somewhat silent. I will predict to you that as soon as success is assured everybody will mount to the house tops and say 'I told you so! It was an idea of my own!' What great geniuses are going to spring from the earth! I am in haste, so adieu, courage, energy, silence and especially cheerfulness! And especially cheerfulness!" Perhaps this cheerfulness of strong minds is the invincible weapon of those who, like Sommeiller and Favre, fight against apathy or the bad faith of their adversaries! Like Favre however Sommeiller had not the pleasure of being present at the consecration of his glory, for at the Mont Cenis banquet as at the St. Gothard the place reserved for the creator of the great work was empty.

As disastrous as was the enterprise from a financial point of view what a triumph for Favre would have been the day on which he traversed from one end to the other that 15 kilometers of tunnel that he had walked over step by step since the first blow of the pick had struck the rock of the St. Gothard! But such a satisfaction was not to be reserved for him. Suddenly, on the 19th of July, 1879, less than seven years after the beginning of the work, and six months before the meeting of the adits, in the course of one of his visits to the tunnel Favre was carried off by the rupture of a blood vessel. A year before that epoch, I had left the enterprise, Favre having confided to me the general supervision over the manufacture of dynamite that he had undertaken at Varallo Pombia for the needs of his tunnel, but my friend M. Stockalper, engineer in chief of the Goschenen section, who accompanied Favre on his fatal subterranean excursion, has many a time recounted to me the sad details of his sudden death.

For months before it must be said Favre had been growing old. The man of broad shoulders and with head covered with thick hair in which here and there a few silver threads showed themselves, and who was as straight as at the age of twenty years, had begun to stoop, his hair had whitened and his face had assumed an expression of sadness that it was difficult for him to conceal. As powerful as it was this character had been subjugated. The transformation had not escaped me. Often during the days that we passed together he complained of a dizziness that became more and more frequent. We all saw him rapidly growing old. On the 19th of July, 1879, he had entered the tunnel with one of his friends, a French engineer who had come to visit the work, accompanied by M. Stockalper. Up to the end of the adit he had complained of nothing, but, according to his habit, went along examining the timbers, stopping at different points to give instructions, and making now and then a sally at his friend, who was unused to the smell of dynamite. In returning he began to complain of internal pains. "My dear Stockalper," said he, "take my lamp, I will join you." At the end of ten minutes not seeing him return, M. Stockalper exclaimed, "Well! M. Favre, are you coming?" No answer. The visitor and engineer retraced their steps, and when they reached Favre he was leaning against the rocks with his head resting upon his breast. His heart had already ceased to beat. A train loaded with excavated rock was passing and on this was laid the already stiff body of him who had struggled up to his last breath to execute a work all science and labor. A glorious end, if ever there was one!

Favre died in the full plenitude of his forces at less than fifty four years of age, and I can say, without fear of contradiction, that he was universally and sincerely regretted by all those who had worked at his side. Still at the present time when a few of us old colleagues of Goschenen, Airolo or Altorf meet, it is not without emotion that we recall the old days, the joyful reunions at which he cheered the whole table with his broad and genial laugh.--_Maxime Helene, in La Nature._

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THE NEW HARBOR OF VERA CRUZ.

Besides the enormous engineering work of rendering navigable one of the mouths of the Mississippi Delta, and the continuous labor of developing the more original and still bolder project for an Isthmian ship railway, Mr. James B. Eads has been engaged in the design of new and extensive harbor works at Vera Cruz, which, when completed, will secure for that city a commodious and secure port. The accompanying plan shows the natural features of the locality, as well as the new works. The harbor is formed by the coast line from the Punta de la Caleta to the Punta de Hornos, and by La Gallega reef. From the first named point a coral reef, nearly dry at low water, extends out about 300 yards into the gulf, and a similar one of about the same length runs out from the Punta de Hornos. Between these is a bay 2,000 meters wide, and at its northwest end lies the city of Vera Cruz. The bay is partly inclosed by an island or reef--La Gallega--which, on the harbor front, has a length of 1,200 meters. Beyond this, and to the southeast, is another small island--the Lavendera reef. Between the end of this reef and that projecting from the Punta de Hornos is 320 meters wide. As will be seen from the plan the natural harbor is exposed to the gale from the north and northwest, while the formation affords general protection from the northeast and southeast thanks to five large coral reefs. Not unfrequently, however, heavy seas sweep through the wide channels between these small islands interfering seriously with vessels lying alongside the present limited wharfage. Northeast, La Gallega and Gallaguilla reefs run northward from the harbor for 3,300 meters and these with the main coast line, form a bay exposed to the full fury of the winds from the north, and when northern winds prevail rough water is driven through the passage between La Gallega and Caleta reefs with great violence, and sets up a rapid and dangerous current into the harbor.

From the foregoing it will be seen that, while presenting some advantages, the natural harbor of Vera Cruz possesses many drawbacks and dangers which the design of Mr. Eads will completely remove. The leading features of the works about to be carried out are indicated on the plan. They comprise

1. The construction of a sea wall between La Gallega and the Lavendera reefs, with an extension over the latter.

2. The construction of a sea wall from Punta de la Caleta to La Gallega. This part of the work will be begun after the completion of the first wall to a height of at least 3 ft. above low water.

3. A dike connecting the northern ends of the first two dikes with each other, and stretching across the southern part of La Gallega, to prevent the seas which sometimes break over this reef from entering the harbor. The wall between La Gallega and Lavendera will not only cut off the rough water during northerly gales, but will also effectually prevent the deposition of sand in the harbor, because the through passage to the northwest will be stopped. Passages closed by sluice gates will be formed through this wall at about low water level, so that at any time the harbor may be flushed out and stagnation prevented.

4. After the construction of the inclosing walls the harbor will be dredged out and cleared of coral to a depth of 25 ft. below low water.

5. Following these works of primary importance comes the construction of a wooden roadway from the Hornos reef to the northwestern dike. This roadway will form the south front of the harbor, and the excavated material will be deposited on the space between the roadway and the existing bottom, so as ultimately to make it a permanent work with a masonry retaining wall fronting the harbor. The land between the roadway and the city would also be reclaimed to the extent of more than 740,000 square yards.

6. The construction of wooden piers at right angles to the roadway, which would be extended to run around the harbor as trade required it, for ships to be alongside for loading and unloading. The construction of these short piers would be similar to those used in New York and other United States ports, and they might afterward be replaced by masonry if the increase in trade justified so large an expenditure.

7. The erection of a lighthouse, at or near the eastern end of the Lavendera sea wall of a second on the eastern side of La Gallaguilla reef, and of another on the west side of La Blanquilla reef. These houses will be furnished with distinctive signals to enable steamers running in before another to run with safety between La Gallaguilla and La Blanquilla as soon as the Lavendera light is seen between the other two.

The width of deep water at the entrance between the Lavendera and Hornos reefs will be 1,000 ft. The estimated cost of these extensive works is ten millions of dollars, a large sum for the Mexican Republic to expend in harbor improvements at one port but it will doubtless be found a profitable investment as it will tend greatly to promote trade, and so increase indefinitely the commerce of the port.

Mr. Eads' plan having been approved by the Mexican Government the work was formally commenced on the 14th of last August. Plans were also furnished by him at the request of the Government, for deepening the mouth of the Panuco River upon which is located the city of Tampico, the Gulf terminus of the Mexican central railway system.--_Engineering._

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COST OF POWER TO MAKE FLOUR.

The following estimate of the cost of the power required to manufacture a barrel of flour is taken from the _Miller_. The calculation would hardly hold good in this country owing to difference in cost of fuel attendance etc., but is nevertheless of interest.

"The cost of a steam motor per 20 stone (280 lb.) sack of flour depends entirely on local circumstances. It depends first, on the amount of power expended in the production of a sack of flour, that is on its mode of manufacture, and it depends, secondly, on the cost of the necessary amount of power, that is, on the cost of fuel burned per horse power The average consumption of coal of first class steam engines may be taken at 2 lb. per hour per indicated horse power.

"Supposing a mill with six pairs of stones, two pairs of porcelain roller mills, and the necessary dressing, purifying, and wheat cleaning machinery to require a steam motor of 100 indicated horse power to drive it, then the average consumption of fuel in this mill would be 200 lb. of coal per hour. Such a mill working day and night will turn out about 400 sacks of flour per week of, say, 130 hours, so that 200 X 13 = 26,000 lb. of coal would be required to manufacture 400 sacks of flour. The cost of this quantity of coal may be taken at, say, L12 (about $58.32), and for cost of attending engine and boiler, cost of oil, etc., another L3 (about $14.58) per week may be added; so that, in this case, the manufacture of 400 sacks of flour would cause an expenditure of L15 ($72.90) for the steam motor. Therefore the cost of the steam motor per 20-stone sack of flour may be taken at 9d. (about 18 cents) per sack, if an improved low grinding system is used.

"In this case it is supposed that about 55 per cent. of flour is obtained in the first run, leaving about 30 per cent. of middlings and about 12 per cent. of bran, which is finished in a bran duster. The middlings are purified, ground over one pair of middling stones, then dressed through a centrifugal and the tailings of the latter are passed over one of the porcelain roller mills, whereas the other porcelain roller mill treats the second quality of middlings coming from the purifier. The products from the two porcelain roller mills are dressed through a second centrifugal, and the whole flour is mixed into one straight grade. Four pairs of stones are supposed to work on wheat, one on middlings, and one pair is sharpening. The first run is supposed to be dressed through two long silk reels. Of course, not every steam motor has so low a consumption of coal as two pounds per hour per horse power; it often amounts to three, four, and five pounds per hour. In that case, of course, the cost of steam power per sack is much greater than 9d. per sack. A greater number of breaks does not necessarily increase the cost of steam power per sack of flour. Although more machines may be employed, each of them may require less horse power; so that the total amount of power required for manufacturing an equal amount of flour may not be greater in the case of gradual reduction.

"As, however, the cost of maintenance may be slightly greater in the latter case, on account of a greater number of more elaborate machines, the cost of manufacturing a sack of flour may be a little greater when gradual reduction is employed, taking into account the total expenses of the mill and interest on the capital employed.

"Water motors are generally a much cheaper source of energy than steam motors, but they are not so reliable and constant as the latter. The very irregular supply of water sometimes causes stoppages of the mill, and often a reserve steam engine has to be provided in order to assist the water motor when the quantity of water decreases during the summer months. Wind motors were formerly extensively used for milling purposes, but they are now gradually disappearing. They are too irregular and unreliable, although they utilize a very cheap motive power. It is not advantageous to expend a large amount of capital for a mill which often is unable to work at the very time when there are favorable opportunities for doing profitable business. Animal motors are too dear. They are only suitable for driving very small mills in out of the way localities."

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DRIVING GEAR MECHANISM FOR LIFT HAMMERS.

A very interesting system of driving gear for lift hammers was applied in an apparatus exhibited at Frankfort in 1881 by Mr. Meier of Herzen. The arrangement of the mechanism is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In the upper part of the hammer-frame there is a shaft which is possessed of a continuous rotary motion, and, with it, there is connected by a friction coupling a drum that receives the belt from which is suspended the hammer. In the apparatus exhibited, the mechanism is so arranged that the hammer must always follow the motion of the controlling lever in the same direction; but a system may likewise be adopted such that the hammer shall continue to operate automatically, when and so long as a lever prepared for such purpose is lowered.

_ab_ is the shaft having a continuous rotary motion, and upon which are fixed the pulley, c, the fly-wheel, d, and the friction-disk, e. Upon one of the extremities of the driving shaft is fixed an elongated sleeve, formed of the drum, g, and of the screw, f, carried by the nut, h. This latter is supported in the frame in such a way that it cannot turn, but can move easily in the direction of the axis. Such motion may be produced by the spring, i, and its extent is such that the drum, g, is brought in contact with the friction-disk, e.

The hand-lever, k, rod, l, and bent lever, m, serve to bring about a motion in the opposite direction, and which disengages the drum, g, from the disk, e, and lets the hammer fall; the drum being then able to turn freely. If the lever, k, be afterward raised again, the spring, i, will act anew and couple the drum with the driving-shaft, so that the hammer will be lifted. In this rotary motion the screw, f, turns or re-enters into its nut, which it displaces toward the left, since it cannot itself move in that direction until the rectilinear motion be wiped out, and the power of the spring be thus overcome. At the same moment, the screw should naturally also make this rectilinear movement forward, that is to say, the coupling would be disengaged, if, at the least lateral motion toward the right, the spring, i, did not push the system toward the left. There is thus produced a state of equilibrium such that there is just enough friction between the disk, e, and the drum, g, to keep the hammer at rest and suspended. Through the action of an external force which lowers the lever, K, the hammer at once falls, and the screw issues anew from its nut and brings the parts into their former positions.

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DE JUNKER & RUH'S MACHINE FOR CUTTING ANNULAR WHEELS.

The machine shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3 has been devised by Messrs. Junker & Ruh, of Carlsruhe, for cutting internally-toothed gear-wheels. The progress of the work is such that the wheel is pushed toward the tool by a piece, n, provided with a curve guide, and that the tool is raised and separated from the wheel after a tooth has been cut, in order to allow the wheel to revolve one division further.

The tool is placed in a support, b, which is fixed to the upright, d, in such away that it may revolve; and this support is connected to the frame, a, of the machine. A strong flat spring, f, constantly presses the tool-carrier, b, toward the upright, d, as much as the screw, g, will permit; and this pressure and the tension of the belt draw the tool downward. The screws, g, determine the depth of the cut, and compensate for the differences in the diameter of the tool.

The wheels to be cut are set by pressure into a wrought iron ring, with which they are placed in a sleeve or support, h. The connection between the two is assured by means of a nut, c. The axle of the support, h, is held in the upright of the carriage, k, which receives from a piece, l, placed on the driving-shaft, n, a slow forward motion toward the tool, and a rapid motion backward. The trajectory curve or groove of special form of the piece, l, in which moves the conducting roller, o, of the carriage, is not closed everywhere on the two sides, in that the guides that limit it extend only on the part strictly necessary. This arrangement permits of the roller being made to leave the trajectory in order that the carriage may be drawn back to a sufficient distance from the tool when the wheel is finished, so as to replace the latter by another.

One hollow is cut during each forward travel of the carriage; and, when such travel is finished, a cam-disk, p, placed on the shaft, n, lifts the tool-carrier, b, and thus draws the cutting-tool out of the hollow cut by it, so that the carriage cam can then move back without restraint. In the interim, the sleeve, h, which supports the wheel, revolves one tooth through the following arrangement: On the axis, e, of this sleeve there are two ratchet-wheels, r and s, the number of whose teeth is equal to that of the teeth to be cut in the wheel. The wheel, r, produces the rotation of the sleeve, h, and the wheel, s, keeps the shaft stationary during the operation. The two wheels are set in motion by a lever, t, or by its click, this lever being raised at the desired moment on the free extremity of the driving shaft, n, by a wedge, u. The short arm of the lever, t, engages, through its point of appropriate shape, with the teeth of the wheel, s, so as to keep this latter stationary while the tool is cutting out the interspace between the teeth. When the lever, t, is raised, this point is at first disengaged from the wheel, s; and the raising of the lever being prolonged, the button, i, places itself against the upper curve of the slot in the lever, q, and raises that likewise. q is connected with the lever, v, which revolves about the axis, e, and v carries the click, w, so that when the lever, v, is raised, the wheel, r, turns forward by one tooth. When the lever, t, is lowered, as the wedge, u, turns more, its click holds the wheel, s, stationary. This series of operations is repeated until the last interspace between the teeth has been cut, when the machine stops automatically as follows: A cam of the disk, A, which receives from the shaft, n, through cone-wheels, a motion corresponding to that of the wheels, r and s, abuts against the two-armed lever, z, and this latter then disengages the rod, y, so that the weight, G, can move the fork, B, in such a way that the belt shall pass from the fast to the loose pulley.

Motion is communicated to the machine as a whole by the shaft, C, which is provided with a fast and loose pulley. As shown in the engraving, the pulley, D, moves the tool, and the pulley, E, causes the revolution of the shaft, n, through a helicoidal gearing, F.

The construction of the tool carrier is represented in detail in Fig. 3. The cutting tool, F, rests on a sleeve forming part of the pulley, r1, against which it is pressed by a nut, while its position is fixed by a key. The axle, s1, of the tool is held in two boxes, in which it is fixed by screws. In order that the tool may be placed exactly in the axis of the wheel to be toothed, and that also the play produced by lateral wear of the pulley, r1, may be compensated for, two screws, r2, are arranged on the sides. All rotation of the shaft, s1, is prevented by a screw, o, which traverses the cast iron stirrup, C, and the steel axle box.

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RECENT HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS.

At a late meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, the paper read was on "Recent Hydraulic Experiments," by Major Allan Cunningham, R.E.