Chapter 10

At the present time English brewers are being denounced for substituting properly-prepared maize, rice, and other raw grain for barley malt, and the beers produced partly from such materials are described as being very inferior, and even injurious to health. That such denunciations are altogether unwarranted is evident to all who have paid any attention to the subject, and are acquainted with the chemical changes involved in brewing, and with the composition of the resulting beers. Unfortunately but few comparative analyses have been published of beers made solely from malt and beers made from malt in conjunction with raw grain, and therefore such wild assertions as were recently uttered in the House of Commons have remained unanswered. A German chemist, J. Hanamann, some time since made a series of analyses of beers brewed partly from raw grain, and his results completely controvert the theory that raw grain beers essentially differ in composition from malt beers. Four worts were made by the decoction system of mashing: A entirely from barley malt; B from 60 per cent. of malt and 40 per cent. of maize; C from 60 per cent. of malt and 40 per cent. of rice; and D from 60 per cent of malt and 40 per cent. of pure starch. The analyses of these respective worts gave the following results:

A B C D Sugar............... 4.96 4.08 4.84 4.87 Dextrine............ 6.05 6.83 6.35 6.60 Total extract....... 12.29 12.27 12.30 12.32 Albuminoids......... 0.82 0.78 0.68 0.42 Other substances.... 0.46 0.58 0.43 0.43

It will be seen that these worts vary very little in composition, the chief points of difference being that those made partly from raw grain are more dextrinous and contain less albuminoids than the wort made from malt alone. The process of brewing was then continued as usual, and after fermentation the resulting beers were again analyzed with the following results:

A B C D Alcohol............. 2.71 2.76 2.90 3.19 Sugar............... 1.05 1.12 0.98 0.35 Dextrine............ 4.54 4.31 4.42 4.74 Extract............. 6.59 6.48 6.25 5.91 Albuminoids......... 0.43 0.39 0.33 0.28 Other substances ... 0.57 0.66 0.52 0.54

It will be observed that the beers made partly from raw grain are slightly more alcoholic, but in other respects differ but very little from the pure malt beer, but none of them can in any way be pronounced as really inferior or unwholesome. The beer made partly from maize is, in fact, hardly to be distinguished in chemical composition from that made solely from malt. These worts and beers were brewed upon the German system, but analogous results would undoubtedly be obtained with beers brewed from the like materials on the English system. We hope soon to be in a position to publish some comparative analyses of beers brewed in this country from malt combined with different kinds of raw grain; but the analyses which we have now quoted constitute a sufficient refutation to those who assert that brewers using raw grain are producing an injurious or even an inferior quality of beer.--_Brewers' Guardian_.

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DOUBLE BUTTERCUPS.

Among early summer flowers in open borders few are prettier than the double-flowered kinds of ranunculus of the herbaceous type. Having been established favorites for ages, most of them are familiar to us, and poor indeed is that hardy plant border which does not contain a good healthy tuft of what are termed Fair Maids of France, or Bachelor's Buttons, the doubled flowered variety of _R. aconitifolius_. The small, pure white rosette-like flowers produced so plentifully, and in such a graceful manner, make it an extremely pretty, and, though common, valuable plant, particularly useful in a cut state. It is one of the kinds shown in the annexed engraving. Of double crowfoots there are three others, the types of which are _R. bulbosus, acris_, and _repens_. All these are very pretty, having bright yellow, compact, rosette-like flowers, as perfect in form as that of some of the finest sorts of the Asiatic or Persian ranunculus of the florists. Both the double _R. acris_ and _repens_ are profuse flowerers, but _R. bulbosus_ is not so; it, however, bears much larger flowers than either of the others, and on this account is named _R. speciosus_. These four plants are indispensable, yielding, as they do, flowers in such abundance and in such long succession. In order to enable them to develop fully they require good culture, a good, deep loamy soil, enriched with well-decayed manure, and if the border be moist, so much the better,'for these ranunculuses delight in a cool, moist soil. Treated liberally in this way, these double buttercups are indeed fine plants.--_W. G., in The Garden_.

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LIGUSTRUM QUIHOUI.

This is a Chinese species, at present little known in this country. It forms a low bush with spreading wiry purplish downy branches, and loose terminal panicles of white flowers. Its peculiar spreading habit, dark green leaves, and abundant flowers render it a desirable acquisition to the shrubbery. It is quite hardy.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle_.

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RAPHIOLEPIS JAPONICA.

This handsome Japanese shrub is not an uncommon plant in greenhouses, in which it is generally known under the garden name of _R. ovata_. It is, however, perfectly hardy, and it is with the view of making that fact known that we produce the annexed illustration of it, which represents a spray lately sent to us by Messrs. Veitch from their nursery at Coombe Wood, where the plant has withstood the full rigor of our climate for some years past. The Coombe Wood Nursery is not very well sheltered, and the soil is not of the lightest description; the plant may, therefore, be said to have a fair trial out-of-doors. We have also met with it in the open air in other places besides Coombe Wood, and if we remember rightly, Mr. G.F. Wilson has a fine old bush of it on his rockery which abounds with shrubs of a similar character, all apparently at home. This shrub is of low growth, somewhat bushy in habit, and rather sparsely furnished with oval leaves of a leathery texture. It produces its flowers in early summer, and when a good-sized bush, well covered with clusters of white blossoms resembling those of some species of Cratægus, it has a handsome appearance, and, like most other rosaceous shrubs, powerfully fragrant. Those who possess duplicate plants of it would do well to try it in the open in some sheltered spot, and if in a high and dry position so much the better. This species is called also in the gardens by its synonym, _R. integerrima_ There are three other kinds of Raphiolepis in cultivation, viz., _R. indica, R. rubra_, and _R. salicifolia_, but only the last named one is generally known. It too is a handsome shrub, readily distinguished by the long, willow-like foliage. Its flowers are much the same as those of _R. japonica_, but more plentifully produced. We have no instance of its having stood out like its congener, and we doubt if it is so hardy, seeing that it is a Chinese plant. Perhaps some of our readers can enlighten us on the point.--_W.G., in The Garden_.

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RIVINA LÆVIS.

The brilliant little scarlet berries of this plant render it, when well grown, one of the prettiest of ornaments for the hothouse, conservatory, or even for a warm room. It is quite easily managed, stray seeds of it even growing where they fall, and making handsome specimens. For indoor decoration few subjects are more interesting, and a few plants may be so managed as to have them in fruit in succession all the year round. Any kind of soil will answer for this Rivina. Cuttings of it strike freely, but it is easiest obtained from seeds. Either one plant or three may occupy a 6 in. pot, and that is the best size for table decoration. Usually it is best to raise a few plants every year and discard the old stock, but some may be retained for growing into large specimens. These should be cut back before they are started into growth. The berries yield a fine, but fugitive red color. Miller says that he made experiments with the juice for coloring flowers, and succeeded extremely well, thus making the tuberose and the double white narcissus variegated in one night. Of this species there is a variety with yellow berries which are not quite so handsome as the red, though very attractive. _R. humilis_ differs from lævis in having hairy leaves, those of lævis being quite smooth. It also differs in the duller red color of the berries, lævis being much the prettier. Both are natives of the West Indies.--_R.I.L., in The Garden_.

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APPLES IN STORE.

Apples always, whether in barrels or piles, when the temperature is rising so that the surrounding air is warmer than the apples, condense moisture on the surface and become quite moist and sometimes dripping wet, and this has given the common impression that they "sweat," which is not true. As they come from the tree they are plump and solid, full of juice; by keeping, they gradually part with a portion of this moisture, the quantity varying with the temperature and the circulation of air about them, and being much more rapid when first picked than after a short time, and by parting with this moisture they become springy or yielding, and in a better condition to pack closely in barrels; but this moisture never shows on the surface in the form of sweat. In keeping apples, very much depends upon the surroundings; every variation in temperature causes a change in the fruit, and hastens maturity and decay, and we should strive to have as little change as possible, and also have the temperature as low as possible, so the apples do not freeze. Then, some varieties keep much better in open bins than others; for instance, the Greening is one of the best to store in bins. A very good way for storing apples is to have a fruit-room that can be made and kept at from 32° to 28°, and the air close and pure, put the apples in slatted boxes, not bins, each box holding about one barrel, and pile them in tiers, so that one box above rests on two below, and only barrel when ready to market; but this is an expensive way, and can only be practiced by those with limited crops of apples, and it is not at all practicable for long keeping, because in this way they lose moisture much more rapidly than when headed close in barrels, and become badly shriveled.

All things considered, there is no way of keeping apples quite so good and practicable as packing in light barrels and storing in cool cellars; the barrel forms a room within a room, and prevents circulation of air and consequent drying and shrinking of the fruit, and also lessens the changes of temperature, and besides more fruit can be packed and stored in a given space than in any other way. The poorest of all ways is the large open bin, and the objections are: too much fruit in contact; too much weight upon the lower fruit; and too much trouble to handle and sort when desirable to market. It was formerly the almost universal custom in Western New York to sort and barrel the apples as fast as picked from the trees, heading up at once and drawing to market or piling in some cool place till the approach of cold weather, and then putting in cellars. By this method it was impossible to prevent leaves, twigs, and other dirt from getting into the bin, and it was difficult to properly sort the fruit, and if well sorted, occasionally an apple, with no visible cause, will entirely and wholly rot soon after packing. Some varieties are more liable to do this than others, but all will to some extent; this occurs within a week or ten days after picking, and, when barreled, these decayed apples are of course in the barrels, and help to decay others. Although packed ever so well and pressed ever so tight, the shrinking of the fresh-picked fruit, soon makes them loose, and nothing is so bad in handling apples as this. Altogether this was a very untidy method of handling apples, and has been entirely abandoned for a better.

The very best method depends a good deal upon the quantity to be handled; if only a few hundred barrels, they can be put in open barrels and stored on the barn floor. Place empty barrels on a log-boat or old sled; take out the upper head and place it in the bottom of the barrel; on picking the apples put them, without sorting, directly into these barrels, and when a load is filled, draw to the barn and place in tiers on end along one side of the floor; when one tier is full lay some strips of boards on top and on these place another tier of barrels; then more boards and another tier; two men can easily place them three tiers high, and an ordinary barn floor will in this way store a good many barrels of apples. Where many hundreds or thousands of barrels are grown, it is a good plan to build houses or sheds in convenient places in the orchard for holding the apples as picked; these are built on posts or stones, about one foot from the ground; floors, sides, and ends should be made of strips about four inches wide and placed one inch apart, and the roof should project well on every side. The apples, as picked, are drawn to these in boxes or barrels and piled carefully on the floors, about three feet deep. Where these houses are not provided, the next best way is to pile the apples, as picked, on clean straw under the trees in the deepest shade to be found.

After lying in any one of these positions about ten days they should be carefully sorted and packed in clean barrels, placing at least two layers on the bottom of the barrels, with stems down; after this fill full, shaking moderately two or three times as the tilling goes on, and, with some sort of press, press the head down, so that the apples shall remain firm and full under all kinds of handling. Apples may be pressed too much as well as too little. If pressed so that many are broken, and badly broken, they will soon get loose and rattle in the barrels, and nothing spoils them sooner than this. What we want is to have them just so they shall be sure to remain firm, and carefully shaking so as to have them well settled together, has as much to do with their remaining firm as the pressing down of the head. After the barrels are filled and headed they should at once be placed on their sides in a barn or shed, or in piles, covered with boards, from sun and rain, or if a fruit-house or cellar is handy they may at once be placed therein; the object should be to keep them as cool and at as even a temperature as possible. In all the operations of handling apples from picking to market, remember that carelessness and harshness always bruise the fruit, and that every bruise detracts much from its keeping and market value; and remember another thing, that "Honesty is the best policy."--_J.S. Woodward, in N.Y. Tribune_.

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ON DETERMINING THE SUN'S DISTANCE BY A NEW METHOD.

By T.S.H. EYTINGE, Cainsville, Canada.

It is well known that the sun's distance has been determined from the velocity of light. It has been found, by terrrestrial experiments, about how fast light travels, and, knowing from certain astronomical phenomena the time light requires to pass from the sun to the earth, we have been able to determine the sun's distance.

There are several methods of determining the velocity of light, but hitherto only two plans have been used to detect the time light occupies in passing from the sun to the earth. This time was first discovered by observations of the satellites of Jupiter. It was found that the interval between the eclipses of these bodies was not always the same--that the eclipses occurred earlier when Jupiter was nearest the earth, and later when he was at his greatest distance. Roemer, a Danish astronomer, first detected the cause of this variation. The second method by which this time has been found is the aberration of stellar light. This refined method was detected by the great English astronomer Bradley.

About two years ago it occurred to me that a third method can be used to solve this important problem. My plan is this: It is well known that many variable stars, such as Algol, [sigma] Librae, U Coronae, and the remarkable variable D.M. + 1.3408°, discovered by Mr. E.F. Sawyer, fluctuate at regular intervals. Now, I believe it is possible to determine very accurately the intervals between these changes, and, by noting the change of time in these intervals, when the earth is in different points of its orbit, we get the time light requires to cross that orbit. For, as in the case of the satellites of Jupiter, when the star is "in opposition," the changes will occur earlier than when it is in conjunction or approaching that point. I have recently put this plan to the test, and hope before long to make known the results.

In detecting the changes of variables, I have attempted to substitute, in place of the ordinary eye observations, a very delicate thermopile, which registers the changes in the star's heat. So far as I know, this is the first application of the thermopile to variables.

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PROFESSOR HAECKEL ON DARWIN.

In _Nature_ appears a report of the remarkable address given by Professor Haeckel at the recent Eisenach meeting of the German Association of Naturalists on the theories of Darwin, Goethe, and Lamarck. The address is mainly devoted to Darwin and Darwinism, and of both, we need scarcely say, Professor Haeckel has the highest estimate. He said:

"When, five months ago, the sad intelligence reached us by telegraph from England that on April 19 Charles Darwin had concluded his life of rich activity there thrilled with rare unanimity through the whole scientific world the feeling of an irreparable loss. Not only did the innumerable adherents and scholars of the great naturalist lament the decease of the head master who had guided them, but even the most esteemed of his opponents had to confess that one of the most significant and influential spirits of the century had departed. This universal sentiment found its most eloquent expression in the fact that immediately after his death the English newspapers of all parties, and pre-eminently his Conservative opponents, demanded that the burial-place of the deceased should be in the Valhalla of Great Britain, the national Temple of Fame, Westminster Abbey; and there, in point of fact, he found his last resting-place by the side of the kindred-minded Newton. In no country of the world, however, England not excepted, has the reforming doctrine of Darwin met with so much living interest or evoked such a storm of writings, for and against, as in Germany. It is, therefore, only a debt of honor we pay if at this year's assembly of German naturalists and physicians we gratefully call to remembrance the mighty genius who has departed, and bring home to our minds the loftiness of the theory of nature to which he has elevated us. And what place in the world could be more appropriate for rendering this service of thanks than Eisenach, with its Wartburg, this stronghold of free inquiry and free opinion! As in this sacred spot 360 years ago Martin Luther, by his reform of the Church in its head and members, introduced a new era in the history of civilization, so in our days has Charles Darwin, by his reform of the doctrine of development, constrained the whole perception, thought, and volition of mankind into new and higher courses. It is true that personally, both in his character and influence, Darwin has more affinity to the meek and mild Melanchthon than to the powerful and inspired Luther. In the scope and importance, however, of their great work of reformation the two cases were entirely parallel, and in both the success marks a new epoch in the development of the human mind. Consider, first, the irrefragable fact of the unexampled success which Darwin's reform of science has achieved in the short space of 23 years! for never before since the beginning of human science has any new theory penetrated so deeply to the foundation of the whole domain of knowledge or so deeply affected the most cherished personal convictions of individual students; never before has a new theory called forth such vehement opposition and so completely overcome it in such short time. The depicture of the astounding revolution which Darwin has accomplished in the minds of men in their entire view of nature and conception of the world will form an interesting chapter in the future history of the doctrine of development."

Describing a visit which he paid to the late Mr. Darwin in 1866, Professor Haeckel says:

"In Darwin's own carriage, which he had thoughtfully sent for my convenience to the railway station, I drove one sunny morning in October through the graceful, hilly landscape of Kent, which, with the checkered foliage of its woods, with its stretches of purple heath, yellow broom, and evergreen oaks, was arrayed in the fairest autumnal dress. As the carriage drew up in front of Darwin's pleasant country-house, clad in a vesture of ivy and embowered in elms, there stepped out to meet me from the shady porch, overgrown with creeping plants, the great naturalist himself, a tall and venerable figure with the broad shoulders of an Atlas supporting a world of thoughts, his Jupiter-like forehead highly and broadly arched, as in the case of Goethe, and deeply furrowed by the plow of mental labor: his kindly, mild eyes looking forth under the shadow of prominent brows; his amiable mouth surrounded by a copious silver-white beard. The cordial, prepossessing expression of the whole face, the gentle, mild voice, the slow, deliberate utterance, the natural and _naive_ train of ideas which marked his conversation, captivated my whole heart in the first hour of our meeting, just as his great work had formerly, on my first reading it, taken my whole understanding by storm. I fancied a lofty world sage out of Hellenic antiquity--a Socrates or Aristotle--stood alive before me. Our conversation, of course, turned principally on the subject which lay nearest the hearts of both--on the progress and prospects of the history of development. Those prospects at that time--16 years ago--were bad enough, for the highest authorities had for the most part set themselves against the new doctrines. With touching modesty, Darwin said that his whole work was but a weak attempt to explain in a natural way the origin of animal and vegetable species, and that he should not live to see any noteworthy success following the experiment, the mountain of opposing prejudice being so high. He thought I had greatly overestimated his small merit, and that the high praise I had bestowed on it in my 'General Morphology' was far too exaggerated.